Calculus 1

Chapter 2. Limits and Continuity

2.5. Continuity—Examples and Proofs

September 13, 2020

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 1 / 21

Table of contents

1 Exercise 2.5.4
2 Example 2.5.A
3 Example 2.5.4
4 Exercise 2.5.42
5 Exercise 2.5.72
6 Exercise 2.5.26
7 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions
8 Exercise 2.5.34
9 Exercise 2.5.56
10 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 2 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4
Exercise 2.5.4. State whether the function y = k(x) is continuous on
[−1, 3]. If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why?

Solution. First, the domain of k is the interval [−1, 3]. We analyze this
graph “anthropomorphically.” We see that as x approaches −1 from the
right (i.e., x → −1+ ) the graph tries to contain the point (−1, 0) and it
succeeds! So k is continuous from the right at −1 :
limx→−1+ k(x) = 0 = k(−1).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 3 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4
Exercise 2.5.4. State whether the function y = k(x) is continuous on
[−1, 3]. If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why?

Solution. First, the domain of k is the interval [−1, 3]. We analyze this
graph “anthropomorphically.” We see that as x approaches −1 from the
right (i.e., x → −1+ ) the graph tries to contain the point (−1, 0) and it
succeeds! So k is continuous from the right at −1 :
limx→−1+ k(x) = 0 = k(−1).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 3 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4 (continued 1)

Solution (continued). As x approaches 3 from the left (i.e., x → 3− ) the

graph tries to contain the point (3, 2) and it succeeds! So
k is continuous from the left at 3 : limx→3− k(x) = 2 = k(3).
The graph of y = k(x) on (−1, 1) is a line and as x approaches any value
c in this interval, the graph tries to pass through a point of the form
(c, f (c)) and succeeds. So
k is continuous at each of the points in (−1, 1) : limx→c k(x) = k(c) for
c ∈ (−1, 1).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 4 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4 (continued 1)

Solution (continued). As x approaches 3 from the left (i.e., x → 3− ) the

graph tries to contain the point (3, 2) and it succeeds! So
k is continuous from the left at 3 : limx→3− k(x) = 2 = k(3).
The graph of y = k(x) on (−1, 1) is a line and as x approaches any value
c in this interval, the graph tries to pass through a point of the form
(c, f (c)) and succeeds. So
k is continuous at each of the points in (−1, 1) : limx→c k(x) = k(c) for
c ∈ (−1, 1).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 4 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4 (continued 2)

Solution (continued). Similarly, the graph of y = k(x) on (1, 3) is a line

and as x approaches any value c in this interval, the graph tries to pass
through a point of the form (c, f (c)) and succeeds. So
k is continuous at each of the interior points in (1, 3) :
limx→c k(x) = k(c) for c ∈ (1, 3).

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 5 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4 (continued 3)

Solution (continued). Now as x approaches 1 from the left (i.e.,

x → 1− ) the graph tries to contain the point (1, 3/2). As x approaches 1
from the right (i.e., x → 1+ ) the graph tries to contain the point (1, 0)
(and it succeeds). So the two-sided limit as x approaches 1 does not exist
and hence k is not continuous at x = 1 .
So k is continuous on the set [−1, 1) ∪ (1, 3] . 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 6 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.4

Exercise 2.5.4 (continued 3)

Solution (continued). Now as x approaches 1 from the left (i.e.,

x → 1− ) the graph tries to contain the point (1, 3/2). As x approaches 1
from the right (i.e., x → 1+ ) the graph tries to contain the point (1, 0)
(and it succeeds). So the two-sided limit as x approaches 1 does not exist
and hence k is not continuous at x = 1 .
So k is continuous on the set [−1, 1) ∪ (1, 3] . 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 6 / 21

 Example 2.5.A

Example 2.5.A
Example 2.5.A. Consider the piecewise defined function

 x if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
f (x) = 0 if x = 0
 2
x if x ∈ (0, ∞).

Is f continuous at x = 0?
Solution. Since x = 0 is an interior point of the domain of f , we apply
part (a) of the Continuity Test. First, f (0) = 0 exists.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 7 / 21

 Example 2.5.A

Example 2.5.A
Example 2.5.A. Consider the piecewise defined function

 x if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
f (x) = 0 if x = 0
 2
x if x ∈ (0, ∞).

Is f continuous at x = 0?
Solution. Since x = 0 is an interior point of the domain of f , we apply
part (a) of the Continuity Test. First, f (0) = 0 exists. To address
limx→0 f (x), we use the Relation Between One-Sided and Two-Sided
Limits (Theorem 2.6). We have limx→0− f (x) = limx→0− x = (0) = 0 by
Theorem 2.2 (since x is a polynomial), and
limx→0+ f (x) = limx→0+ x 2 = (0)2 = 0 by Theorem 2.2 (since x 2 is a
polynomial). So, by Theorem 2.6, limx→0 f (x) = 0. Finally,
limx→0 f (x) = 0 = f (0), so by the Continuity Test,
f is continuous at x = 0 . 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 7 / 21
 Example 2.5.A

Example 2.5.A
Example 2.5.A. Consider the piecewise defined function

 x if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
f (x) = 0 if x = 0
 2
x if x ∈ (0, ∞).

Is f continuous at x = 0?
Solution. Since x = 0 is an interior point of the domain of f , we apply
part (a) of the Continuity Test. First, f (0) = 0 exists. To address
limx→0 f (x), we use the Relation Between One-Sided and Two-Sided
Limits (Theorem 2.6). We have limx→0− f (x) = limx→0− x = (0) = 0 by
Theorem 2.2 (since x is a polynomial), and
limx→0+ f (x) = limx→0+ x 2 = (0)2 = 0 by Theorem 2.2 (since x 2 is a
polynomial). So, by Theorem 2.6, limx→0 f (x) = 0. Finally,
limx→0 f (x) = 0 = f (0), so by the Continuity Test,
f is continuous at x = 0 . 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 7 / 21
 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4
Example 2.5.4. Discuss the discontinuities of (a) g (x) = int x = bxc (this
|x|
is Example 2.5.4) and (b) f (x) = .
x

Solution. (a) Notice that at each integer n we have limx→n− bxc = n − 1

and limx→n+ bxc = n. So at each integer n, bxc has a jump discontinuity .

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 8 / 21

 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4
Example 2.5.4. Discuss the discontinuities of (a) g (x) = int x = bxc (this
|x|
is Example 2.5.4) and (b) f (x) = .
x

Solution. (a) Notice that at each integer n we have limx→n− bxc = n − 1

and limx→n+ bxc = n. So at each integer n, bxc has a jump discontinuity .
Next, for n and integer, bxc is constant on the interval (n, n + 1) and so
the limit at such values exists (by Example 2.3.3(b), say) and equals the
function value. So bxc is continuous at all non-integer values . 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 8 / 21
 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4
Example 2.5.4. Discuss the discontinuities of (a) g (x) = int x = bxc (this
|x|
is Example 2.5.4) and (b) f (x) = .
x

Solution. (a) Notice that at each integer n we have limx→n− bxc = n − 1

and limx→n+ bxc = n. So at each integer n, bxc has a jump discontinuity .
Next, for n and integer, bxc is constant on the interval (n, n + 1) and so
the limit at such values exists (by Example 2.3.3(b), say) and equals the
function value. So bxc is continuous at all non-integer values . 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 8 / 21
 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4 (continued)

|x|
Solution. (b) Notice that for x > 0 we have f (x) = = 1, and for
x
|x|
x < 0 we have f (x) = = −1. So for c > 0 we have
x
limx→c f (x) = limx→c 1 = 1 = f (c), and for c < 0 we have
limx→c f (x) = limx→c −1 = −1 = f (c) (both by Example 2.3.3(b); notice
that for c 6= 0, there is an interval containing c on which f is constant).
So f (x) = |x|/x is continuous for x 6= 0 .

For c = 0, notice that

limx→0− |x|/x = limx→0− (−1) = −1 and
limx→0+ |x|/x = limx→0+ (1) = 1.
So, by definition,
f (x) = |x|/x has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 .


() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 9 / 21

 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4 (continued)

|x|
Solution. (b) Notice that for x > 0 we have f (x) = = 1, and for
x
|x|
x < 0 we have f (x) = = −1. So for c > 0 we have
x
limx→c f (x) = limx→c 1 = 1 = f (c), and for c < 0 we have
limx→c f (x) = limx→c −1 = −1 = f (c) (both by Example 2.3.3(b); notice
that for c 6= 0, there is an interval containing c on which f is constant).
So f (x) = |x|/x is continuous for x 6= 0 .

For c = 0, notice that

limx→0− |x|/x = limx→0− (−1) = −1 and
limx→0+ |x|/x = limx→0+ (1) = 1.
So, by definition,
f (x) = |x|/x has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 .


() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 9 / 21

 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4 (continued)

|x|
Solution. (b) Notice that for x > 0 we have f (x) = = 1, and for
x
|x|
x < 0 we have f (x) = = −1. So for c > 0 we have
x
limx→c f (x) = limx→c 1 = 1 = f (c), and for c < 0 we have
limx→c f (x) = limx→c −1 = −1 = f (c) (both by Example 2.3.3(b); notice
that for c 6= 0, there is an interval containing c on which f is constant).
So f (x) = |x|/x is continuous for x 6= 0 .

For c = 0, notice that

limx→0− |x|/x = limx→0− (−1) = −1 and
limx→0+ |x|/x = limx→0+ (1) = 1.
So, by definition,
f (x) = |x|/x has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 .


() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 9 / 21

 Example 2.5.4

Example 2.5.4 (continued)

|x|
Solution. (b) Notice that for x > 0 we have f (x) = = 1, and for
x
|x|
x < 0 we have f (x) = = −1. So for c > 0 we have
x
limx→c f (x) = limx→c 1 = 1 = f (c), and for c < 0 we have
limx→c f (x) = limx→c −1 = −1 = f (c) (both by Example 2.3.3(b); notice
that for c 6= 0, there is an interval containing c on which f is constant).
So f (x) = |x|/x is continuous for x 6= 0 .

For c = 0, notice that

limx→0− |x|/x = limx→0− (−1) = −1 and
limx→0+ |x|/x = limx→0+ (1) = 1.
So, by definition,
f (x) = |x|/x has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 .


() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 9 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42. Define h(2) in a way that extends

h(t) = (t 2 + 3t − 10)/(t − 2) to be continuous at t = 2.
Solution. Notice that
t 2 + 3t − 10 (t − 2)(t + 5)
lim = lim
t→2 t −2 t→2 t −2
= lim t + 5 by Dr. Bob’s Limit Theorem,
t→2
Theorem 2.2.A
= (2) + 5 = 7 by Theorem 2.2.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 10 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42. Define h(2) in a way that extends

h(t) = (t 2 + 3t − 10)/(t − 2) to be continuous at t = 2.
Solution. Notice that
t 2 + 3t − 10 (t − 2)(t + 5)
lim = lim
t→2 t −2 t→2 t −2
= lim t + 5 by Dr. Bob’s Limit Theorem,
t→2
Theorem 2.2.A
= (2) + 5 = 7 by Theorem 2.2.

Since this limit exists, but h is not defined at t = 2 then h has a

removable discontinuity at t = 2. If we redefine h(2) = 7 , then we get
the continuous extension of h, as desired. 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 10 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42

Exercise 2.5.42. Define h(2) in a way that extends

h(t) = (t 2 + 3t − 10)/(t − 2) to be continuous at t = 2.
Solution. Notice that
t 2 + 3t − 10 (t − 2)(t + 5)
lim = lim
t→2 t −2 t→2 t −2
= lim t + 5 by Dr. Bob’s Limit Theorem,
t→2
Theorem 2.2.A
= (2) + 5 = 7 by Theorem 2.2.

Since this limit exists, but h is not defined at t = 2 then h has a

removable discontinuity at t = 2. If we redefine h(2) = 7 , then we get
the continuous extension of h, as desired. 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 10 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.72

Exercise 2.5.72
Exercise 2.5.72. In Exercise 2.5.71, it is shown that f is continuous at c
if and only if limh→0 f (h + c) = f (c). Use this, Example 2.2.11(a)(b), in
which it is shown that limθ→0 sin θ = 0 and limθ→0 cos θ = 1, and the
identities
sin(h +c) = sin h cos c +cos h sin c and cos(h +c) = cos h cos c −sin h cos c
to prove that both f (x) = sin x and g (x) = cos x are continuous at every
point x = c.
Solution. First, let c be an arbitrary point. We have
lim sin(c + h) = lim (sin h cos c + cos h sin c) by the addition formula
h→0 h→0
= lim (sin h cos c) + lim (cos h sin c) by the
h→0 h→0
Sum Rule, Theorem 2.1(1)
= cos c lim (sin h) + sin c lim (cos h) by the
h→0 h→0
Constant Multiple Rule, Theorem 2.1(3)
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 11 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.72

Exercise 2.5.72
Exercise 2.5.72. In Exercise 2.5.71, it is shown that f is continuous at c
if and only if limh→0 f (h + c) = f (c). Use this, Example 2.2.11(a)(b), in
which it is shown that limθ→0 sin θ = 0 and limθ→0 cos θ = 1, and the
identities
sin(h +c) = sin h cos c +cos h sin c and cos(h +c) = cos h cos c −sin h cos c
to prove that both f (x) = sin x and g (x) = cos x are continuous at every
point x = c.
Solution. First, let c be an arbitrary point. We have
lim sin(c + h) = lim (sin h cos c + cos h sin c) by the addition formula
h→0 h→0
= lim (sin h cos c) + lim (cos h sin c) by the
h→0 h→0
Sum Rule, Theorem 2.1(1)
= cos c lim (sin h) + sin c lim (cos h) by the
h→0 h→0
Constant Multiple Rule, Theorem 2.1(3)
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 11 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.72

Exercise 2.5.72 (continued 1)

Solution (continued). . . .
lim sin(c + h) = cos c lim (sin h) + sin c lim (cos h)
h→0 h→0 h→0
= (cos c)(0) + (sin c)(1) by Example 2.2.11(a) and (b)
= sin c.
So by Exercise 2.5.71, f (x) = sin x is continuous at every point x = c.
We also have
lim cos(c + h) = lim (cos h cos c − sin h cos c) by the addition formula
h→0 h→0
= lim (cos h cos c) − lim (sin h sin c) by the
h→0 h→0
Difference Rule, Theorem 2.1(2)
= cos c lim (cos h) − sin c lim (sin h) by the
h→0 h→0
Constant Multiple Rule, Theorem 2.1(3)
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 12 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.72

Exercise 2.5.72 (continued 1)

Solution (continued). . . .
lim sin(c + h) = cos c lim (sin h) + sin c lim (cos h)
h→0 h→0 h→0
= (cos c)(0) + (sin c)(1) by Example 2.2.11(a) and (b)
= sin c.
So by Exercise 2.5.71, f (x) = sin x is continuous at every point x = c.
We also have
lim cos(c + h) = lim (cos h cos c − sin h cos c) by the addition formula
h→0 h→0
= lim (cos h cos c) − lim (sin h sin c) by the
h→0 h→0
Difference Rule, Theorem 2.1(2)
= cos c lim (cos h) − sin c lim (sin h) by the
h→0 h→0
Constant Multiple Rule, Theorem 2.1(3)
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 12 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.72

Exercise 2.5.72 (continued 2)

Exercise 2.5.72. In Exercise 2.5.71, it is shown that f is continuous at c
if and only if limh→0 f (h + c) = f (c). Use this, Example 2.2.11(a)(b), in
which it is shown that limθ→0 sin θ = 0 and limθ→0 cos θ = 1, and the
identities

sin(h +c) = sin h cos c +cos h sin c and cos(h +c) = cos h cos c −sin h cos c

to prove that both f (x) = sin x and g (x) = cos x are continuous at every
point x = c.
Solution (continued). . . .

lim cos(c + h) = cos c lim (cos h) − sin c lim (sin h)

h→0 h→0 h→0
= (cos c)(1) − (sin c)(0) by Example 2.2.11(a) and (b)
= cos c.

So by Exercise 2.5.71, g (x) = cos x is continuous at every point x = c. 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 13 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26
√
Exercise 2.5.26. Consider the function h(x) = 4 3x − 1. At what points
is f continuous and why? Explain by considering interior points and
endpoints of the domain.
√
Solution. The domain of h(x) = 4 3x − 1 is all x satisfying 3x − 1 ≥ 0;
√
that is, all x ≥ 1/3.√Define g (x)
p = 4 x and f (x) = 3x − 1, so that
h = g ◦ f : h(x) = 4 3x − 1 = 4 f (x) = g (f (x)).

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 14 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26
√
Exercise 2.5.26. Consider the function h(x) = 4 3x − 1. At what points
is f continuous and why? Explain by considering interior points and
endpoints of the domain.
√
Solution. The domain of h(x) = 4 3x − 1 is all x satisfying 3x − 1 ≥ 0;
√
that is, all x ≥ 1/3.√Define g (x)
p = 4 x and f (x) = 3x − 1, so that
h = g ◦ f : h(x) = 4 3x − 1 = 4 f (x) = g (f (x)). For c an interior point of
the domain of h (so c > 1/3) we have that f (x) = 3x − 1 is continuous at
c by Theorem 2.5.A, since f is a polynomial function. For such c,
f (c) = 3c − 1 > 0.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 14 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26
√
Exercise 2.5.26. Consider the function h(x) = 4 3x − 1. At what points
is f continuous and why? Explain by considering interior points and
endpoints of the domain.
√
Solution. The domain of h(x) = 4 3x − 1 is all x satisfying 3x − 1 ≥ 0;
√
that is, all x ≥ 1/3.√Define g (x)
p = 4 x and f (x) = 3x − 1, so that
h = g ◦ f : h(x) = 4 3x − 1 = 4 f (x) = g (f (x)). For c an interior point of
the domain of h (so c > 1/3) we have that f (x) = 3x − 1 is continuous at
c by Theorem 2.5.A, since f is a polynomial function. For such c,
√
f (c) = 3c − 1 > 0. Now g (x) = 4 x is defined on an open interval
containing f (c) (say on the interval (f (c)/2, f (c) + 1) since this interval
only contains positive numbers), so by Theorem 2.8(7), “Roots,”g is
continuous at f (c). So, by Compositions of Continuous Functions
(Theorem 2.9) h = g ◦ f , or
√
h(x) = g (f (x)) = 4 3x − 1, is continuous at all interior points c > 1/3
of the domain of h.
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 14 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26
√
Exercise 2.5.26. Consider the function h(x) = 4 3x − 1. At what points
is f continuous and why? Explain by considering interior points and
endpoints of the domain.
√
Solution. The domain of h(x) = 4 3x − 1 is all x satisfying 3x − 1 ≥ 0;
√
that is, all x ≥ 1/3.√Define g (x)
p = 4 x and f (x) = 3x − 1, so that
h = g ◦ f : h(x) = 4 3x − 1 = 4 f (x) = g (f (x)). For c an interior point of
the domain of h (so c > 1/3) we have that f (x) = 3x − 1 is continuous at
c by Theorem 2.5.A, since f is a polynomial function. For such c,
√
f (c) = 3c − 1 > 0. Now g (x) = 4 x is defined on an open interval
containing f (c) (say on the interval (f (c)/2, f (c) + 1) since this interval
only contains positive numbers), so by Theorem 2.8(7), “Roots,”g is
continuous at f (c). So, by Compositions of Continuous Functions
(Theorem 2.9) h = g ◦ f , or
√
h(x) = g (f (x)) = 4 3x − 1, is continuous at all interior points c > 1/3
of the domain of h.
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 14 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26 (continued)

Solution (continued). For the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3 of the domain
of h, we use the Continuity Test. Now 3x − 1 ≥ 0 on an open interval of
the form (1/3, 1/3 + δ) (we could take δ = 1, for example), so by the
Root Rule (Theorem 2.1(7)) applied to the one-sided limit limx→1/3+ h(x)
we have
√ r √4
lim h(x) = lim 4 3x − 1 = 4 lim (3x − 1) = 0 = 0 = h(1/3).
x→1/3+ x→1/3+ x→1/3+

Notice that we must use the version of the Root Rule stated in these notes
and not the version stated in the text book.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 15 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26 (continued)

Solution (continued). For the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3 of the domain
of h, we use the Continuity Test. Now 3x − 1 ≥ 0 on an open interval of
the form (1/3, 1/3 + δ) (we could take δ = 1, for example), so by the
Root Rule (Theorem 2.1(7)) applied to the one-sided limit limx→1/3+ h(x)
we have
√ r √4
lim h(x) = lim 4 3x − 1 = 4 lim (3x − 1) = 0 = 0 = h(1/3).
x→1/3+ x→1/3+ x→1/3+

Notice that we must use the version of the Root Rule stated in these notes
and not the version stated in the text book.
So, by the Continuity Test we have that
√
h(x) = g (f (x)) = 4 3x − 1 is continuous at the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3
of the domain of h.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 15 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26 (continued)

Solution (continued). For the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3 of the domain
of h, we use the Continuity Test. Now 3x − 1 ≥ 0 on an open interval of
the form (1/3, 1/3 + δ) (we could take δ = 1, for example), so by the
Root Rule (Theorem 2.1(7)) applied to the one-sided limit limx→1/3+ h(x)
we have
√ r √4
lim h(x) = lim 4 3x − 1 = 4 lim (3x − 1) = 0 = 0 = h(1/3).
x→1/3+ x→1/3+ x→1/3+

Notice that we must use the version of the Root Rule stated in these notes
and not the version stated in the text book.
So, by the Continuity Test we have that
√
h(x) = g (f (x)) = 4 3x − 1 is continuous at the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3
of the domain of h.
We can say that h is continuous on its domain [1/3, ∞) , with the
understanding that we have continuity from the right at the endpoint 1/3
of the domain. 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 15 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.26

Exercise 2.5.26 (continued)

Solution (continued). For the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3 of the domain
of h, we use the Continuity Test. Now 3x − 1 ≥ 0 on an open interval of
the form (1/3, 1/3 + δ) (we could take δ = 1, for example), so by the
Root Rule (Theorem 2.1(7)) applied to the one-sided limit limx→1/3+ h(x)
we have
√ r √4
lim h(x) = lim 4 3x − 1 = 4 lim (3x − 1) = 0 = 0 = h(1/3).
x→1/3+ x→1/3+ x→1/3+

Notice that we must use the version of the Root Rule stated in these notes
and not the version stated in the text book.
So, by the Continuity Test we have that
√
h(x) = g (f (x)) = 4 3x − 1 is continuous at the left-hand endpoint c = 1/3
of the domain of h.
We can say that h is continuous on its domain [1/3, ∞) , with the
understanding that we have continuity from the right at the endpoint 1/3
of the domain. 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 15 / 21
 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10
Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions.
If g is continuous at the point b and lim f (x) = b, the
x→c
 
lim g (f (x)) = g (b) = g lim f (x) .
x→c x→c

Proof. Let ε > 0. Since g is continuous at b by hypothesis, then

limy →b g (y ) = g (b).

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 16 / 21

 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10
Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions.
If g is continuous at the point b and lim f (x) = b, the
x→c
 
lim g (f (x)) = g (b) = g lim f (x) .
x→c x→c

Proof. Let ε > 0. Since g is continuous at b by hypothesis, then

limy →b g (y ) = g (b). So by the (formal) definition of limit, there exists
δ1 > 0 such that

0 < |y − b| < δ1 implies |g (y ) − g (b)| < ε.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 16 / 21

 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10
Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions.
If g is continuous at the point b and lim f (x) = b, the
x→c
 
lim g (f (x)) = g (b) = g lim f (x) .
x→c x→c

Proof. Let ε > 0. Since g is continuous at b by hypothesis, then

limy →b g (y ) = g (b). So by the (formal) definition of limit, there exists
δ1 > 0 such that

0 < |y − b| < δ1 implies |g (y ) − g (b)| < ε.

Since limx→c f (x) = b by hypothesis, then there exists δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |f (x) − b| < δ1

(here, δ1 plays the role of an arbitrary positive ε > 0). Let y = f (x).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 16 / 21
 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10
Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions.
If g is continuous at the point b and lim f (x) = b, the
x→c
 
lim g (f (x)) = g (b) = g lim f (x) .
x→c x→c

Proof. Let ε > 0. Since g is continuous at b by hypothesis, then

limy →b g (y ) = g (b). So by the (formal) definition of limit, there exists
δ1 > 0 such that

0 < |y − b| < δ1 implies |g (y ) − g (b)| < ε.

Since limx→c f (x) = b by hypothesis, then there exists δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |f (x) − b| < δ1

(here, δ1 plays the role of an arbitrary positive ε > 0). Let y = f (x).
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 16 / 21
 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10 (continued)

Proof (continued). Then we have that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |f (x) − b| < δ1 or |y − b| < δ1 which implies

|g (y ) − g (b)| < ε or |g (f (x)) − g (b)| < ε.

That is, for all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |g (f (x)) − g (b)| < ε.

Therefore, by the definition of limit, we have

limx→c g (f (x)) = g (b) = g (limx→c f (x)), as claimed.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 17 / 21

 Theorem 2.10. Limits of Continuous Functions

Theorem 2.10 (continued)

Proof (continued). Then we have that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |f (x) − b| < δ1 or |y − b| < δ1 which implies

|g (y ) − g (b)| < ε or |g (f (x)) − g (b)| < ε.

That is, for all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − c| < δ implies |g (f (x)) − g (b)| < ε.

Therefore, by the definition of limit, we have

limx→c g (f (x)) = g (b) = g (limx→c f (x)), as claimed.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 17 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34. Is the function continuous at the point being

π 
approached: lim sin cos(tan t) ? Explain.
t→0 2
Solution. First, since tan t is continuous on its domain by Theorem 2.5.B
then by the definition of continuity we have limt→0 tan t = tan 0 = 0; that
is, 0 = tan 0 = tan (limt→0 t) = limt→0 tan t.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 18 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34. Is the function continuous at the point being

π 
approached: lim sin cos(tan t) ? Explain.
t→0 2
Solution. First, since tan t is continuous on its domain by Theorem 2.5.B
then by the definition of continuity we have limt→0 tan t = tan 0 = 0; that
is, 0 = tan 0 = tan (limt→0 t) = limt→0 tan t.
Second, since π2 cos u is continuous at u = tan 0 = 0 (by Theorem 2.5.B
and Theorem 2.8(4)), then by Limits of Continuous Functions (Theorem
2.10), we have limt→0 π2 cos(tan t) = π2 cos (limt→0 tan t) = π2 cos(0) = π2 .

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 18 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34. Is the function continuous at the point being

π 
approached: lim sin cos(tan t) ? Explain.
t→0 2
Solution. First, since tan t is continuous on its domain by Theorem 2.5.B
then by the definition of continuity we have limt→0 tan t = tan 0 = 0; that
is, 0 = tan 0 = tan (limt→0 t) = limt→0 tan t.
Second, since π2 cos u is continuous at u = tan 0 = 0 (by Theorem 2.5.B
and Theorem 2.8(4)), then by Limits of Continuous Functions (Theorem
2.10), we have limt→0 π2 cos(tan t) = π2 cos (limt→0 tan t) = π2 cos(0) = π2 .
Third, since sin v is continuous at v = π2 cos(tan 0) = π/2 (by Theorem
2.5.B), then by Limits of
Continuous Functions (Theorem 2.10),

we have
π π π


limt→0 sin 2 cos(tan t) = sin limt→0 2 cos(tan t) = sin 2 = 1.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 18 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34. Is the function continuous at the point being

π 
approached: lim sin cos(tan t) ? Explain.
t→0 2
Solution. First, since tan t is continuous on its domain by Theorem 2.5.B
then by the definition of continuity we have limt→0 tan t = tan 0 = 0; that
is, 0 = tan 0 = tan (limt→0 t) = limt→0 tan t.
Second, since π2 cos u is continuous at u = tan 0 = 0 (by Theorem 2.5.B
and Theorem 2.8(4)), then by Limits of Continuous Functions (Theorem
2.10), we have limt→0 π2 cos(tan t) = π2 cos (limt→0 tan t) = π2 cos(0) = π2 .
Third, since sin v is continuous at v = π2 cos(tan 0) = π/2 (by Theorem
2.5.B), then by Limits of
Continuous Functions (Theorem 2.10),

we have
π π π


limt→0 sin 2 cos(tan t) = sin limt→0 2 cos(tan t) = sin 2 = 1.
So limt→0 sin π2 cos(tan t) = 1 = sin π2 cos(tan 0) and so yes the

function is continuous at t = 0. 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 18 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34

Exercise 2.5.34. Is the function continuous at the point being

π 
approached: lim sin cos(tan t) ? Explain.
t→0 2
Solution. First, since tan t is continuous on its domain by Theorem 2.5.B
then by the definition of continuity we have limt→0 tan t = tan 0 = 0; that
is, 0 = tan 0 = tan (limt→0 t) = limt→0 tan t.
Second, since π2 cos u is continuous at u = tan 0 = 0 (by Theorem 2.5.B
and Theorem 2.8(4)), then by Limits of Continuous Functions (Theorem
2.10), we have limt→0 π2 cos(tan t) = π2 cos (limt→0 tan t) = π2 cos(0) = π2 .
Third, since sin v is continuous at v = π2 cos(tan 0) = π/2 (by Theorem
2.5.B), then by Limits of
Continuous Functions (Theorem 2.10),

we have
π π π


limt→0 sin 2 cos(tan t) = sin limt→0 2 cos(tan t) = sin 2 = 1.
So limt→0 sin π2 cos(tan t) = 1 = sin π2 cos(tan 0) and so yes the

function is continuous at t = 0. 

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 18 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56. Prove that the equation cos x = x has at least one
solution. Give reasons for your answer.
Proof. Let f (x) = cos x − x. Since cos x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.B
and x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.A, then f is continuous by Theorem
2.8(2), “Differences.”

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 19 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56. Prove that the equation cos x = x has at least one
solution. Give reasons for your answer.
Proof. Let f (x) = cos x − x. Since cos x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.B
and x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.A, then f is continuous by Theorem
2.8(2), “Differences.” If we can find a and b such that f (a) > 0 and
f (b) < 0, then the Intermediate Value Theorem will imply that there exists
c between a and b such that f (c) = 0. We try a = 0 and b = π/2 (think
about the graphs of y = cos x and y = x). Then
f (a) = f (0) = cos(0) − (0) = 1 − 0 = 1 > 0 and
f (b) = f (π/2) = cos(π/2) − (π/2) = 0 − π/2 = −π/2 < 0.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 19 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56. Prove that the equation cos x = x has at least one
solution. Give reasons for your answer.
Proof. Let f (x) = cos x − x. Since cos x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.B
and x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.A, then f is continuous by Theorem
2.8(2), “Differences.” If we can find a and b such that f (a) > 0 and
f (b) < 0, then the Intermediate Value Theorem will imply that there exists
c between a and b such that f (c) = 0. We try a = 0 and b = π/2 (think
about the graphs of y = cos x and y = x). Then
f (a) = f (0) = cos(0) − (0) = 1 − 0 = 1 > 0 and
f (b) = f (π/2) = cos(π/2) − (π/2) = 0 − π/2 = −π/2 < 0. Since y0 is
between f (a) = 1 and f (b) = −π/2, then by the Intermediate Value
Theorem there exists c ∈ [a, b] = [0, π/2] such that f (c) = y0 = 0. That
is, there is some c ∈ [0, π/2] such that f (c) = cos(c) − (c) = 0, or
cos c = c as desired.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 19 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56

Exercise 2.5.56. Prove that the equation cos x = x has at least one
solution. Give reasons for your answer.
Proof. Let f (x) = cos x − x. Since cos x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.B
and x is continuous by Theorem 2.5.A, then f is continuous by Theorem
2.8(2), “Differences.” If we can find a and b such that f (a) > 0 and
f (b) < 0, then the Intermediate Value Theorem will imply that there exists
c between a and b such that f (c) = 0. We try a = 0 and b = π/2 (think
about the graphs of y = cos x and y = x). Then
f (a) = f (0) = cos(0) − (0) = 1 − 0 = 1 > 0 and
f (b) = f (π/2) = cos(π/2) − (π/2) = 0 − π/2 = −π/2 < 0. Since y0 is
between f (a) = 1 and f (b) = −π/2, then by the Intermediate Value
Theorem there exists c ∈ [a, b] = [0, π/2] such that f (c) = y0 = 0. That
is, there is some c ∈ [0, π/2] such that f (c) = cos(c) − (c) = 0, or
cos c = c as desired.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 19 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68
Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution. Let the rubber band lie on the interval [a, b] on the x-axis of a
Cartesian coordinate system. Label the points on the rubber band
according to the x coordinate of the point on the x-axis where it lies (so
the left end of the rubber band is labeled a and the right endpoint is
labeled b).

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 20 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68
Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution. Let the rubber band lie on the interval [a, b] on the x-axis of a
Cartesian coordinate system. Label the points on the rubber band
according to the x coordinate of the point on the x-axis where it lies (so
the left end of the rubber band is labeled a and the right endpoint is
labeled b). When the rubber band is stretched, let g (x) represent the new
coordinate on the x-axis which corresponds to the point that was originally
at point x.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 20 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68
Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution. Let the rubber band lie on the interval [a, b] on the x-axis of a
Cartesian coordinate system. Label the points on the rubber band
according to the x coordinate of the point on the x-axis where it lies (so
the left end of the rubber band is labeled a and the right endpoint is
labeled b). When the rubber band is stretched, let g (x) represent the new
coordinate on the x-axis which corresponds to the point that was originally
at point x.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 20 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68
Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution. Let the rubber band lie on the interval [a, b] on the x-axis of a
Cartesian coordinate system. Label the points on the rubber band
according to the x coordinate of the point on the x-axis where it lies (so
the left end of the rubber band is labeled a and the right endpoint is
labeled b). When the rubber band is stretched, let g (x) represent the new
coordinate on the x-axis which corresponds to the point that was originally
at point x.

() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 20 / 21

 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68 (continued)

Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution (continued). Implicit in the physics here is that g is a
continuous function (the rubber doesn’t break, for example). Since the left
end was moved to the left, then g (a) < a. Since the right end was moved
to the right, then g (b) > b. Consider the function f (x) = g (x) − x (this is
the “signed distance” that the point moves to the right). Then f is
continuous by Theorem 2.8(2), “Differences.” Notice that
f (a) = g (a) − a < 0 and f (b) = g (b) − b > 0. Since 0 is between
f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0 then by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is
c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = g (c) − c = 0. That is, there is a point x = c
on the rubber band that is in its original position after the rubber band is
stretched (i.e., c = g (c)). Yes , it is true. 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 21 / 21
 Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band

Exercise 2.5.68 (continued)

Exercise 2.5.68. Stretching a Rubber Band.
Is it true that if you stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right
and the other to the left, some point of the band will end up in its original
position? Give mathematical reasons for your answer.
Solution (continued). Implicit in the physics here is that g is a
continuous function (the rubber doesn’t break, for example). Since the left
end was moved to the left, then g (a) < a. Since the right end was moved
to the right, then g (b) > b. Consider the function f (x) = g (x) − x (this is
the “signed distance” that the point moves to the right). Then f is
continuous by Theorem 2.8(2), “Differences.” Notice that
f (a) = g (a) − a < 0 and f (b) = g (b) − b > 0. Since 0 is between
f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0 then by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is
c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = g (c) − c = 0. That is, there is a point x = c
on the rubber band that is in its original position after the rubber band is
stretched (i.e., c = g (c)). Yes , it is true. 
() Calculus 1 September 13, 2020 21 / 21