Translated from Italian to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

com

University of Padua

Department of Industrial Engineering

Department of Geosciences Master's Degree
in Aerospace Engineering

Data processing procedures

GNSS with Bernese software

Speaker
Prof. Alessandro Caporali
Correlator
Eng. Mauro Bertocco

Graduating
Bishnu Brescacin

Academic Year 2019-2020

 To my mom and my grandparents,
who always believed in me.

To my friends forever,
because studying is only a part of life.

To Prof. A. Caporali and Eng. Mauro, for

their patience and support during these months.
Summary

GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) are global navigation satellite systems
whose main purpose is to determine the position of any receiver located on the
Earth's surface, such as a smartphone or a navigator. This thesis focuses on the
highest levels of precision, which require sophisticated data processing and,
consequently, a long time interval for the calculation.

Specifically, this paper has been developed to explain what GNSS data
processing performed by the software is.Bernese;in particular, it focuses on what
the LES needed for its implementation are and how they are generated. To
address this issue, it is necessary to understand what the GNSS system and
les Rinex: in the first chapters, therefore, some basic concepts and tools of data
processing will be explained.
Starting from the approximate coordinates of the receiver (information delivered by
the Rinex le), the insertion process of a new station into a pre-existing network using
the software tools is illustrated. The insertion, in short, consists in the generation of les
that contain the estimate of the a priori coordinates or the model of the tectonic plate in
which the new stations lie. Once these steps are completed, all the les necessary for the
data processing procedure are available. The latter is launched by the user and the
software, through previously developed scripts, uses the newly generated les to estimate
the exact position of the receivers in the ECEF and LLA geocentric reference systems. The
ECEF (Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed) system has the origin of the axes fixed at the center of
the Earth, is integral with the rotation of the Earth, has a z-axis along the direction of
maximum inertia and the other two on the Earth's equatorial plane at 90°with respect to
z; the LLA (Latitude, Longitude, Altitude) system is also geocentric but is simpler to
understand since the triplet is made up of latitude (height with respect to the equator),
longitude (shift with respect to the Greenwich meridian) and altitude (height with respect
to sea level).
To be able to complete the various steps, in addition to the softwareBernese,they were
also usedMatlabAndGoogle Earth,both aimed at the geolocalization of the new stations.

iii
Index

Summary iii

1 Introduction 1

2 The GNSS 3
2.1 GNSS Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 GNSS systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 GLONASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Galileo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.4 BeiDou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.5 IRNSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.6 QZSS ................................ 10
2.2.7 SBAS ................................ 11

3 The MGEX project 13

4 The Observables 19
4.1 Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 GNSS signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.1 GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.2 GLONASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.3 Galileo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.4 Architecture of a GNSS Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 The Orbits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.1 Broadcast Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.2 SP3 Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Pseudoranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4.1 Simplified Pseudorange Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4.2 Random errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4.3 Systematic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4.4 Observation Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.5 Instrumentation errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.6 Pseudorange equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5 Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6 Doppler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

v
you INDEX

5 Positioning Techniques 35
5.1 Absolute Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Relative Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.1 Differential Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.2 Real Time Kinematic Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 The RINEX 39
6.1 Rinex 2.xx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.2 Rinex SMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Rinex 3.xx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

7 TheBernese 71
7.1 The CAMPAIN52 folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.1 The daily campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.2 The weekly campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.2 Software Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

8 Insertion Procedure 77
8.1 Setting the Epoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2 Check positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.3 STA the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.4 CRD the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.5 PLD le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.6 SPEED le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.7 UPA_2014.CRD le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.8 ATL le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.9 BLQ the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.10 CLU the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

9 Main scripts for GNSS data processing 95

9.1 Perl Scripts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.1.1 Downloadu52.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.1.2 Prcdu52.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2 Bash scripts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2.1 Itarapid.sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2.2 Ita nal.sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

10 Conclusions 99
10.1 The daily solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.2 The weekly solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 The Bernese Bulletin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

A Scripts Perl and Bash 109

A.1 Today.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
A.2 Downloadu52.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
A.3 prcd52u.pl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
A.4 itarapid.sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
A.5 ita nal.sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
INDEX vii

A.6 Input_matlab.pl .............................. 123

B Scripts and MatLab Output 125

B.1XYZ2NEU.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B.2ECEF2LLA.kml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

C Scripts implemented during GNSS data processing 129

D Bernese Bulletin 131

Bibliography 134
List of figures

2.1 Location accuracy is minimal when a device receives signals from at

least four satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Space segment of the Galileo constellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Receiver and Antenna of a Multi GNSS receiving station . . . . 4
2.4 Calculating the means in the clusters fort= 2s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 On the left, a Rubidium clock, less precise but cheaper. On the right, a
Cesium clock, very expensive and accurate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 Latest generation of GPS satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7 URAGAN-K satellite, the latest of the GLONASS generation: on board it
is equipped with the instrumentation of the international search and
rescue system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8 Rendering of a satellite of the Galileo constellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.9 Satellite of the BeiDou constellation .................... 10
2.10 Satellite of the IRNSS constellation .................... 10
2.11 Satellite of the QZSS constellation ..................... 11
2.12 Satellite SBAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.1 Coordinate representation in ITRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2 Distribution of permanent GPS stations participating in EPN 14
3.3 Adriatic plate motion, calculated on the basis of daily and long-term
processing by Italian GNSS stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Density of the Italian GNSS network whose data processing is
performed by CISAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 GPS network of the Veneto region and the entities that own the stations. To date
it has more than 25 active stations spread across the Trivento . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.1 GPS signal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.2 Galileo spectrum and frequency occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Block diagram of a dual-carrier GNSS receiver . . . . 23
4.4 Rinex file generated by the Padua station containing the navigation
message; the satellite in question is the 8th of the GPS constellation
on 04/02/2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.5 Representation of the geometric orbital parameters illustrated in the table
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

ix
x LIST OF FIGURES

4.6 Sp3 format final orbit file for the GPS constellation. It reports the
coordinates of each satellite as of 04/02/2020, post-calculated and in
the ECEF reference system, updated every 15
minutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.7 Error contributions of the Pseudorange . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.8 Model for mapping the ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.9 Ionospheric map from midnight showing how the disturbance in a
given area is not constant but time-varying . . . . . . . 30
4.10 Examples of surfaces that cause multipath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.11 Calculation of the Pseudorange as the sum of the range and various
disturbance factors such as: clock sets, relativistic effects, incorrect
functioning of the instrumentation, ionospheric and tropospheric delay . . . 32

5.1 Single-difference positioning technique diagram . . . . . . . 36

5.2 Diagram of the double di erence positioning technique . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Schematic of the mobile differential positioning technique . . . . . . . 38

6.1 Rinex file of Padua station dated 04/02/2020 . . . . . . . . . 41

6.2 Enlargement of theheaderof the Rinex train at Padua station dated
04/02/2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 SMT file format of Padova station dated 04/02/2020 . . . . 49
6.4 Header of the Rinex 3.04 of the Padua station dated 20/02/2020. 68
6.5 Data Record Description of the Rinex 3.04 of the Padua station dated
04/02/2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7.1 Graphical interface of theBernese GNSS Software Version 5.2. . . . . . .75

8.1 Scripttoday.pl.By providing the date with the given syntax, the
program returns: day of the week and year, GPS day and week 78
8.2 Tool window menuCon gures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.3 Window for setting the day you are supposed to work on (must coincide
with the day indicated in the Rinex les of the new stations) . . . . . . 79
8.4 The commandgrep:typing "grep APPROX file_name" in the folder
where the Rinex files are located, in addition to the keyword, the
entire line of the files is read. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.5 Placing the new receivers onGoogle Earth. . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.6 Tools to select to generate the le.STA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . le.STA: 82
8.7 Example of the first part of the pay attention to how
receivers were named the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.8 le.CRD. Analyzing, from left, you find: the list of new stations, the
domes number, the approximate coordinates and the FLAG . . . . . 84
8.9 le.PLD. Analyzing, from left, you will find: the list of new stations, the
domes number, the station speed (if known), any signals and
plaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.10 The main boundaries of plate tectonics today . . . . . . . 85
8.11 tools to select to generate the NEW.VEL file . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.12 First check for calculating receiver speeds . . . . . . . . . . 87
LIST OF FIGURES xiii

8.13 le.VEL. Analyzing, from the left, you will find: the list of new stations, the
domes number, the speeds of the stations along the three directions,
any signals and the plaque they belong to. . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.14 tools to select to generate the UPA_2014.CRD file . . . . . . . . . 88
8.15 the UPA_2014.CRD. Analyzing, from left, you find: the list of new
stations, the domes number, the coordinates approximated to 2010
and the FLAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.16 tools to select to generate the ATL le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.17 le.ATL: after the header the values for the BLGN station are reported. . 89
8.18 Web pageholt.oso.chalmers.seaimed at generating the le.BLQ. 90
8.19 Structure and syntax to enter to generate the BLQ file . . . . . . . . 90
8.20 Above, header of the BLQ file. Below, example of the 11 tidal
coefficients for the BLGN station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.21 On the left, subdivision of the Italian territory into Clusters; on the
right, geolocation of the stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.22 le.CLU of the new receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
List of tables

4.1 Information present within a navigation message .... 24

4.2 Constituents of broadcast emerides and their description .... 25

6.1 Rinex 2.11 file header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6.2 Data Record Description of a the Rinex 2.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . the 47
6.3 Description of the nomenclature of a Rinex 3.04. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Rinex 3.04 file header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.5 Data Record Description of a Rinex 3.04 file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7.1 Functional diagram of the software data processing procedure

Bernese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2 Main folder structure of the Bernese software . . . . . . . . . . . 72

8.1 Structure of the Input file for MatLab; the number of characters is
indicated in brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.2 Structure of the le.CRD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . le.PLD 84
8.3 Structure of the ........................... 84
8.4 Structure of the le.VEL ........................... 87

10.1 Structure of the first section of the daily solutions file in which the a
priori coordinates of the stations are reported . . . . . . . 100
10.2 Structure of the second section of the daily solutions file where the
estimated coordinates and the relative corrections are reported . . . . . 100
10.3 Structure of the third section of the daily solutions file in which the
corrections due to the atmospheric parameters are reported . . . . . 101
10.4 Structure of the fourth section of the daily solutions file in which the a priori
value, the estimated value, their di erence and the mean square deviation
are found for all the coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.5 Structure of the fifth part of the daily solutions with rapid
orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.6 Structure of the fifth section of the daily solutions file with precise
orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.7 Structure of the first section of the weekly solution . . . . 105
10.8 Statistical parameters provided in the second section of the weekly solution106
10.9 Structure of the third part of the weekly solution . . . . . . 106
10.10Structure of the fourth section of the the weekly solution . . . . the weekly 107
10.11Structure of the fifth section of the solution . . . . 107

xiii
Chapter 1

Introduction

Determining the position of a station on the Earth's surface through global

navigation satellite systems (GNSS) and with an accurate precision, is a very
complex operation both in terms of calculation and time. Furthermore, to
perform this type of procedure, there are very sophisticated software such as
Bernese GNSS Software.This paper lists and describes the steps that a user must
follow to insert a new GNSS data receiver into an existing network. The reference
manual is theBernese GNSS Software Version 5.2written by Rolf Dach, Simon Lutz,
Peter Walser and Pierre Friedez, professors at the Astronomical Institute,
University of Bern (AIUB). It is also at the AIUB that the software was developed
Bernese,used to achieve the objective of this discussion.

The work is done in a practical way: once you have installed the software on your PC
and become familiar with the Linux operating system prompt, to achieve the goal, it is
sufficient to follow the instructions presented.

The first chapters are more descriptive and present a basis for the topics developed in
more depth in the subsequent ones.

In the second chapter, in particular, the GNSS is defined in terms of its constituent
blocks and the constellations of satellites that compose it.

Some Italian stations are part of a larger European GNSS network (EPN) and are
monitored by the IGS (International GNSS Service) whose role at international level
and from a geodetic point of view is illustrated in chapter 3.

In Chapter 4, the basic architecture of a receiver and the (observable) measurements that
characterize or interfere with the signal transmitted by GNSS satellites are analyzed and
described.

Depending on the quantity of signals received and the accuracy of the position,
different positioning techniques can be distinguished. The main ones, explained in
chapter 5, are absolute positioning and differential positioning.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

In chapter 6, the Rinex are described. Rinex is a data sharing and storage
format in which a receiver reports the observables or the navigation message
transmitted by the GNSS satellites.

Chapter 7 describes what the software is and how it is structured.Bernese:

after a schematic representation of the folders, those used for the insertion of
new receivers are presented in more detail.

Through some tools of theBerneseinput les for GNSS data processing are
generated. The list and content of these les are reported in chapter 8.

In order for GNSS data processing to be performed correctly, both Rinex les must be
downloaded and the appropriate and updated inputs must be available, including those listed
in the previous chapter. In chapter 9, through the analysis of some scripts, how this process
occurs is described.

Finally, in chapter 10, once the data processing procedure has been
performed, the outputs are analysed, both at daily and weekly level, for the
receivers just inserted in the Italian GNSS network.
Chapter 2

The GNSS

2.1 GNSS Description

GNSS, an acronym for Global Navigation Satellite System, is the global positioning
system based on the reception of signals from satellites. Through mathematical
models and independently of atmospheric conditions, GNSS makes it possible to
estimate the coordinates, speed and temporal location of any point on the Earth's
surface in the geocentric reference system, with precisions that can reach the
millimetre. Such precision is possible if there are at least 4 satellites that cover the
area where the receiver is located so as to be able to determine, in addition to the
three spatial coordinates, also the synchronisation time of the receiver on the
satellite time scale (clock).

Figure 2.1: Location accuracy is minimal when a device receives signals from at
least four satellites

GNSS is divided into three main blocks:

ˆSpace segment

ˆControl segment

ˆUser segment

3
4 CHAPTER 2. THE GNSS

The space segment, whose representation for the Galileo system is shown in
figure 2.2, is made up of the constellation of satellites that orbit the Earth. The
satellites are placed on multiple orbital planes in order to ensure that any location on
the Earth's surface is covered by at least four satellites.

Figure 2.2: Space segment of the Galileo constellation

The control segment consists of a network of stations distributed homogeneously

along the equatorial belt. The purpose of the control segment is: to track the
satellites (verifying the operation and time synchronization of the on-board clocks), to
update the emerides (or orbits) and to retransmit information to them about any
misalignments of the clocks, signal coding and orbital parameters. A station consists
of an antenna and a receiver.
The user segment consists of users of the services o ered by GNSS. The
applications are varied: navigation (land, naval, air), geophysics, geodesy and
topography. The user is possible thanks to the reading of the signals transmitted by
the satellites by the GPS stations.

Figure 2.3: Receiver and Antenna of a Multi GNSS receiving station

2.2. GNSS SYSTEMS 5

2.2 GNSS systems

GNSS satellites, in order to ensure global coverage of the Earth's surface and
have a fairly regular rotation period around the Earth, are generally injected into
medium-altitude circular orbits (MEO). MEO orbits are between 2000 km, the limit
of low orbits (LEO), and 35,786 km, the altitude of geostationary orbits (GEO).
High orbits (HEO) are found at higher altitudes than the latter.
The historical constellations that constitute the GNSS are the American Global
Position System (GPS) and the Russian GLobal NAvigation Space System (GLONASS). In
recent years, the European system GALILEO, the Chinese BeiDou, the Indian IRSS and the
Japanese QZSS have also been developed for full operation.
The most sophisticated instrument present in a GNSS satellite is the on-board
oscillator. To determine the frequency stability of the oscillators in the time domain,
the Allan Variance is applied. This method consists in sampling a period of data in
sub-intervals called clusters (t), whose durations are multiples of the sampling timet0
The mathematical expression of the Allan variance, which corresponds to the mean
of the values present within each cluster (figure 2.4) is:

Figure 2.4: Calculating the means in the clusters fort= 2s

1 ∑1
K−
σT2O(t) = (Ω̄the+1−Ω̄the)2 (2.1)
2(K −1) the=1
6 CHAPTER 2. THE GNSS

Where:

ˆK refers to the number of clusters;

ˆtcorresponds to the cluster size in seconds;

ˆ Ω̄thecoincides with the average of the values present in thethe-th cluster

For GPS and GLONASS satellites, caesium or rubidium on-board clocks have been
widely used, as shown in Figure 2.5. Hydrogen maser oscillators have also been
under development in recent years. Phase stability measurements (Allan variance)
that can be performed on rubidium, caesium and hydrogen oscillators are
respectively 1012,1013And1015. Cesium oscillators guarantee long-term stability, while
hydrogen oscillators guarantee greater stability in the short periods. Furthermore,
any atomic clock must remain at very low temperatures to avoid thermal drifts due to
excessive agitation of the molecules.

Figure 2.5: On the left, a Rubidium clock, less precise but cheaper. On the right, a Cesium
clock, very expensive and accurate.

As regards the subsystem, as can also be consulted on the ESA website

Navipedia,For in-flight attitude control (Attitude and Orbit Control System, AOCS)
a three-axis control system is widely used for all satellites: the attitude of a
satellite intended for navigation must be very accurate in all three directions if the
antenna pointing is to always be correct.Nadir Pointing, that is, towards the
centre of the Earth.
2.2. GNSS SYSTEMS 7

2.2.1 GPS
The GPS constellation (acronym for Global Positioning System) is the global positioning
system managed by the United States Air Force Command. The satellites that make up the
GPS are 32, in orbits with a radius of approximately 26,560 km and arranged on 6 orbital
planes inclined by 55°,in which at least four satellites are located.

Figure 2.6: Latest generation of GPS satellites

GPS satellites are three-axis stabilized with a zero-momentum attitude system

that allows vehicles to fly in a position oriented toward the center of the Earth.
Depending on the generation, GPS satellites have di erent on-board clocks; one of the
latest generations is equipped with three rubidium atomic clocks.
8 CHAPTER 2. THE GNSS

2.2.2 GLONASS
The GLONASS satellite system (short for Global'naya Navigacionnaya Sputnikovaya
Sistema, or GLObal NAvigation Satellite System) is operated by the Russian Aerospace
Defense Forces and operates with global coverage and accuracy comparable to that
of GPS.

Figure 2.7: URAGAN-K satellite, the latest of the GLONASS generation: it is equipped with
the instrumentation of the international search and rescue system on board

The GLONASS constellation has 31 Uragan satellites arranged in 3 orbital planes, in

nearly circular MEO orbits with an inclination of 64.8°,and orbital radius of about 19,140
km. In addition, each plane hosts 8 satellites that are identi ed based on their slot
number. Like GPS satellites, GLONASS satellites are also equipped with a three-axis
stabilization system, one of which points to the nadir and two solar panels. On board, the
Uragan satellites are equipped with three cesium beam clocks.

2.2.3 Galileo
The European Space Agency (ESA) GALILEO constellation, once completed, will consist of 26
satellites, of which 24 operational and 2 spare, on 3 planes inclined to the equator by
approximately 56 degrees.°and an orbital radius of about 23,925 km.
For attitude control, the satellites use a three-axis stabilization system with
reaction wheels and magnetotorquers for wheel desaturation. For on-board
timing, the Galileo satellites have new hydrogen atomic clocks, the Space Passive
Hydrogen Maser, which are accompanied by two rubidium clocks as a second
technologically independent time source.
2.2. GNSS SYSTEMS 9

Figure 2.8: Rendering of a satellite of the Galileo constellation

2.2.4 Beidou
The Compass/Beidou constellation developed and operated by the China National Space
Administration local and
next

Figure 2.9: Satellite of the BeiDou constellation

When it will be fully operational, the expected date is in 2020, it will be

10 CHAPTER 2. THE GNSS

composed of 35 satellites: 5 in GEO orbit, 3 in GEO orbit but with non-zero inclination
(IGEO) and 27 in MEO orbit. The attitude control, being a modern system, in addition to
being three-axis is cutting edge in fact it is carried out through star sensors (not very
cheap but very precise) and terrestrial and other attitude actuators. The BeiDou satellites
have on board rubidium and hydrogen clocks, precise enough to: provide the data
necessary for the course adjustments of each satellite and compensate for the variations
in time due to relativity.

2.2.5 IRNSS
The Indian Satellite Positioning System has seven satellites: three in IGEO orbits;
the other four spacecraft are in geosynchronous orbits (GSO), with an inclination
of 29 degrees.°.

Figure 2.10: Satellite of the IRNSS constellation

The attitude control is based on a three-axis stabilized satellite platform and

uses a zero-momentum system consisting of reaction wheels to which magnetic
actuators and 12 small thrusters are added. The navigation payload will have the
following subsystems: NSGU (Navigation Signal Generation Unit), Atomic Clock
Unit, composed of rubidium atomic clocks, Clock Management and Control Unit,
Frequency Generation Unit, Modulation Unit, High Power Amplification Unit,
Power Combining Unit and Antenna Navigation.

2.2.6 QZSS
The Japanese Quasi Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) constellation will consist of 4 or
7 satellites in elliptical IGEO orbits (with eccentricity equal to 0.075) at 43°of
inclination. Attitude control is based on 3-axis stabilization and actuation is
provided by four reaction wheels (RW). The spacecraft attitude is detected with
solar, Earth and star sensors and velocity gyroscopes and this leads to a pointing
accuracy of 0.1°.According to its original plan, QZSS was to carry two types of
space atomic clocks: however, the development of a hydrogen maser is
2.2. GNSS SYSTEMS 11

Figure 2.11: Satellite of the QZSS constellation

been abandoned and therefore the positioning signal will be generated by a

Rubidium clock and an architecture similar to the GPS timing system will be used.
QZSS will also be able to use a two-way satellite time and frequency transfer
(TWSTFT) scheme, which will be used to gain some fundamental knowledge about
the behavior of the satellite atomic standard in space and for other research
purposes.

2.2.7 SBAS
The Satellite Based Augmentation System was created with the aim of increasing the
coverage of the GNSS signal with transmitters on board satellites in GEO orbit, especially
in regions where the signal demand is particularly high. Furthermore, these systems are
composed of ground stations, located in carefully determined positions, which have the
task of collecting the measurements of one or more GNSS satellites. Through these
measurements, corrective messages are created and sent to one or more geostationary
satellites to be retransmitted to users.

Figure 2.12: SBAS Satellite

Chapter 3

The MGEX project

For the monitoring of the civil network, both in terms of data accuracy and station
operation, reference is made: at an international level to the IGS, at a European level to
EUREF, at a national level to the Asi and, at a regional level to the administration of the
same. Going into more detail, the Veneto Region has delegated the management of its
network to the University of Padua, more precisely to CISAS "G.
Colombo" (Interdepartmental Center for Space Studies and Activities).
The International GNSS Service (IGS), founded in 1994, is a service created with
the aim of providing the highest quality GNSS data and products for scientific
purposes. The IGS, among the various products of particular interest for this paper,
provides the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) whose objectives include the
creation of a world-renowned International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRF). The
terrestrial reference system that will be analyzed in this paper, to which the software
refersBernese,is the IGS14 which is derived from updated and increasingly precise
versions of the ITRF. The latest terrestrial reference system is the ITRF2014 which
uses as input datasets station positions and Earth Orientation Parameters (EOP)
provided by the data centers of the four space-based geodetic techniques (VLBI, SLR,
GNSS and DORIS). VLBI (Very Wide Baseline Interferometry) is an astronomical
interferometry technique used in radio astronomy for studies of the Earth's rotation,
precise millimeter-level mapping of tectonic plate movements and other types of
geodetic studies. Satellite Laser Range (SLR) is a global network of observing stations
that measures the round-trip time of flight of ultrashort pulses of light to suitably
instrumented satellites. This provides instantaneous measurements of millimeter-
level accuracy which can be accumulated and provide, for example, accurate
measurement of orbits. The Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated
by Satellite (DORIS), is a one-way Doppler radar where the Doppler shift in frequency
of the signal transmitted from the ground is measured on board the satellite. It uses
50 ground transmitters for Doppler tracking of satellites. The velocity resolution of
DORIS is around 0.3 mm/s. Since ITRF2014, whose coordinate representation is
represented
gura in 3.1, is based on completely reworked solutions of the four techniques and is
believed to be the best model currently available.
In addition to the mapping tools, two innovations have been introduced in the
ITRF2014 process: first, annual and half-yearly deadlines have been estimated for stations
with sufficient time intervals of the 4 techniques during the land registry processes.

13
14 CHAPTER 3. THE MGEX PROJECT

Figure 3.1: Representation of coordinates in ITRF

ment of the corresponding time series; secondly, the post-seismic deformation (PSD)
models were determined by fitting the GNSS data at the main earthquake sites. The
PSD models were then applied to the other 3 techniques at the co-location sites.

The IGS14 update aligns the IGS products to ITRF2014 and increases the
accuracy of this alignment by integrating additional available reference stations
with more accurate and up-to-date coordinates. An innovative element regarding
the IGS is the updated antenna calibration in igs14.atx which results in increased
coordinate accuracy for stations equipped with these antennas.
EUREF is an informal association of European universities and national
geographical institutes whose main objective is to establish a European geodetic
reference network (EPN).

Figure 3.2: Distribution of permanent GPS stations participating in EPN Network

 15

EUREF is a voluntary federation of over 100 self-funding agencies, universities and

research institutes in over 30 European countries. The aim of this project is to de ne a
European Terrestrial Reference System (ETRS89), which is the single standard coordinate
reference system at European level adopted by the European Commission. ETRS89 has
been published by EUREF by processing GNSS observation data from a network of over
200 operational and permanent stations distributed across the European continent
(figure 3.2) and of which the Padova station is part.
This realization, being long-lasting, provides both static and kinematic information of
spatial reference; for example, as can be found on the website of the GPS network of the
Veneto region, after several years of processing the data of a station it is possible to
monitor and estimate the motion of the plate on which it is located, as visible in
figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: motion of the Adriatic plate, calculated on the basis of daily and long-
term processing of the Italian GNSS stations

The ETRS89 geodetic reference is widely used in continental Europe and the
increasing use of GNSS networks is inclining countries towards its use. In addition
to their key role in maintaining the ETR89, EPN data are also used for a wide
range of scientific applications such as ground deformation monitoring, sea level,
space weather and numerical weather forecasting. In response to changing user
needs and the evolving GNSS landscape, EUREF is working on the continuous
development of new applications and products through groups
16 CHAPTER 3. THE MGEX PROJECT

of work and pilot projects. Analyzing its structure, the EUREF Network is made up
of several partially overlapping national sub-networks in order to ensure the
analysis of each sub-network by at least 4 Local Analysis Centers (LACs). The LACs
have as their main objective the processing of GPS data coming from a subset of
EUREF GPS stations.
The Italian GNSS network, as shown in figure 3.4, is made up of approximately
700 permanent GNSS stations used on the national territory and in some
neighbouring countries such as Albania, Austria and Greece. The coordinates of the
entire network of stations are recalculated on a daily basis and the updated
coordinates from the combination of the 7 daily solutions are issued on a weekly
basis. These operations are processed by the softwareBernese.

Figure 3.4: Density of the Italian GNSS network whose data processing is performed by
CISAS

The University of Padua, in the field of Space Research and GNSS service,
through CISAS, has a fundamental role: first of all, in Padua, there is the LAC UPA
which is one of the two local EUREF LACs located in Italy. The activities at CISAS
started in 1997 and have increased up to now, both in terms of hardware
 17

and software used, and the number of people involved. The members of this University
project manage the data of the EUREF PADO station, whose antenna is located on the
roof of CISAS, with the main objective of providing reliable metadata to EUREF; the
metadata are related to coordinates, tropospheric correction and statistics on the
amount of raw data. Secondly, CISAS, as previously mentioned, is entrusted by the
Veneto Region with the management activity of the Veneto GPS network, visible in figure
3.5. The agreement includes: the control of the stations, the integration and completion
of the network, the collection and validation of data, the dissemination of information,
also in real time, and the coordination of scientific activity.

Figure 3.5: GPS network of the Veneto region and the entities that own the stations. To date, it has more
than 25 active stations spread across the Trivento
Chapter 4

The Observables

4.1 Era
The measurement time is the receiver time when it receives the signals. It is the same
for phase and pseudorange measurements and is the same for all satellites observed
at that time. In GNSS, four time scales are distinguished:

ˆTime and Emeris (ET): defined by the motion of celestial bodies;

ˆAtomic time (A1): defined on the basis of atomic frequency standards, such as
cesium watches;

These first two time scales are synchronous up to or set constants.

ˆGreenwich Mean Time (UT1): de ned by the phase angle of the Greenwich meridian.
wich with respect to the sun. Due to the irregularities of the Earth's revolution period
there is a systematic drift of the A1 and UT1 scales;

ˆCoordinated Universal Time (UTC): corresponds to the UT1 scale synchronous with A1
and that for this reason it presents intentional discontinuities aimed at maintaining the
di erence between UT1 and UTC within one second: specifically, every 6 or 12 months,
due to the progressive slowing down of the Earth's rotation, a second or leap second is
skipped. Since 1972, in total, 37 leap seconds have been added.

For GPS, the time scale is based on atomic clocks installed on board: the only
corrections made to the clocks were performed to synchronize the on-board clocks
with the atomic clocks installed on the ground, typically to correct drifts due to
relativistic effects caused by the lower gravity present in orbit which causes a higher
frequency of the oscillator. GPS time began at midnight on January 6, 1980 (UTC time)
because, in that year, GPS time and UTC time coincided; following the corrections
introduced to UTC time, today the latter deviates by 18 seconds compared to GPS
time (which is not subject to corrections). The system transmits the number of weeks
passed since January 6, 1980 and the number of seconds passed since the beginning
of the current week
The GLONASS time scale is maintained by the Mater hydrogen atomic clock.
Corrections to UTC are calculated twice a day and sent to the satellites.

19
20 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

The Galileo Time Scale (GST) is given as a 32-bit binary number consisting of
two parameters: the Week Number (WN, 12 bits) and the Time Of Week (TOW, 20
bits); the first is a counter providing the sequential week number from the origins
of Galileo Time, the second is de ned as the number of seconds elapsed since the
transition from the previous week and whose counter is reset weekly (therefore it
ranges from 0 to 604799 seconds). The GST started at midnight between 21 and
22 August 1999. Since the beginning the GST had a delay of 13 leap seconds.

In the BeiDou time scale, called BDT, the seconds of the week are counted and it is
periodically checked to have a set point with respect to UTC time less than 100ns.

4.2 GNSS signal

4.2.1 GPS
GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies called carriers,THE1andTHE2, different for
each constellation. The signal structure is represented in the diagram in Figure 4.1.

The values of the carriers are:

THE1=f0·154 = 1575.42MHz
L2=f0·120 = 1227.60MHz L5= (4.1)
f0·115 = 1176.45MHz

Wheref0is the fundamental frequency of the on-board atomic oscillator and is

equal to 10.23 MHz. For all satellite positioning systems, the key to high accuracy
lies in the use of these atomic clocks: for example, for GPS, as just highlighted
with equation 4.1, it is precisely fromf0which results in the two carriers.
The signal carrier onTHE1It consists of a phase component and a quadrature
phase component. The first is modulated with a Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
modulation, by a 50 Hz signal called navigation message (D) and by a pseudorandom
code (PRN) called Coarse Acquisition Code (C/A) consisting of a sequence of chips that
repeats every millisecond and is different for each satellite. The quadrature
component, on the other hand, is also modulated by BPSK modulation and always by
the navigation signal but with a different PRN code, called Precision Code (P-code).
The carrierTHE2, instead, is modulated only by the navigation message and the P-
code and is used mainly for military purposes, in fact it is not accessible to civilians.
The positioning system based on the P-code is called Precise Positioning System
(PPS).

4.2.2 GLONASS
The satellites of the GLONASS constellation, similarly to GPS, transmit two types of
signals: a standard precision (SP) signal and a high precision (HP) one. The satellites
transmit the two carriers using a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique
based on twenty-five channels: each satellite transmits a signal on
4.2. GNSS SIGNAL 21

Figure 4.1: GPS signal structure

a different frequency whose mathematical formulation is given by:

fTHE1=f0 THE + k·∆fTHE1=1602 +k·0.5625MHz

1
(4.2)
fTHE2=f0 THE
2
+ k·∆fTHE2=1246 +k·0.4375MHz
Where:

- k = -7,-6,...,+5,+6 is the assigned channel number;

- f0THE1 is the frequency band ofTHE1and is equal to 1602 MHz;

- f0THE2 is the frequency band ofTHE2and is equal to 1246 MHz;

- ∆fTHE1is the separation frequency between theTHE1of GLONASS and equal to 562.5 kHz;
22 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

- ∆fTHE1is the separation frequency between theTHE2of GLONASS and equal to 437.5 kHz;

Similarly to GPS, also for GLONASS there is a distinction between raw code (C/
A), modulated only onfTHE1, and precise code (P-code), modulated on both carriers
but not available for civil use.
The substantial di erence between the two types of techniques for multiple signal access
is the following: while in the transmission of the GPS signal all the satellites transmit the same
pseudorandom code but on different carriers, in the GLONASS system, vice versa, the
transmission frequencies are the same and the pseudorandom codes are different for all the
satellites.

4.2.3 Galileo
The GALILEO system transmits ten different modulated signals on four carriers:

THE1=1575.42MHz
And5to=1176.45MHz
(4.3)
And5b=1207.14MHz
And6 = 1278.75MHz

The modulation of the Galileo signal, figure 4.2, is of the AltBOC type and has
a small bandwidth, which implies a reduction of thermal noise and multipath
effect and a good frequency spacing which allows a more efficient resolution of
ambiguities.

Figure 4.2: Galileo spectrum and frequency occupancy

The frequencies E5a, E5b and L1 will be available to all GALILEO users; Two signals
on E6 with encrypted codes will be available only for commercial use by authorised
users, while two other signals, one in the E6 band and one in the L1 band, encrypted,
will be reserved for public institutions (for example, civil protection).
4.2. GNSS SIGNAL 23

4.2.4 Architecture of a GNSS Receiver

The architecture of a receiver, an example of which is given in figure 4.3, is constituted,
mainly, consists of Antenna, band processor and oscillator.

Figure 4.3: Block diagram of a dual-carrier based GNSS receiver

Each satellite, in general, has one channel for each of the two carriers,THE1and
THE2.

Once received by the antennas, the signal is translated into baseband by a cross
processor that correlates the incoming modulated signal with a signal modulated in
the same motion and with a time shift.
Based on the advance or delay of the shift with respect to a nominal value, the
peak of the cross-correlation function, i.e. the arrival time of the wave packet, is
determined.
The navigation firmware, which normally processes the C/A code, outputs
basic information such as coordinates, epoch and time reference scale.

The format of the navigation signal is NMEA, given by the body that manages and
develops the protocol, namely the National Marine Electronics Association NMEA, and is
used to display the user's position in a cartographic context and to perform typical
navigation calculations.
An additional output is the navigation message which reports the raw
pseudocode and phase values.
24 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

4.3 The Orbits

4.3.1 Broadcast Orbits
The predicted broadcast or emerides orbits, contained in the navigation message,
consist of the orbital parameters and the numerical value of both periodic and
secular orbital perturbations. Using the predicted emerides, both the position in ECEF
coordinates and the clock or set of the satellite can be calculated analytically using a
function of time. Specifically, a pseudo-Keplerian model is used, a function of 16
parameters contained in the navigation message and of the time function. Therefore,
assuming the parameters are constant in the orbit evaluation period, the position
along the three reference axes will only be a function of the time t at which it is to be
evaluated. An example of a GPS satellite navigation message file is shown in figure
4.4, the related parameter scheme is shown in table 4.1, the physical meaning of the
coefficients is described in table 4.2 and the representation of the geometric
parameters is illustrated in figure 4.5.

Figure 4.4: Rinex file generated by the Padua station containing the navigation
message; the satellite in question is the 8th of the GPS constellation on 04/02/2020

SAT ID TOE Sv Clock Bias Sv Clock Drift Sv Clock Drift Rate

IOD Crs ∆n M0
Cuc And Cus to2 1
tAnd Cic oh0 Cis
the0 Crc ω0 Oh
didt codeTHE2 week THE2date

SV accuracy SV health TGD IODC

Trans Time Fit interval

Table 4.1: Information present within a navigation message

Where:
4.3. THE ORBITS 25

Parameter Description

M0 Average anomaly at the reference time

∆n Variation of mean motion
And Eccentricity of the orbit Semi-
to major axis of the orbit Longitude
oh0 of the ascending node

the0 Inclination of the orbit

ω0 Argument of perigee
the Inclination variation Right ascent
Oh variation of the node Latitude argument
Cuc,Cus Whatcorrection coefficients Geocentric distance
Crc,Crs Whatcorrection coefficients Inclination correction
Cic,Cis coefficients
TOE Reference period of the emerides

Table 4.2: Coe constituents of the emeridi broadcast and their description

Figure 4.5: Representation of the geometric orbital parameters illustrated in table 4.2
26 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

4.3.2 SP3 Orbits

IGS analysis centers provide satellite orbit solutions using plan-
predetermined solutions such as: sub-daily, daily or weekly. Similarly, the
combination of IGS orbit solutions, whose format is Extended Standard Product 3
(SP3), are available in three forms: ultra-rapid, rapid and nal. The ultra-rapid
product is used for real-time applications, in fact this type of solution includes
unobserved but predicted satellite orbits. Rapid orbits are a daily solution
available approximately 17 hours after the end of the previous day. Finally, nal
orbits are the most accurate and precise: they are made up of the set of daily
orbits and are generated on a weekly basis approximately 13 days after the end
of the solution week.
All operational IGS GNSS products consisting of satellite orbits, station
positions and clock solutions are available in the subdirectories within the GPS
week at the page:

ftp://igs.ensg.ign.fr/pub/igs/products/

Figure 4.6: Final orbit file in sp3 format for the GPS constellation. It reports the
coordinates of each satellite on 04/02/2020, post-calculated and in the ECEF
reference system, updated every 15 minutes
4.4. PSEUDORANGE 27

4.4 Pseudorange
4.4.1 Simplified Pseudorange Model
Pseudorange is the distance between the phase center of a receiver antenna and
that of a satellite. Assuming an ideal situation, i.e. without any dissipative e ect,
this distance is called range and measured by multiplying the time interval
between the transmission and reception of the electromagnetic signal.∆t for the
speed of light c according to the following mathematical model:

ρ=c·(Tr−tAnd) =c·∆t (4.4)

where:

ˆc is the transmission speed of the electromagnetic signal [299,792,458 m/s]

ˆTrIt is the signal reception time

ˆtAndIt is the time of emission of the signal

They are indicated with different letters because, in general, the two time scales are not
synchronous with each other and therefore the receiver bias will be different for one or the other
time scale.
In reality the measured range is disturbed by several factors and their contribution is
measured in terms of errors, which are divided into:

ˆRandom

ˆSystematic

ˆOf observation

ˆOf instrumentation

Figure 4.7: The error contributions of the Pseudorange

28 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

4.4.2 Random errors

Random errors are mainly related to the accuracy of the signal and their estimation is derived
only on theoretical grounds.
The accuracy of the GPS system, estimated according to the rule of thumb, is:

ˆC/A Code:±3m

ˆP-Code:±0.3m

ˆCarriersTHE1,THE2:±0.002m

The positioning accuracy of GLONASS is estimated at 60 - 70 meters along the

horizontal direction and 75 meters along the vertical direction.
To reduce the random error, the two constellations can be combined; in fact, for
multi-GNSS receivers the signal accuracy leads to an overall error of less than 3
meters.

4.4.3 Systematic Errors

Systematic or model errors are of various types:

ˆClock errors: the most important is the imperfect synchronization between the
on-board clocks and those of the receivers. This set (asynchronism) is the
reason why the satellite-receiver distance is referred to as pseudorange
instead of range and why at least four satellites are needed to have an
accurate position fix.

ˆOrbit errors: This type of error concerns the emerides, that is, the list of
spatial coordinates of satellites, and other elements that vary over time, relative to
the positions assumed at specific instants at constant time intervals. The emerides
are distinguished in Broadcast (predicted) and precise. The former are calculated by
performing a first estimate of the trajectory (error of the order of102
m); subsequently, at intervals of 12-24 hours, the corrections calculated on the
last orbits completed by the satellite are transmitted, whose errors are of the
order of a metre and are stored by the receiver so that they can then be used in
data processing.

ˆtropospheric refraction: the troposphere is the band of atmosphere that extends from the
ground for about 15km. The tropospheric delay is a function of parameters such as
(pressure, temperature and humidity) and, since it is electrically neutral, it is
independent of the signal frequency. The mathematical model taken into account is:
∫ ∫ ∫
p(r) And(r) p(r)
Tropo=k1 Dr.+k2 Dr.+k 3 Dr. (4.5)
T(r) T(r) T2(r)

Where:

pis the pressure [mbar] T

is the temperature [K]
4.4. PSEUDORANGE 29

Andis the partial pressure of water vapor k1,

k2,k3they are constants

The first term of the equation, which constitutes about 90% of the disturbance, models
the dry component; the other two terms, the hydrostatic component.

ˆIonospheric Refraction: The ionosphere is the component of the atmosphere immediately

after the troposphere and extends up to an altitude of 1000 km. Since the disturbance
is caused by free electrons (in fact the ionosphere is a dispersive medium), the
ionospheric delay depends on the frequency of the signal and is therefore different for
the two carriers. The variation of the signal arrival time is related to the frequency
according to the model:

to
δt= (4.6)
f2
where:

toIt is a function of the density of free electrons along the path

The mapping of the electronic content of the ionosphere is performed by exploiting the
dependence of the group delay on the frequency: by observing the return times of the
same signal modulated on at least two carriers at well-spaced frequencies, it is possible
to obtain the Total Electron Content (TEC), that is the electron content in every direction,
and therefore to reconstruct at every instant the electron concentration along the local
zenith according to the model illustrated geometrically in figure 4.8
and described by the following equation

to 40.3·TEC
ρ(f) =ρ∞+c =ρ ∞ + (4.7)
f2 what(z′)·f2

Where:

ρ∞is the station-satellite distance ideally measured in the absence of

ionosphere

The effects of this disturbance can be reduced by a particular combination

of frequencies (ionosphere free). A mapping of the ionosphere was
performed by the AIUB on 29 June 2012 and is shown in figure 4.9. The
image consists of twelve frames and clearly shows how the ionospheric
disturbance is not constant.
30 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

Figure 4.8: Model for mapping the ionosphere

Figure 4.9: Ionospheric map from midnight showing how the disturbance in a
given area is not constant but time-varying
4.4. PSEUDORANGE 31

4.4.4 Observation Errors

Observation errors are related to interferences that the signal encounters when it
is close to the receiver. They are divided into:

ˆMultipath (multiple reflections): phenomenon that occurs when the signal does not
comes directly from the satellite but indirectly, reflected from surfaces near
the receiver. Although antennas are built to minimize this effect, it is still a
very disruptive phenomenon and di cult to eliminate. It is therefore
advisable to install receivers in fairly isolated areas or, if this is not feasible,
to pay attention to the site where the measurement is to be carried out.

Figure 4.10: Examples of surfaces that cause multipath

ˆReceiver Electronics: May cause signal degradation as

Code time shift and phase shift measurements occur in real time.

ˆElectromagnetic interference: can cause high noise or total per-

fingers of the signal itself.

ˆVariation of the position of the antenna phase center: this is the point
theoretical whose location depends on the frequency and the elevation angle of
the transmitting satellite. Since it is not a fixed point, it is mathematically
modeled through a standard calibration procedure and this calculation is not
always precise.

4.4.5 Instrumentation errors

Instrumentation errors concern the particular type of instrumentation at the
station and may concern:

ˆIncorrect antenna positioning: the detected position is reported

to the antenna since it is this that receives the signal. The actual point of interest, however, is the
one on the ground and therefore it is necessary to know the altitude of the antenna's phase
center with respect to a reference plane, called Antenna Reference Point (ARP).
32 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

ˆThe antenna model: each antenna has its own ARP, a value that is de-
completed through an appropriate calibration procedure. If the model (on the
receiver during the survey or on the software during the processing of the data
collected in the field) is incorrect, this will cause errors in determining the
position.

4.4.6 Pseudorange equation

From the previous considerations it can be deduced that positioning techniques are
affected by various sources of error that lead to accuracies and precisions that can be
beyond the order of a meter. Some sources of disturbance can be expressed in the form
of models which, however, only allow for the reduction of errors, not their elimination.
Furthermore, the parameters to be inserted in the models are often di cult to measure
and/or determine, so they can in turn constitute a source of error. To achieve high
accuracies and precisions, as will be analyzed in chapter 5, instead of absolute
positioning it is better to use relative and/or differential techniques which, although
starting from significantly different basic assumptions, have the same geometric content.
Through these techniques it is possible to achieve accuracies lower than the order of a
meter. The expression of the pseudorange can therefore be described as:

ρr=ρ+c(δtr− δtAnd) + ∆ttrope+∆tI do not+∆tmulti-path+∆tnoise (4.8)

whose contributions in terms of errors are illustrated in figure 4.11

Figure 4.11: Pseudorange calculation as the sum of range and different

disturbance factors such as: clock set, relativistic effects, incorrect
instrumentation functioning, ionospheric and tropospheric delay
4.5. PHASE 33

4.5 Phase
The phase is the carrier value measured in cycles by the receiver; if it should be
measured in half cycles it must be converted to whole cycles and marked with the
wavelength factor in the dedicated Rinex header section as will be explained in the
next chapters.
The phase changes in the same direction as the interval (negative Doppler) and its
observations do not contain any systematic drift from or to the reference oscillators.

Since the observables (epoch, pseudorange and phase) are affected by external
factors such as atmospheric refraction, or clock sets etc., if the receiver or converter
software adjusts the measurements using the real-time compensations and
derivatives dT(r) of the receiver clock, then the three observable quantities must be
retained since the receiver clock correction must be applied to all three:

ˆTime(corr) = Time(r) - dT(r)

ˆPr(corr) = Pr(r) - dT(r)·c

ˆPhase(corr) = Phase(r) - dT(r)·f

In addition to the pseudorange, a second way to measure the satellite-receiver distance is

to exploit carrier phase measurements. These are much more precise than code
measurements, except for the ambiguity given by an integer number of wavelengths (λN), a
value that changes each time the receiver locks onto the signal. The phase measurement is
performed by comparing the phase of the carrier, purified from the superimposed code
signal, with the phase of the same signal generated internally by the receiver, but with the
same frequency. Consequently, the phase is de ned as the di erence between the phase of the
signal coming from the satellite and that of the signal generated by the receiver whose
equation can be modeled as:

THE(t) =ρ+c(δtr− δtAnd) + ∆ttrope+∆tI do not+∆tmulti-path+∆tnoise+λN (4.9)

where:

ˆN indicates the integer number of cycles

ˆλindicates the wavelength

4.6 Doppler
Both pseudorange and carrier phase measurements are in uenced by the Doppler effect.
Measuring the Doppler effect means determining the distance between the satellite and
the receiver at the time of closest approach. The Doppler effect can be explained as
follows: as a satellite approaches, the frequency appears to be increased compared to the
actual transmission frequency; as it disappears, on the contrary, the frequency appears
to be reduced. The sign of the Doppler shift is assumed to be positive for approaching
satellites (negative vice versa) and represents an additional observable.
34 CHAPTER 4. OBSERVABLES

A measurement of frequency versus time produces a Doppler curve. As the

satellite passes, the received frequency appears to increase but not steadily. The
rate of change starts slowly, is greatest at closest approach, and then drops off
toward the end of the transit. This is because you are measuring the rate of
change of a satellite's velocity along a line from the satellite to the receiver (line of
sight).
Chapter 5

Positioning Techniques

The purpose for which GPS was born in the 70s, as published onacademia.eduby Matt
King, Stuart Edwards and Peter Clarke, is to provide the estimate of the position with a
precision very close to reality. The instrumentation necessary for GNSS positioning
consists of one or more satellite receivers equipped with antennas which are positioned
on the points to be detected. It is possible to perform the positioning using different
modes, which correspond to different performances in terms of accuracy and speed of
execution.

5.1 Absolute Positioning

Absolute positioning involves determining the coordinates of a point by means of a single
receiver using measurements relative to satellites alone.
The most used technique for this type of positioning is based on the C/A code, the
accuracy is in the order of 5 - 10 meters and the solution is obtained in real time allowing
the calculation of the position of both static and dynamic points.
An absolute positioning technique developed in recent years and very precise is PPP
(Precise Point Positioning), which uses both the pseudorange and the carrier phase
analysis in static sessions of variable duration depending on the accuracy to be obtained.
With long sessions, accuracies of 1 - 2 cm are achieved; however, the method requires a
fairly complex post-processing process and can only be implemented by highly
structured and non-freely accessible software such asBernese
Another technique under development is Single Point Positioning (SPP) which does
not use highly accurate satellite clocks but relies only on pseudorange observations. The
di erence between these techniques in terms of coordinate accuracy is very important:
SPP provides coordinates accurate at the 1 - 10 m level in a short time, whereas PPP can
produce coordinates accurate to the millimeter but only after several hours of
observations.

5.2 Relative Positioning

The precision achieved by the PPP technique is very close to that of relative
positioning, a technique for which at least two receivers must be used to remove
measurement errors in the following way: tropospheric errors by applying

35
36 CHAPTER 5. POSITIONING TECHNIQUES

a mathematical model that attempts to simulate the signal delay; ionospheric errors by
observing and combining GPS frequencies (THE1AndTHE2) in order to obtain an
ionosphere-free observation; errors in satellite positions using the precise orbits of the
satellites, available and searchable on the IGS website; other types of errors, except
multipath and clock errors, by keeping the receivers at short distances. While there are
no precise techniques or models for multiple reflections, static or relative positioning is
used for clock errors: a technique that involves the use of two receivers, one with known
coordinates and the other unknown. The coordinates of the latter are determined
relatively (i.e. through the di erence of coordinates) between the receivers. Relative
positioning is based on two models: single and double di erences (it should be noted that
for some years now the triple di erence model has also been under development).

Single di erences, the scheme of which is illustrated in figure 5.1, are a

technique whereby the two receivers acquire data from the same satellite. The
simplified phase pseudorange model is:

Figure 5.1: Schematic of the single di erence positioning technique

THETO(t) =ρTO(t) +c(δTO(t)− δs(t)) +λNTO(t) (5.1)

THEB(t) =ρB(t) +c(δB(t)− δs(t)) +λNB(t) (5.2)
Where:

ˆA indicates the receiver with known coordinates

ˆB indicates the receiver with unknown coordinates

ˆS indicates the satellite

ˆρit's the range

ˆλN is the phase contribution

Subtracting the second equation from the first member by member:

THETO(t)− THEB(t) =ρTO(t)− ρB(t) +c(δTO(t)− δB(t)) +λ(NTO(t)− NB(t)) (5.3)

5.2. RELATIVE POSITIONING 37

and, grouping the various di erences:

THEAB(t) =ρAB(t) +c(δAB(t)) +λNAB(t) (5.4)

which demonstrates how the single di erence leads to the elimination of the on-board
clock synchronization error.
Double di erences, the scheme of which is illustrated in figure 5.2, are a technique similar to
the previous one, but in which the two receivers acquire the signal from two satellites. Therefore,
double di erences consist of the di erence between two single di erences calculated with respect to
the two satellites:

Figure 5.2: Schematic of the double di erence positioning technique

Sat1:THEAB(t) =ρAB(t) +c(δAB(t)) +λNAB(t) (5.5)

Sat2:THEAB(t) =ρAB(t) +c(δAB(t)) +λNAB(t) (5.6)

and, similarly to before, calculating the di erence between the two terms, we obtain:

THEAB(t) =ρAB(t) +λNAB(t) (5.7)

phase equation for which the contribution of the clock asynchronism error of
both receivers has also been removed. An important consideration for the following
discussion is that the double di erence technique is the basic observable for the
calculation of the distance vector in all GPS data processing software.
A very frequent and obvious problem in this positioning technique is theCycle Slip:
During a measurement session there may be accidental interruptions in the connection
between the receiver and the satellite, due to the presence of obstacles or transmission
defects. In this case there is an interruption in the counting of the whole number of
wavelengths (cycle slip) and the ambiguity estimation procedure must be restarted.
38 CHAPTER 5. POSITIONING TECHNIQUES

5.2.1 Differential Positioning

The differential positioning (DGPS) technique is aimed at determining the position of
one or more receivers, generally in motion and calledRover,compared to that of
another reference receiver calledMasterwhose coordinates are known.

Figure 5.3: Schematic of the mobile differential positioning technique

The principle on which this technique is based is the calculation of the pseudorange
corrections (PRC) and their variation in time (RRC) by the reference station. In order to
guarantee the transmission of the corrections, the two receivers, Master and Rover, must
be in continuous communication. The di erential positioning can be based on P-code
measurements or phase measurements. In both cases the e ect of the drift of the clocks
and of other contributions such as tropospheric and ionospheric refractions are, up to
errors of the order of a meter, approximated to zero. Furthermore, while the DGPS with
code measurements can be used mainly for precise kinematic applications but whose
results are available after at least one time interval, the DPGS with phase measurements
is used for precision kinematic applications in real time (RTK).

5.2.2 Real Time Kinematic Positioning

The real-time kinematic positioning (RTK) technique, to determine the position of
theRover (the moving receiver), compared to theMaster (receiver (fixed and with
known coordinates) uses phase measurements rather than code. RTK positioning
is of the oat-RTK type, that is, the real value (oat) of the ambiguity is taken from
which the integer value can be calculated (xed-RTK). To carry out this operation
and then proceed to calculate its position, the Rover needs a few seconds
(initialization time), during which at least five satellites must be visible. Using RTK
positioning techniques, accuracies of between 20 cm and 1 m can be achieved.
Chapter 6

The RINEX

The RINEX file, an acronym for Receiver INndependent Exchange Format, is a

standard for sharing, archiving and transmitting GNSS data. The purpose for which
the Rinex were created is to have, over time, the observables and the navigation
message in a format that is common, and possibly modifiable, for all receivers. The
structure of the file is standard and characterized by a header (header) and from a
data section (Data Record Description).The most commonly used Rinex are of three
types:
ˆObservation Data

ˆNavigation Data

ˆMeteorological Data (for enabled stations)

The observation le contains the observables, with respect to the GNSS satellites in
view, collected by a single receiver. The observables are the measured quantities such as:
the epoch of the observations, the frequency of the GPS signal (unique for each satellite)
and the pseudorange observations (phase data, Doppler, code, signal to noise ratio) of
each satellite.
The navigation file contains the orbital parameters of each GNSS satellite in view: in other
words, the orbital parameters of the satellite are reported.
The weather le contains precise local weather information such as pressure,
temperature and relative humidity, referred to the exact position of the reference
station. The purpose of this le is to improve the accuracy of models used to
calculate tropospheric delays.
To determine the exact position of the stations, observation Rinex les are
used, which can have different durations and sampling intervals. For example,
the observation Rinex les relating to the permanent station of the Veneto GPS
Network in Padua (located at CISAS, Interdepartmental Centre for Space Studies
and Activities), are hourly with sampling at 1 second; a daily le is also produced,
obtained by concatenating the different hourly les sampled at 30 seconds. As will
be analysed later, to implement the data processing procedure through the
Bernese,aimed at determining the exact position of the stations on the Earth's
surface, the latest type of Rinex le is used as it represents the best compromise in
terms of information contained and occupied PC memory space.

39
40 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Currently, the Rinex formats used in various fields (scientific, commercial,

professional, etc.) are versions 2.xx (the latest is 2.11) and 3.xx (the latest is 3.04).
Both versions, for reference stations recognized internationally by the IGS, can be
found on the site:

ftp://igs.ensg.ign.fr/pub/igs/data/

6.1 Rinex 2.xx

The Rinex 2 les are currently used by the Veneto GPS Network in the processing of data from
the Italian GNSS network. An example of a le from the Padova station (whose GNSS code is
PADO), dated February 4, 2020 is the following:

PADO0350.20O

When downloaded from the Internet, the file name follows a very precise syntax that
identifies for example: the type of Rinex (Observation, Navigation, Meteorological), the GNSS
station and the acquisition period, in the following way:

<STAT><DOY><HCODE>.<YY><TYPE>.<COMPRESSION>

where:

ˆSTAT is the name or code that identifies the station

ˆDOY is the day of the year in the interval [0 366]

ˆHCODE is the session: the zero identi es a 24-hour daily le; since
Rinex takes solar time as its reference with respect to the Greenwich meridian. If
instead of zero there was a letter of the English alphabet, for example a, it would de
ne the time interval from midnight of the same day to one o'clock; b from one to
two o'clock. We proceed in a similar way with ax which indicates the time interval
between 23:00:00 and 23:59:59.

ˆYY indicates the year

ˆ <TYPE> indicates whether it is a the data of:

O Observation
N GPS Navigation
G GLONASS Navigation
Galileo Navigation
P Navigation of mixed GNSS systems
H SBAS navigation
M Meteorological
B SBAS Transmission
C Clock
6.1. RINEX 2.XX 41

S Summary

ˆ <COMPRESSION> indicates the extension nal which, in general, is of the type .Z

SBAS is one of the systems currently in use that allow an improvement of the
system characteristics such as accuracy, continuity, integrity and availability through
the integration of external information within the calculation process.
The Rinex Clock was developed to interchange GPS time corrections for both
satellites and receivers.
The structure of a Rinex 2.11 file (figure 6.1 shows the one for the reference
station in Padua on 02/04/2020) is divided into two sections: header (header)and
observation data (Data Record Description).

Figure 6.1: Rinex file of Padua station dated 04/02/2020

Table 6.1 describes the various fields of a Rinex le, with a relative description and
practical example for the le in figure 6.1. The fields listed with an asterisk (*)
42 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

are optional. The source for the description of les Rinex is theRINEX: The Receiver
Independent Exchange Formatby Werner Gurtner.

Table 6.1: Rinex 2.11 le header

Header Field Description Example

ˆRINEX version of the le

ˆ2.11
ˆspecification of the type of le (Observation)
(action, Navigation, Weather) ˆObservation
Date
RINEX VER- ˆdefinition of the satellite system
ZION / ˆM
TYPE G or white: GPS;
The receiver of
R: Glonass Padua is Multicostel-
And: Galileo; action; in fact ven-
S: Geostationary Satellites GPS, GLONASS
data are reported
M: Multiconstellation and Galileo

ˆssrcrin-
ˆprogram name
13.4.2x
PGM / RUN BY ˆname of the natural or legal person
/ DATE ˆ
who created the le
ˆ04-FEB-20
ˆle creation date
00:00

Optional and made up of any comments Septentrio proper-

COMMENT
tary
Name that distinguishes the antenna of the
station when it is necessary to search for it in
international databases such as IGS or EU-REF.
PADO00ITA
The marker name is made up of the initials of
MARKER NA- the name of the site and the acronym of the ˆPADO
ME State in which it is located, or:
ˆITA
ˆstation code

ˆCountry Code

Table 6.1 continued on next page

6.1. RINEX 2.XX 43

Table 6.1 Header of a the Rinex 2.11

Header Field Description Example
Unique alphanumeric code consisting of 5
numbers, a letter (S or M) and 3 other digits
12750S001. The do-
(usually 001). The first four letters of the marker
MARKER month number from the
name and the marker number constitute the
NUMBER Padua station
Domes Number. (There are no specific and
is PADO 12750S001
univocal regulations on the assignment of the
Domes Number

OBSERVER / ˆobserver ˆB.C

AGENCY
ˆagency owning the receiver ˆCISAS

Receiver specifications in terms of:

ˆ3021140
ˆserial number
REC # / TYPE ˆSEPT
/ VERSION ˆtype
POLARX5
ˆsoftware version
ˆ5.3.0

Antenna specifications in terms of:

ˆ5227
ˆserial number
ANT # / TYPE
ˆSEPCHOKE
ˆtype
B3E6 SPKE

Approximate coordinates of the site in the

ECEF reference system (expressed in meters),
assuming the WGS84 as the geoid model. At (4388882.2677,
APPROX POSI-
the beginning of the data processing 924567.2063,
TION XYZ
procedure of theBerneseIt is from this set of 4519588.5101)
coordinates that the approximate coordinates
to the current epoch are calculated
The antenna can be elevated above the ground
ANTENNA: in terms of height (H)or have an eccentricity with 0.0000 0.0000
DELTA H/E/N respect to the marker i.e. variations in the east 0.0000
direction (AND)and north (N)

Table 6.1 continued on next page

44 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.1 Header of a the Rinex 2.11

Header Field Description Example
Accuracy level of carriers L1 and L2:

ˆ1: The ambiguity is on the complete cycle

WAVE ENGTH ˆ2: the ambiguity is on the semi-cycle 1

FACT L1/2
ˆ0: (can only involve carrier L2)
the signal is based only on the L1 frequency

ˆCarrier accuracy level L1

and L2

1: the ambiguity is on the full cycle 2: the

ambiguity is on the half cycle

0 (can only involve L2): the

* WAVELENGTH
signal is based on L1 only
FACT L1/2
ˆnumber of satellites for which they are
the factors listed above are valid

ˆPRN list that identifies satellites

This line is optional and is written if the

specs are di erent from the default values.

Observations divided into the two carriers.

C1 L1 L2 P2 P1 C5
The observation codes C and P
# / TYPE OF L5 C6 L6 C7 L7 C8
(Pseudorange), D (Doppler effect), L (carrier
OBSERV L8 S1 S2 S5 S6 S7
phase) and S (signal intensity) are reported;
S8
then, the frequency codes are written
* INTERVAL Observation interval reported in seconds
Table 6.1 continued on next page
6.1. RINEX 2.XX 45

Table 6.1 Header of a the Rinex 2.11

Header Field Description Example

ˆTime of first observation (year,

month, day, hours, minutes, seconds)
ˆ2020 2 4 0 0 0
TIME OF FIR- ˆreference system for time 0.0000
ST OBS
GPS (GPS) ˆGPS
GLO (UTC time)
GAL (Galileo)

ˆTime of last observation (year,

month, day, hours, minutes, seconds)

* TIME OF LA- ˆreference system for time

ST OBS
GPS (GPS)
GLO (UTC time)
GAL (Galileo)

Epoch, code and phase can be corrected

(1 if this happens, otherwise 2 is reported)
* RCV CLOCK by applying the receiver clock o set.
OFFS APPL Default is zero. Required line if clock o
sets are reported in EPOCH/SAT records

Leap seconds are the seconds of recovery

* LEAP
jump. Recommended field for mixed
SECONDS

* # OF SATEL- Number of satellites for which observations

LITES are reported in the les
PRN is the satellite identification code.
* PRN / # OF Then, the number of observations
OBS indicated in the "# / TYPE OF OBSERV"
field is reported.
END OF HEA-
in the header
THE ONE
46 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Figure 6.2: Zoom in on theheaderof the Rinex of Padua station dated 04/02/2020

Finished theheaderbegins theData Record Description,where the characteristics

reported in table 6.2 are reported for each observation, which is remembered to be
regularly sampled every second, 30 seconds, 5 minutes or 10 minutes.
6.1. RINEX 2.XX 47

Table 6.2: Data Record Description of a the Rinex 2.11

Register Description Example

ˆEra in terms of:

year ˆEra
month, day, hour, minute,
20
second
2400
ˆinformation on the disorders of the time:
0.00000
white: no relevant events ˆinformation about-
0: Recorded successfully disturbances

0
1: Power failure between
previous and current era ˆ32
EPOCH/SAT 2: the antenna started to ˆG20 G22 G16
or EVENTS FROM move G11 S36 S26
REPORT
3: the site is new S25 E30 S23
4: header information is G27 G10 E15
followed S27 G21 E27
E21 G14 R20
5: external phenomena
G01 E05 E08
6: Reporting of correct G08 E03 E13
registrations G32 R07 R05
R21 R11 R13
ˆnumber of satellites visible at the time R06 R22
ˆPRNs or list of satellites ˆNot you I am
visible at the current time information on the

ˆreceiver clock settings clock

tore (optional option)

Table 6.2 continued on next page

48 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.2 Data Record Description of a Rinex 2.11 le

Register Description Example

ˆObservations in terms of:

Phase [in carrier cycles]

Code [m]
if not executed they are left
blank or written 0.0

ˆTransmission loss indicator

(LII) of thephase,in the range [0-7],

0 or blank: OK or unknown For the G20 satellite,

the first analyzed:
bit interval 0: lost block
C1=22845907.525;
between previous and
Power of C1=6;
current observation: possible
L1=120053071.40806;
cycle slippage
L2=93550167.32104;
bit interval 1: wavelength
factor of P2=22845905.059;
opposite to that de ned for power of P2=4;
OBSERVATIONS the satellite by a previous P1=22845906.457;
wavelength of L1/2 or power Of P1=4;
opposite default value. (Valid C2=0; C5=0;
only for the current epoch.) L5=0; L6=0; C7=0;
L7=0; C8=0; L8=0;
bit range 2: tampered values
observe- S1=0; S1=40.632;
(due to increased noise) S5=26,563; S6=0;
S7=0; S8=0
Note: Bit ranges 0 and 1 are
valid only for the phase

ˆPower of thesignal,in the interval

[1-9]

1: minimum signal strength

5: minimum threshold to
ensure a good S/N (Signal/
Noise) ratio
9: maximum signal strength
6.2. RINEX SMT 49

6.2 Rinex SMT

TheBernese,when it performs the data analysis for the calculation of the coordinates,
it does not use exactly the Rinex le just described: when the user launches the
processing procedure, through the internal program of the softwareRNXSMT,from
the original Rinex le, the Rinex le with SMT extension is generated. Although this is
also a Rinex le, in the sampling part, as you can see in figure 6.3, it only maintains the
2 carriers of GPS and GLONASS.

Figure 6.3: SMT file of Padova station dated 04/02/2020

50 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

6.3 Rinex 3.xx

For some years now, version 3 of les Rinex has been available. It was developed with the aim
of acquiring a greater number of observations from multi-constellation stations, including, in
addition to GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and SBAS, also the BEIDOU, IRNSS and QZSS
constellations. The name follows the following syntax:

<STATION_NAME>_<DATA_SOURCE>_<START_TIME>_<FILE_PERIOD>_<DATA_FREQUENCY
. <FORMAT_FILE>.<COMPRESSION>

Example:

PADO00ITA_R_20200350000_01D_30S_MO.crx.gz

Table 6.3 shows the fields, their description and a concrete example for the above
Thementioned ones.

Table 6.3: Nomenclature description of a Rinex 3.04 le

Syntax Description Example

The naming convention established by the
IGS is XXXXMRCCC (9 characters) with:
ˆXXXX IGS station name ˆPADO
SITE/ MONU-
ˆM number of the monument/receiver ˆ0
METO STATION-
NE/STATE ˆR Receiver number ˆ0

ˆCCC International Code of the State ˆITA

Rinex real-time data sharing can be done

from multiple places. The source (1
character) of the data can be:

DATA SOURCE ˆR - receiver R

ˆS - real-time data flow

ˆU - unknown source

Table 6.3 Continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 51

Table 6.3 Description of the nomenclature of a the Rinex 3.04

Syntax Description Example
The start time (11 characters) coincides with
the first observation. The start times of the
The mixed ones are defined in the time
system specified in the header. In the case of
GPS:
ˆ2020
ˆYYYY - Year
START TIME ˆ035
ˆDDD - Day of the year [0 - 366]
ˆ00 00
ˆHHMM - Hour and minute of the day

The les containing only GLO-NASS, Galileo,

QZSS, BDS or SBAS observations are
based on the respective time system
Data sampling period (3 characters):

ˆDD - Period (in numerical terms) ˆ01

PERIOD FILE
ˆU - Unit of measurement (minutes M, hours H, ˆD
daily D)
it's a daily le
Data sampling rate (3 characters):

ˆ30
ˆDD - Frequency (in numerical terms)
DATE ˆS
FREQUENCY ˆU - Unit of measurement (seconds S, minutes
M, hours H, daily D, frequency Z, The sampling
unknown U) happens every 30
seconds

Constellation and content (2 characters):

ˆconstellation (GPS G, GLONASS R, ˆM

Galileo E, QZSS J, Beidou C, IRNSS I,
DATA TYPE / ˆOR
SBAS S, Multi-Constellation M)
FORMAT
ˆcontent (observation data O, Rinex File observes-
navigation N or meteorological M multi-constellation tivo-
tion
Table 6.3 Continued on next page
52 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.3 Description of the nomenclature of a Rinex 3.04 le

Syntax Description Example
Format of the the (3 characters). The Ri- format
nex is rnx; if the for reasons of space, it comes
FILE FORMAT crx
compressed according to the Hatanaka procedure,
the format is crx

File compression method. The most

COMPRESSION commonly used is gzip-.gz;Other valid gz
methods are: bzip2-.bz2, -.zip

A Rinex 3 (figure 6.4 shows the one for the reference station of Padua on
04/02/2020), although it contains, for the most part, the same type of information
as version 2, has a different structure as regards both theheaderthat theData
Record Description.
Table 6.4 shows the various fields of a Rinex file, with a relative description and
practical example for the file in figure 6.4

Table 6.4: Rinex 3.04 le header

Header Field Description Example

ˆRINEX version of the le

ˆData type (Observation, Navigation-

(action, Weather)

ˆdefinition of the satellite system

G: GPS; ˆ3.04
RINEX VER-
ZION / And: Galileo; ˆObservation
TYPE S: SBAS Date
R: Glonass ˆM
C: Beidou (China)
J: QZSS (Japan)
I: IRSS (India)
M: Multiconstellation

Table 6.4 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 53

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

ˆprogram name
ˆssrcrin-
ˆname of the natural or legal person 13.4.2x
PGM / RUN BY who created the le
/ DATE ˆ
ˆcreation date of the the (yyyym-
ˆ2020 02 04
mdd hhmmss) and reference time
000000 UTC
(preferably UTC)

Optional and made up of any comments Septentrio

COMMENT
owner
Name that distinguishes the antenna of the station
when it is necessary to search for it in international
databases, such as IGS or EU-REF. The marker
PADO00ITA
name is made up of the initials of the name of the
MARKER NA- site and the acronym of the State in which it is ˆPADO
ME located, that is:
ˆITA
ˆstation code

ˆCountry Code

Unique alphanumeric code consisting of 5

numbers, a letter (S or M), and 3 other digits
12750S001 The dome
(usually 001). The first four letters of the marker
MARKER number of the sta-
name and the marker number constitute the
NUMBER tion of Padua is
Domes Number. (There are no specific and
PADO 12750S001
univocal regulations on the assignment of the
Domes Number)

Table 6.4 continued on next page

54 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example
Receiver type:

ˆGEODETIC: High precision xed

ˆNON_GEODETIC: low pressure fixed

cisone

ˆNON_PHYSICAL: generated by a
network processing

ˆSPACEBORNE: Orbit of a Vehicle

space

ˆGROUND_CRAFT: ground vehicle

mobile

ˆWATER_CRAFT: mobile vessel

ˆAIRBORNE: airplane, space probe

MARKER TY-
PE ˆFIXED_BUOY: fixed point on the su- ˆGEODETIC
for earthly purposes

ˆFLOATING_BUOY: floating on the-

the water surface

ˆFLOATING_ICE: floating on the

ice

ˆGLACIER: fixed on the ice

ˆBALLISTIC: rocket

ˆANIMAL: Animals act as

means of transport

ˆHUMAN: humanity

Information required unless it is the first

two cases

OBSERVER / ˆobserver ˆB.C

AGENCY
ˆagency owning the receiver ˆCISAS

Table 6.4 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 55

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

Receiver specifications in terms of:

ˆ3021140
ˆserial number
REC # / TYPE ˆSEPT
/ VERSION ˆtype
POLARX5
ˆsoftware version
ˆ5.3.0

Antenna specifications in terms of:

ˆ5227
ˆserial number
ANT # / TYPE
ˆSEPCHOKE
ˆtype
B3E6 SPKE

Approximate coordinates of the site in the

ECEF reference system (expressed in meters),
assuming the WGS84 as the geoid model. At (4388882.2677,
APPROX POSI-
the beginning of the data processing 924567.2063,
TION XYZ
procedure of theBerneseIt is from this set of 4519588.5101)
coordinates that the approximate coordinates
to the current epoch are calculated
The antenna can be elevated above the ground
ANTENNA: in terms of height (H)or have an eccentricity with 0.0000 0.0000
DELTA H/E/N respect to the marker i.e. variations in the East 0.0000
direction (H)and North (N)

Position of the antenna reference point on

* ANTENNA:
the vehicle (m): XYZ is a vector in the
DELTA X/Y/Z
coordinate system centered on the body
Average phase position relative to the
antenna (m) in terms of:

ˆSatellite system (G/E/S/R/C/J/I)

* ANTENNA:
PHASECEN- ˆObservation code
TER
ˆNorth/East/Up (if station (ssa)

ˆX/Y/Z in the body system sso (vehicle)

Table 6.4 continued on next page

56 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example
Direction of the antenna along the vertical in the
direction of the GNSS satellites.

ˆFixed antenna on the vehicle: uni-

ty in the coordinate system fixed in the
* ANTENNA:
body.
B.SIGHT XYZ
ˆTilted antenna on station s-
sa: unit vector in the N/E/U system
according to the right-hand rule

* ANTENNA: Azimuth direction of a xed antenna (in

ZERODIR AZI degrees, from north)
Antenna zero direction.

ˆFixed antenna on the vehicle: uni-

ty in the coordinate system fixed in the
* ANTENNA: body.
ZERODIR XYZ
ˆTilted antenna on station s-
sa: unit vector in the N/E/U system
according to the right-hand rule

Local center of mass (X,Y,Z,meters) of the

* CENTER OF
vehicle in the xed reference system. Same
MASS
system used for the attitude calculation

Table 6.4 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 57

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example
For the first line:

ˆconstellation code (G/E/S/R/- ˆG: GPS

(C/J/I) ˆ17: They are coming

ˆnumber of types of observations made for performed the

the specific satellite system; the types of following 17
observation are: observations:
SYS / # /OBS C1C L1C
TYPES C: Pseudorange S1C C1W
L: Phase
S1W C2W
L2W S2W
Q: Doppler C2L L2L
S: Signal to Noise Ratio I: S2L C5Q
Ionospheric Delay L5Q S5Q
C1L L1L
X: Receiver channel number S1L

Table 6.4 continued on next page

58 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

ˆG L1
The phase is reported for each ˆG L2
constellation, then indicating:
ˆG L2 0.0000
ˆBand:
ˆG L5 0.0000
1=
ˆG L1 0.0000
* L1 (GPS,QZSS,SBAS,BDS)
ˆAnd L1 0.0000
* G1 (GLO)
* E1 (GAL) ˆAnd L6 0.0000
* B1 (BDS)
ˆAnd L5 0.0000
2=
ˆAnd L7 0.0000
* L2 (GPS,QZSS)
* G2 (GLO) ˆAnd L8 0.0000

* B1-2 (BDS) ˆS L1
4 =G1a (GLO) ˆS L5
5=
ˆR L1
* L5
SYS / PHASE (GPS,QZSS,SBAS,IRNSS) ˆR L1 0.0000
SHIFT
* E5a (GAL) ˆR L2 0.0000
* B2/B2a (BDS)
ˆR L2
6=
ˆR L3 0.0000
* E6 (GAL)
* L6 (QZSS) ˆC L1 0.0000
* B3 (BDS) ˆC L5 0.0000
* G2a (GLO)
ˆC L2
7=
ˆC L7
* E5b (GAL)
* B2/B2b (BDS) ˆC L6

8= ˆJ L1
* E5a+b (GAL) ˆJ L2 0.0000
* B2a+b (BDS)
ˆJ L5 0.0000
9 =S (IRNSS)
ˆJ L1 0.0000
0 =For type X (ALL)
ˆJ L1 0.0000

ˆThe L5

Table 6.4 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 59

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

- Attribute, in terms of channels:

ˆG L1 C
ˆA =A Channel (GAL,IRNSS,GLO) ˆB =B
Channel (GAL,IRNSS,GLO) ˆC = ˆG L2 W

ˆG L2 L
C Channel (GAL,IRNSS)
ˆG L5 Q
C Code-base (SBAS,GPS,QZSS,GLO)
ˆG L1 L
ˆD =
ˆAnd L1 C
Semi-codeless (GPS)
Data Channel (BDS) ˆAnd L6 C

ˆI =The channels (GPS,GAL,QZSS,BDS) ˆ ˆAnd L5 Q

L=
ˆAnd L7 Q
L channel (L2C GPS,QZSS) P
ˆAnd L8 Q
channel (GPS,QZSS)

ˆM =M code based (GPS) ˆN

ˆS L1 C

=Codeless (GPS) ˆP = ˆS L5 I

ˆR L1 C
P code-based (GPS,GLO)
SYS / PHASE ˆR L1 P
SHIFT Pilot Channel (BDS)
ˆR L2 P
ˆQ =Q channel (GPS,GAL,QZSS,BDS) ˆS =
ˆR L2 C

D channel (GPS, QZSS) M ˆR L3 Q

channel (L2C GPS, QZSS)
ˆC L1 P
ˆW =Based on Z-tracking (GPS) ˆX =
ˆC L5 P

ˆC L2 I
B+C channels (GAL, IRNSS) I+Q
channels (GPS,GAL, QZSS,BDS) M+L ˆC L7 I
channels (GPS, QZSS) ˆC L6 I
D+P channels (GPS, QZSS, BDS)
ˆJ L1 C
ˆY =Y code based (GPS) ˆZ =
ˆJ L2 L

A+B+C channels (GAL) ˆJ L5 Q

D+P channels (BDS) ˆJ L1 L
The sequence in the observation logs must match ˆJ L1 Z
the sequence followed in this log for the respective
satellite system. ˆI L5 A

Table 6.4 continued on next page

60 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example
* SIGNAL
Unit of measurement of signal to noise ratio
STRENGTH DBHZ
[dBHz]
UNIT
* INTERVAL Observation interval reported in seconds

ˆTime of first observation (year,

month, day, hours, minutes, seconds)

ˆreference system for time

GPS (GPS system) GLO

(UTC time)
ˆ2020 2 4 0 0 0
TIME OF FIR- GAL (Galileo system)
0.0000
ST OBS QZS (QZSS system)
ˆGPS
BDT (Beidou system)
IRN (IRNSS system)

The time reference system is

mandatory in mixed les; otherwise, by
default, it is calculated according to
the GNSS system of the le

ˆTime of last observation (year,

month, day, hours, minutes, seconds)

ˆreference system for time

* TIME OF LA- GPS (GPS system) GLO

ST OBS (UTC time)
GAL (Galileo system)
QZS (QZSS system)
BDT (Beidou system)
IRN (IRNSS system)

Table 6.4 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 61

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example
Epoch, code and phase can be corrected
(1 if this happens otherwise 2 is reported)
* RCV CLOCK by applying the receiver clock o set. By
OFFS APPL default it is set to zero. The line is
necessary if the clock o sets are reported
in the EPOCH/SAT records

ˆSatellite system (G/E/S/R/C/J/I)

ˆName of the program used to ap-

plicate differential code bias
* SYS / DCBS corrections
APPLIED
ˆSource of corrections (URL)

It is repeated for each satellite system. If

no corrections are applied, either leave
the field blank or it means that the
recordings are not present.

ˆSatellite system (G/E/S/R/C/J/I)

ˆName of the program used to ap-

apply phase change corrections
* SYS / PCVS
APPLIED
ˆSource of corrections (URL)

It is repeated for each satellite system. If

no corrections are applied, either leave
the field blank or it means that the
recordings are not present.
Table 6.4 continued on next page
62 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

ˆSatellite system (G/E/S/R/C/J/I)

ˆFactor used to divide the obser-

vations stored before use
(1,10,100,1000)

* SYS / SCALE ˆNumber of observation types involved

FACTOR te: zero 0 or blank indicates all types
of observation

ˆList of observation types Repeat

registration if different factors are
applied to different types of
observations. A value of 1 is assumed if
registration is missing

Phase shift correction used to generate

phases consistent with cycle shifts

ˆSatellite system (G/E/S/R/C/J/I)

ˆPhase observation code:

Type
Band
* SYS / PHASE Attribute
SHIFT
ˆCorrections and improvements

ˆNumber of satellites involved: zero (0)

or empty indicate the involvement of all
satellites in the system

ˆlist of satellites

To have all the codes involved you must

repeat the registration
Table 6.4 continued on next page
6.3. RINEX 3.XX 63

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

ˆ26

ˆFor How much

concerns there

GLONASS Slots and Frequency Numbers first line:

ˆGLONASS Satellite List R01 R02

R03 R04
GLONASS ˆList of R05 R06
SLOT / FRQ # R07 R08
Satellite numbers (system code,
slot) R01:1
R02:-4
Frequency numbers (-7 to +6)
R03:5
R04:6
R05:1
R06:-4
R07:5
R08:6

GLONASS phase polarization correction

used to align code and phase of
observations. Signal identifiers:

ˆC1C and phase code correction ˆC1C 0.000

GLONASS COD ˆC1P and phase code fix ˆC1P 0.000

/ PHS / BIS ˆC2C and phase code correction ˆC2C 0.000
ˆC2P and phase code fix ˆC2P 0.000
If the GLONASS code phase correction
values are unknown, all fields are left
blank and only the record header is
defined.
Table 6.4 continued on next page
64 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.4 Header of a the Rinex 3.04

Header Field Description Example

ˆCurrent number of leap sec (secon-

* LEAP
of jumping)
SECONDS
ˆLeap second

* # OF SATEL- Number of satellites for which observations

LITES are reported in the les
PRN is the satellite identification code. The
number of observations for any type of
* PRN / # OF
observation indicated in the "# / TYPE OF
OBS
OBSERV" field is then reported.

END OF HEA-
in the header
THE ONE

Similarly to Rinex 2, version 3, once the header is completed, gives rise to theData
Record Description (in figure 6.5 you can see the one of the reference station of Padua on
04/02/2020). This part also follows a very precise structure and is described in table 6.5.
6.3. RINEX 3.XX 65

Table 6.5: Data Record Description of a the Rinex 3.04

Register Description Example

Exact time in terms of:
ˆyear

ˆmonth, day, hour, minute

Era
ˆsecond
ˆ20
ˆReportof the era
ˆ2 4 0 0
0: Recorded successfully
ˆ0.00000
REGISTER 1: Potential loss of ˆreports:
EPOCH information or signal
0
> 1: external event
46
ˆnumber of satellites visible at the time
current
There is no information
ˆ ((reserved for comments)
about the clock

ˆreceiver clock settings

tore (optional option)

Table 6.5 continued on next page

66 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Table 6.5 Data Record Description of a Rinex 3.04 le

Register Description Example
If theReportis 0 or 1:

ˆList of satellites (constellation of

membership, number)

ˆfields dedicated to observations se-

according to the order described in theSYS /
# / OBS TYPES

This recording is repeated for each

satellite observed at the current epoch. If
the observation was not detected, set to
0.0 or leave the field blank.
The values of thephasemust be included
in the bit range set according to the LLI
(Loss of Lock Indicator):

ˆ0 or blank: OK or unknown

ˆBit 0: Block lost between observation

previous and current: possible
cycle slippage. For phase
observations only. Note: bit 0 is
the least significant bit
OBSERVATIONS cf g 6.5
ˆBit 1: Half-cycle ambiguity. If the
software does not handle half-
cycles should skip this observation.
Valid only for the current epoch

ˆBit 2: Ga- BOC Tracking

line of a modulated MBOC signal
(probably due to increased noise)

Signal strength (SSI) in the range 1- 9 in

terms of signal to noise ratio SNR:

ˆ1: minimum signal strength

ˆ5: minimum threshold to ensure a

good S/N (Signal to Noise) ratio

ˆ9: maximum signal strength

ˆ0 or blank: value not known

Table 6.5 continued on next page

6.3. RINEX 3.XX 67

Table 6.5 Data Record Description of a the Rinex 3.04

Register Description Example

ˆreports of the time

2: the antenna started to

move
3: the site is new
FLAG OF THE E- 4: header information is
LITTLE 2-5 followed
5: external phenomena

ˆNumber of satellites that contain-

no number of "special"
registrations; if there are no
special registrations leave 0

ˆ6: the registration follows the same

I know the format of the recordings
FLAG OF THE E- in OBSERVATIONS
LITTLE 6 ˆslippage of observations

ˆLLI and signal strength are

absent or equal to zero
68 CHAPTER 6. THE RINEX FILE

Figure 6.4: Header of the the Rinex 3.04 of the Padua station dated 20/02/2020
6.3. RINEX 3.XX 69

Figure 6.5: Data Record Description of the Rinex 3.04 of the Padova station dated
04/02/2020
Chapter 7

TheBernese

TheBernese GNSS Software, Version 5.2,or more brieflyBernese,is a high-precision

scientific software, in constant development and aimed at the post-processing of multi-
GNSS data. It was developed by the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern
(AIUB) and is used at European level by the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe
(CODE). The software is optimized for the Linux operating system, however there is also a
version for Windows. TheBerneseis based on codes written in Fortran. The calls to the
processing procedures are made through bash and perl scripts that consist of a
command interpreter aimed at user communication with the operating system through a
series of predefined functions; in other words, when the user, through the PC, provides
INPUT to the software, he does so through scripts in perl language, instead, the
calculation and data processing programs of the software are written in Fortran
language. The processing duration depends on the size of the network. This software
allows the processing of different procedures. Specifically, for this work, the BPE
RNX2SNX.PCF was used, whose step-by-step process is reported in table 7.1, which
consists of an analysis based on double di erences.

STEP Description
1 Transfer and copy data to the CAMPAIGN folder
First data processing using the information contained in the Rinex
2

3 Import data in machine-readable formatBernese

Importing les with orbit and earth orientation information
4

Data processing taking into account all observables and input data
5

6 Calculating the solution using normal equations

Writing output, which reports the updated coordinates of the
7
network stations in various formats

Table 7.1: Functional diagram of the software data processing procedure Bernese

71
72 CHAPTER 7. THEBERNESE

The station coordinates and tropospheric parameters are estimated and stored to
facilitate further processing and combinations. In addition, for each session, the
corresponding information on the normal equations used for the calculation is saved for
a subsequent multi-session solution that will allow the estimation of the station velocities.

The process control file (PCF) is usually of the ASCII type (ASCII files are codes
intended for the transmission and storage of characters) and de nes which scripts
are to be executed, in which order and which parameters are to be passed to the
scripts.
For this paper, the aim of the PCF is to perform a Precise Point Positioning
(PPP) using observation Rinex coming from a number of stationary ground
receivers such as to obtain a set of station coordinates accurate to at least one
centimeter. The updating procedure will be described in the next chapter.
The software structure, whose scheme is represented in table 7.2, is very
complex and articulated. The main macro areas are:

ˆPROGRAM - containing the heart of the software and the basic information needed
to processing;

ˆUSER - containing the specific configurations established by the user;

ˆDATA - divided into three independent subfolders and is the one we will focus on
this treatment;

ˆTEMPORARY - used during BPE compilation.

MACRO PROGRAM USER DATE TEMPORARY

FOLDER BERN52 GPSUSER52 GPS DATA GPSTEMP

ˆBPE

ˆBUGS ˆOPT

ˆGPS ˆOUT
ˆSAVEDISK
ˆINC ˆPAN
SUB - ˆDATAPOOL
FOLDER ˆPCF ˆBPE
ˆBOOK
ˆCAMPAIN52
ˆMENU ˆ
U
SCRIPT
ˆPGM
ˆWORK
ˆX

Table 7.2: Main folder structure of the Bernese software

7.1. THE CAMPAIN52 FOLDER 73

7.1 The CAMPAIN52 folder

The CAMPAIN52 folder, as reported in table 7.2, has the subfolderU in which the
folders with the daily and weekly campaigns are placed.

7.1.1 The daily campaign

The daily campaign has the following nomenclature:
<YY>_<DOY>
where:

ˆYY indicates the last two digits of the year

ˆDOY indicates the day of the year in the range [0 - 366]

The daily campaign of day 02/04/2020 in which the is located is: the Rinex PADO0350.20O

20_035
Inside this folder are the following subfolders:
ˆATM - with the les containing atmospheric data (in terms of ionosphere and troposphere)
ra);
ˆBPE - with scripts that are launched, executed and terminated as they happen
data processing (over 1000 scripts);

ˆGRD - with the those describing the tropospheric model;

ˆOBS - with the observation files in binary format;

ˆORB - with daily parameters regarding the satellite orbits;

ˆORX - with the les Rinex (version 2.xx) of all stations that are processed;

ˆOUT - with the OUTPUT files generated once the processing is completed
Bernese;

ˆRAW - with links of the les Rinex from the ORX folder and, for each les
Rinex, the related SMT;

ˆSOL - with the OUTPUT les generated once the Ber- processing is completed
binary format: these are the daily solutions that are combined when the
weekly procedure is performed;

ˆSTA - with the EUREF14 les, taken from the USER/GPSUSER52/ folder
BERNEZ/STAITA. These are the which must be updated when these are
new stations inserted in processed by theBernese.
To insert a new station, I note the the observation Rinex of the same, there are
will concentrate more in the folderCOORD (arbitrary and placed inside the CAMPAIN
folder). Specifically, they will be created, via theBernese,of the provisional ones
similar to those contained in the STA folder.
74 CHAPTER 7. THEBERNESE

7.1.2 The weekly campaign

The weekly campaign is made up of the same folders that make up the daily
campaign. The nomenclature given to the weekly campaigns is as follows:

<wk><WEEK>

Where:

ˆwk is short for week

ˆWEEK is the GPS week number

For example, the weekly campaign containing day 35 of 2020 is

wk2091

Analyzing the main folders of the weekly campaign:

ˆBPE - contains the scripts that are launched, executed and terminated as they happen
during the weekly combination;

ˆSTA - contains the EUREF14 files, taken from the folder

USER/GPSUSER52/BERNEZ/STAITA;

ˆSOL - contains the OUTPUT files generated once the processing is completed
Bernese in binary format;

ˆOUT - contains the OUTPUT files generated once the combination is completed
weekly.

7.2 Software Interface

To insert the receivers, it is not enough to work with the software folders alone: you
need to open the graphical interface, shown in figure 7.1
At the top are the tools that will be used to complete the job:

ˆWith gures

ˆCampaign

ˆRINEX

ˆOrbits/EOP

ˆProcessing

ˆService

ˆConversion

ˆBPE
7.2. SOFTWARE INTERFACE 75

ˆUser

ˆHelp

At the bottom, instead, in addition to finding the user's name, the work folder
(COORD) and the reference period (year and day of the year) are defined.

Figure 7.1: Graphical interface of theBernese GNSS Software Version 5.2