10/17/2023

E1541 Discrete-Time Control Systems

Introduction to z-Transform
Lec.#03
Prof. Dr. Walaa Gabr
Associate Prof. Dr. Omar Salim
Department of Electrical Engineering
Benha Faculty of Engineering
Benha University

Oct. 2023

Course Syllabus:-
1. Introduction
2. Spectrum analysis of sampling process
3. Signal reconstruction
4. Difference equation
5. The z-transform
6. Impulse transfer function
7. Mapping between s-plan and z-plan
8. Transient and steady state response analysis
9. Design based on root-locus
10.Design based on frequency response
11.Analytical design
2 12.Controllability & observability tests

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Lecture Agenda:-
 Recall “Sampling and Quantization”
 Differential Equation Vs Difference Equation
 History of the Zed-transform
 Introduction to z-Transform
 Applications of z-Transforms
 Laplace Transform Recall
 z Transform
 Properties of z Transform
 Examples

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 References

Types of signals:

Continuous-time analog signal

Continuous-time quantized signal

Sampled data signal

Digital signal
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The Structure of a Digital Control System

Difference equations versus differential equations

 Differential equations describe continuous systems. With these equations, rates
of change are defined in terms of other values in the system.
 Difference equations are a discrete parallel to this where we use old values from
the system to calculate new values. The order of an equation is how many time-
step back you are looking at or what the highest power derivative involved is.
 Difference equations have an implicit time step in them. We keep track
of variables with integer subscripts and the difference between consecutive
subscripts is a time step.
 A very simple example of a difference equation is the logistic equation.
𝑥𝑡 = 𝑎​​𝑥𝑡−1 (1 − 𝑥𝑡−1 )

 Also See http://im0.p.lodz.pl/~jbanasiak/Sem/aims.pdf

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Difference equations versus differential equations

 When a set of nonlinear differential equations is investigated, most of
the time there is no analytical solution. In a general way the process of
numerical integration is the replacement of a set of differential
equations.
 In numerical investigations a 4th order Runge–Kutta integration
scheme is usually sufficient. Nevertheless, sometimes a set of
difference equations may be required and, in this case, standard
schemes like the forward Euler, backward Euler or central difference
schemes are used. The major problem encountered with these schemes
is that they offer numerical solutions equivalent to those of the set of
differential equations only for sufficiently small integration time steps.
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History of the Zed-transform

 The Zed-transform was introduced, under this name, by Ragazzini and Zadeh in
1952.

 The modified or advanced Z-transform was later developed by E. I. Jury and

presented in his book Sampled-Data Control Systems (John Wiley & Sons 1958).
 The idea contained within the Z-transform was previously known as the
"generating function method".
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Introduction to z Transform
 The z-transform is the most general concept for the transformation of
discrete-time series.

 The Laplace transform is the more general concept for the transformation
of continuous time processes.

 For example, the Laplace transform allows us to transform a differential

equation, and its corresponding initial and boundary value problems, into
a space in which the equation can be solved by ordinary algebra.

 The switching of spaces to transform calculus problems into algebraic

operations on transforms is called operational calculus. The Laplace and z
transforms are the most important methods for this purpose.
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Applications of Z-Transforms
 Definition: The z-transform is defined as a sum that transforms discrete signals to
the complex frequency (Z) domain.
 System analysis: The z-transform converts convolutions to a product and
difference equations to algebraic equations.
 Stability: Stability of a discrete linear system can be determined by analyzing the
transfer function H(z) given by the Z-transform.
 Frequency response: The transfer function H(z) can be evaluated to determine
the frequency response of a discrete system.
 Digital filters: Can be analyzed and designed using the z-transform.
 Control: Digital control systems can be analyzed and designed using z-transforms.

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Introduction to z Transform
 A mathematical tool commonly used for the analysis of discrete-time
control systems is the z transform.
 The role of the z transform in discrete-time systems is like that of the
Laplace transform in continuous-time systems.
 In a linear discrete-time control system, a linear difference equation
characterizes the dynamics of the system. To determine the system's
response to a given input, such a difference equation must be solved.
 With the z transform method, the solutions to linear difference
equations become algebraic in nature. (Just as the Laplace transforms
LTI differential equations into algebraic equations in s, the z
transforms LTI difference equations into algebraic equations in z.)
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z Transform
 Z-transform converts a discrete-time signal into a complex
frequency-domain representation.
 The Z-transform is simply a power series representation of a
discrete-time sequence. For example, if we have the sequence
x(0); x(1); x(2); x(3), the Z-transform simply multiplies each
coefficient in the sequence by a power of z corresponding to
its index. In this example

𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑥(0) + 𝑥(1)𝑧 −1 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 −2 + 𝑥(3)𝑧 −3

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Laplace Transform Recall

 It can convert common functions( Sine, Cosine, Exponential,…etc)
into algebraic functions of a complex variable s.
 In which differentiation and integration can be replaced by
algebraic operations in a complex plane.
 Laplace transform method allows the use of the graphical
techniques for predicting the overall system performance without
solving system differential equations. (Root locus, …etc.)
 When solving differential equations using Laplace transform both
transient and steady state component of the solution can be
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obtained simultaneously.

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Laplace Transform Recall (cont’d)

 Complex Variable:
Since any complex number has a real and imaginary parts which are both
constant. If the real and imaginary parts are variables a complex number is then
called complex variable.
In Laplace transform the complex variable is called s.
𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

 Laplace transformation: ∞

ℓ{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Where: 0

f(t)= time domain function f(t)=0 for t<0

ℓ =Laplace transform operator., s= Complex variable.
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Initial and final value theorems for Laplace transform:

 Initial Value Theorem:

 Final Value Theorem:

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Why we need z-transform?

 It is a generalization of Fourier transform (FT)
 Why generalize it?
 FT does not converge on all sequence
 Notation good for analysis
 Bring the power of complex variable deal with the discrete-time signals and
systems
 Discrete-time signals can be represented as sequences of numbers.
Thus, if x is a discrete-time signal, its values can, in general, be
indexed by k as follows
𝑥 = {. . . , 𝑥(−2), 𝑥(−1), 𝑥(0), 𝑥(1), 𝑥(2), . . . , 𝑥(𝑘), . . . }

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Why we need z-transform? (Cont’d)

 In order to work within a transform domain for discrete-time
signals, we define the z -transform as follows. The z -transform of
the sequence x in the previous equation is
∞
Ζ{𝑥(𝑘)} = 𝑋(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=−∞

 in which the variable z can be interpreted as being either a time-

position marker or a complex-valued variable, and the script Z is
the z-transform operator.
 If the former interpretation is employed, the number multiplying
the marker z–k is identified as being the kth element of the x
sequence, i.e., x(k).
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z-transform
 The Laplace transform E*(s) of a samples function e*(t) is given below
∞

𝑒 ∗ (𝑡) = ෍ 𝑒(𝑘𝑇)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇)

𝑘=0
∞

𝐸 ∗ (𝑠) = ෍ 𝑒(𝑘𝑇)𝑒 −𝑘𝑇𝑠

𝑘=0

∞
 Substitute z=esT into E*(s): 𝐸(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑒(𝑘𝑇)𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0

∞
 Definition of z-transform: 𝐸(𝑧) = Ζ[𝑒 ∗ (𝑡)] = ෍ 𝑒(𝑘𝑇)𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0

 a power series in z-1 where z is a complex variable.

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Z-Transforms
 Mathematically, the complex variable z can be written as:
𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑇(𝜎+𝑗𝜔) = 𝑒 𝜎𝑇 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑇 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃

- the real variable r is termed the radius.

 If {x(k)} is a sequence, we can write: 𝑧[𝑥(𝑘)] = 𝑋(𝑧)

 The Z-transform is defined by the series

𝑁−1
𝑥(1) 𝑥(2)
𝑍[𝑥(𝑘)] = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑧 −𝑛 = 𝑥(0) + + 2 +. . . .
𝑍 𝑧
𝑘=0

Also known as “One-Sided” Z-transform

 When the sequence f(k) has the infinite length, the z-transform of F(z) of f(k) is defined as:

𝑁−1
Also known as “Two-Sided” Z-transform
𝑍[𝑥(𝑘)] = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑧 −𝑛
19 𝑘=−∞

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The z-Transform in polar form

𝑋(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑧 −𝑘 Im
𝑘=−∞
z = e −j 

∞
Re
𝑋(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑘
𝑘=−∞

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Relationship to Fourier Transform

Note that expressing the complex variable z in polar form reveals the relationship
to the Fourier transform:
∞

𝑋(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜔 ) = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜔 )−𝑘 , 𝑜𝑟

𝑘=−∞
∞

𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜔 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑟 −𝑘 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑘 , and​ if​ 𝑟 = 1,

𝑘=−∞
∞

𝑋(𝑒 𝑖𝜔 ) = 𝑋(𝜔) = ෍ 𝑥(𝑘)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑘

𝑘=−∞

which is the Fourier transform of x(k).

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References
Text Books:
 Katsuhiko Ogata, ‘Discrete-Time Control Systems,’ 2nd edition, 1994.
st
 Digital control engineering, Analysis and design, M. Sam Fadali, 1 Edition 2009
 Ed. Richard C. Dorf, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

Lecture Notes:
 Associate Professor Walaa Gabr, Ph.D. Lecture Notes 2015 and 2016.
 Omar Salim, Ph.D. Lecture notes for SYS674 Oakland University 2010.

Software Packages:
 MATLAB Simulink, for Mathworks.

Web Sites:
 http://im0.p.lodz.pl/~jbanasiak/Sem/aims.pdf
 http://lmah.univ-lehavre.fr/~alaoui/publications.html

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