fluids

Article
An Experimental Study on the Effect of Distance and Sheltering
Area of a Group of Linearly Arranged Sacrificial Piles on
Reducing Local Scour around a Circular Bridge Pier under
Clear-Water Conditions
Subodh Guragain and Norio Tanaka *

Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura Ku,
Saitama Shi 338-8570, Japan; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: One of the major problems associated with bridge piers is ensuring their safety against local
scouring caused by the erosive action of flow. Numerous countermeasures have been developed and
tested to solve this problem, among which sacrificial piles are highly recognized due to their high
performance, economy, durability, and ease of construction. Several factors affect the performance
of sacrificial piles, such as their number, size, degree of submergence, and geometric arrangement
parameters. In this study, the performance of a group of linearly arranged cylindrical sacrificial
piles in reducing local scour around a circular bridge pier was investigated by varying the number
of piles (or sheltering area) and distance between piles and the pier under clear-water conditions.
Three values of distance between piles and the pier and three values of sheltering area (or number of
piles) were tested. The efficiencies of sacrificial piles in different configurations were presented in
terms of the percentage reduction in maximum scour depth at an unprotected pier under the same
hydraulic conditions. The results of this experiment show that when linearly arranged sacrificial
Citation: Guragain, S.; Tanaka, N. An piles are placed close to the pier (at distance D; D is the pier diameter), an increase in the number
Experimental Study on the Effect of of piles (or sheltered area) results in an increased scour depth, and when placed far from the pier
Distance and Sheltering Area of a (2D and 3D), an increase in the number of piles results in a decrease in scour depth around the pier.
Group of Linearly Arranged In addition, for 40% and 60% sheltering conditions, scour depth increased with an increase in the
Sacrificial Piles on Reducing Local spacing between piles and the pier, while for 80% sheltering conditions, optimum protection was
Scour around a Circular Bridge Pier
observed at a distance of 2D. Overall, two piles placed at distance D provided optimum protection
under Clear-Water Conditions. Fluids
with a scour depth reduction of 41.6%, while minimum protection was recorded when the same were
2024, 9, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/
placed at a spacing of 3D from the pier (25.5%).
fluids9020035

Academic Editors: Helena M. Ramos, Keywords: bridge pier; sacrificial piles; linear arrangement; sheltered area; scour depth; contour;
Juan Antonio Rodríguez Díaz, horseshoe vortex; wake region; boundary layer
Ramesh Agarwal and Jorge Matos

Received: 21 December 2023

Revised: 25 January 2024
Accepted: 28 January 2024 1. Introduction
Published: 31 January 2024 Bridge piers located within the waterway of a river are often subjected to the erosive
action of the flowing water. Local scour, in its simplest form, can be defined as the process
of the removal of bed material from the vicinity of the pier by the local flow field compo-
nents. Removal of bed materials from around the bridge pier can cause buckling failure
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
of the pier [1], thereby leading to huge damage to properties and the loss of human lives.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Historical evidence shows that more than half of the bridge failures around the world are
This article is an open access article
due to scours [2]. Hence, local scour is recognized as one of the major problems in hydraulic
distributed under the terms and
engineering. Local scour at bridge piers is a result of three-dimensional boundary-layer
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
separation leading to the formation of a scour hole at the base of a pier. The main compo-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
nents of the local flow field include the downflow, horseshoe vortex, flow separation, wake
4.0/).
vortices, and surface rollers (bow wave) [3]. Whenever a blunt body such as a pier is placed

Fluids 2024, 9, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids9020035 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fluids

Fluids 2024, 9, 35 2 of 18

in a river, the velocity of approach flow becomes zero at the front face of the pier, known
as the stagnation point, due to which the fluid pressure increases at the pier’s front face.
Since the velocity of flow decreases from the surface to the bottom along the flow depth,
the pressure also decreases in the same fashion, thereby developing a vertical pressure
gradient, which is responsible for the downflow. The downflow, acting as a vertical jet of
water, hits the bed and rolls upwards, which, upon meeting the downward flow, leads to a
rolling flow that exerts shear stress on the soil grains. This shear stress, upon exceeding the
shear resistance of the bed material, causes the removal of the bed soil, and consequently,
a horseshoe vortex is formed at the front bed, which is the most dominant feature in the
process of the formation of a scour hole. The boundary-layer separation on either side of
the pier leads to the formation of wake vortices on either side behind the pier, and these
wake vortices are responsible for the removal of bed sediment from the back of the pier
by suction action. The periodical shedding of the wake eddies leads to the transportation
of sediment particles, which are deposited at some distance behind the pier. These three
vortices acting together are responsible for the development and expansion of a scour hole
around the pier [3]. Past findings have shown that the local scour is a complex phenomenon
affected by several parameters related to flow characteristics, bed sediment characteristics,
pier geometry characteristics, and time [4].
The control of local scouring around bridge piers has been the field of interest of many
researchers, and several countermeasures have been developed and tested for this purpose.
These countermeasures involve strengthening the bed soil against the erosive action of the
flow (bed armoring devices/passive countermeasures) and reducing the erosive force of the
flow (flow altering devices/active countermeasures). One of the popular countermeasures
is the use of sacrificial piles upstream of a bridge pier. These piles of small diameter
placed upstream of a bridge pier are found to reduce the local scouring around the pier by
deflecting the high-velocity flow and creating a low-velocity wake region behind them. The
effectiveness of these sacrificial piles in reducing the local scour depends on the number of
piles, the size of the piles relative to the pier, the protrusion of the piles, and the geometric
arrangement of the piles [5].
Laboratory studies on mitigating local scour around bridge piers by using sacrificial
piles have been reported by several researchers in the past by adopting different shapes,
sizes, flow parameters, and geometric arrangements of sacrificial piles. Ref. [6] conducted a
laboratory experiment to study the effect of gap width and pile diameter on the efficiency
of a single sacrificial pile placed in front of a bridge pier. Their results showed that when a
single sacrificial pile was placed close to the pier (at 1D; D = pier diameter), the highest
protection was obtained, while the result of increasing the pile diameter at the optimum
distance of 1D was a reduction in the protection provided by the sacrificial pile. Ref. [7]
conducted experiments using single sacrificial piles of different diameters placed in front
of piers of diameters (D) 5 cm and 10 cm at the distance of 2D and 3D. According to their
results, when the distance between piles and pier was increased, the countermeasure effect
of sacrificial piles decreased for both pier sizes. In addition, the scour depth reduction effect
of sacrificial piles increased with the diameter of the piles (d) up to d/D = 0.40, and a slightly
decreasing trend was observed for d/D between 0.4 and 0.8. Ref. [8] studied the effect of
blockage ratio (or sheltering area) on the efficiency of a group of sacrificial piles linearly
arranged at a gap width of two times the pier diameter (D) in front of a circular cylinder.
Their results showed that at a 60% blockage ratio using three piles, the scour-reduction
efficiency was 32.2%, while at a 100% blockage ratio using five piles, the efficiency was
reduced to 5.5%. Other values of blockage ratio and the effect of distance between sacrificial
piles and the pier were not investigated. Ref. [9], from their experimental results, found that
in the case of complex piers, three collinear piles in the transverse direction of a stream can
provide better protection than other numbers and arrangements of piles, and the optimum
distance for placing the piles was double the outer width of the complex piers. Ref. [5]
conducted an extensive study using a triangular arrangement of sacrificial piles and found
that a triangular configuration pointing upstream, with a distance of the apex from the
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 3 of 18

upstream face of the pier equal to two times the diameter of the pier, a wedge angle equal to
30◦ , spacing between piles equal to 0.67 times the pier diameter, and a pile diameter equal
to one-sixth of the pier diameter, resulted in a 56% reduction in the maximum scour depth
around the pier for an aligned flow under clear-water conditions. Ref. [10] performed
numerical simulations to evaluate the effect of the size and spacing of sacrificial piles from
the pier on reducing local scour. They reported that maximum reduction was observed
at distance X = 3.5D (D is the pier diameter) and pile diameter (d) = (1/3)D. Ref. [11]
conducted an experiment on reducing local scour using permeable sacrificial piles and
found that the scour depth around sacrificial piles itself can be significantly minimized by
using permeable sacrificial piles, while the reduction in local scour around the pier was
same as that of a solid pile. The optimum protection with a permeable sacrificial pile was
observed when the pile was placed at a distance of three times the pier diameter. Ref. [12]
undertook numerical and experimental research to determine how well sacrificial piles can
work to reduce local scour around pile groups. Their results showed that sacrificial piles
performed better when applied to protect a group of service piles than when applied to
a single pier. Ref. [13] studied the effect of debris accumulation at sacrificial piles on the
bridge pier scour and reported an increase in the local scour depth due to debris trapping.
In past studies, the relationship between the sheltering area and the distance between
linearly arranged sacrificial piles was not fully established in the case of an isolated circular
pier. The efficiency of sacrificial piles, linearly arranged in front of a pier, is likely to depend
on the number of piles as well as on the gap width between piles and the pier. To obtain
optimum protection from sacrificial piles, a proper understanding of these parameters
associated with their functioning is essential. Although some studies can be found on
the linear arrangement of sacrificial piles, they lack sufficient information to relate the
effect of sheltering area and gap width to the scour-reduction efficiency. The present study
aims to elucidate the relationship between sheltering area and distance (gap width) on the
efficiency of a linearly arranged group of sacrificial piles in protecting a circular bridge
pier against local scouring by changing both the sheltered area provided by the piles to the
pier (i.e., pile numbers) and the distance of the pile group from the pier under clear-water
conditions. A single-pier scour experiment was used as a control experiment, and sacrificial
piles in emergent conditions were used. The percentage reduction in maximum scour
depth using sacrificial piles under a variety of configurations was determined, and the
effects of distance and sheltered area were analyzed and are herein presented. The results
of this experiment are expected to help in better understanding the performance of linearly
arranged sacrificial piles.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Facilities, Materials Selection, and Installation
Each experiment in this research was performed on a horizontal bed flume of 5 m
length having a rectangular cross-section of 0.7 m × 0.5 m (channel width (B) × channel
height (H)) and located in the hydraulic engineering laboratory at Saitama University,
Japan. The sides of the flume were made of glass panels to facilitate observation during the
experiment, and a 5.5 kW centrifugal pump (manufactured by Tokyo Ebara Corporation,
Tokyo, Japan) recirculated water between a head tank and a sump tank attached to either
end of the flume. A manually operated gate valve was used to control the flow into
the channel, on which graduations were made to mark the desired openings. On the
upstream and downstream parts of the channel, wooden false beds were placed to create a
2.355 m long and 18.4 cm deep recess in the middle part of the flume length for placing
the sediment, as shown in Figure 1. A tailgate was mounted at the end of the downstream
wooden bed to maintain the desired flow depth. Honeycomb grids were placed at the
outlet of the head tank to minimize inflow turbulence, thereby ensuring smooth flow into
the channel. An electromagnetic velocity meter (EVM) (manufactured by KENEK Co., Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan) was used to measure the inflow velocity of the water in both streamwise and
cross-stream directions up to an accuracy of +/− 2%. The device had a main unit VM2000
Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

the channel. An electromagnetic velocity meter (EVM) (manufactured by KENEK Co.,

Fluids 2024, 9, 35 4 of 18
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was used to measure the inflow velocity of the water in both stream-
wise and cross-stream directions up to an accuracy of +/− 2%. The device had a main unit
VM2000 and detector unit VMT2-200-04P with an L-type probe. A laser displacement
and detector
gauge unit
(LK-500, VMT2-200-04P
manufactured bywith an L-type
KEYENCE probe. A laser
International, displacement
Osaka, Japan) was gauge
used(LK-500,
to dig-
manufactured by KEYENCE International, Osaka, Japan) was used to digitize
itize the sand-bed level before and after each test. Scour depths at key points were the sand-bed
con-
level before
firmed usingand after
a point each A
gauge. test. Scour thermometer
mercury depths at keywaspoints
usedwere confirmed
to measure theusing a point
temperature
gauge.
of A mercury
the water duringthermometer wasand
the experiment, usedtheto average
measurewater
the temperature
temperature ofwas
the water
24 °C. during
the experiment, and the average water temperature was 24 ◦ C.

Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental setup: (a) plan view; (b) side view.
Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental setup: (a) plan view; (b) side view.
In order to obtain maximum scour depth under clear-water conditions, experiments should
be performed
In order to using non-ripple-forming
obtain maximum scour sedimentsdepth under with median grain
clear-water size d50 >experiments
conditions, 0.7 mm [14].
This is because
should sand particles
be performed smaller than that are
using non-ripple-forming found towith
sediments formmedian
bedforms such
grain sizeasdripples,
50 > 0.7
which
mm reduce
[14]. This isthe scour depth.
because sand
In addition,
particles smalleruniform
than sediments
that are found with
to geometric
form bedforms standard
such
deviation
as ripples, of
whichgrainreduce
size σ the < 1.3 are
g scour recommended
depth. In addition,by [15] tosediments
uniform avoid the armoring
with geometriceffect
caused bydeviation
standard sedimentof grain size 𝜎 Since
non-uniformity. < 1.3the
aremaximum
recommended scour bydepth
[15]for
to uniform
avoid thesediment
armor-
occurs near threshold conditions, the experiments should
ing effect caused by sediment non-uniformity. Since the maximum scour depth be performed with the mean flow
for uni-
velocity (V) slightly less than the critical velocity (Vc) corresponding
form sediment occurs near threshold conditions, the experiments should be performed to incipient motion
of bed
with thematerials
mean flow < V/Vc(V)
(0.9velocity < 1). In order
slightly less to neglect
than the effect
the critical of flow
velocity (Vc)deflections
corresponding from
the side walls of the flume, B/D ≥ 10 is recommended [16]. According
to incipient motion of bed materials (0.9 < V/Vc < 1). In order to neglect the effect of flow to [4], scour depth
reduces when
deflections from D/d < 8 walls
the50side because, in that
of the case,
flume, B/Dthe≥ bed
10 issediments
recommended are significantly
[16]. According coarserto
compared to the pier size, while [17] found a reduction in scour depth
[4], scour depth reduces when D/d50 < 8 because, in that case, the bed sediments are signif- for prototype-sized
piers when
icantly coarserD/d 50 > 50. Hence,
compared to the apier
valuesize, D/d50[17]
of while = 25found
to 50 is recommended
a reduction in scourto neglect
depth forthe
influence of sediment coarseness on scour depth. For smaller values
prototype-sized piers when D/d50 > 50. Hence, a value of D/d50 = 25 to 50 is recommended of y/D (y = flow depth,
D = pier diameter), the surface roller weakens the downflow, and a value of y/D ≥ 2.5
to neglect the influence of sediment coarseness on scour depth. For smaller values of y/D
is needed to neglect the flow shallowness effect on the pier scour experiments [18]. All
(y = flow depth, D = pier diameter), the surface roller weakens the downflow, and a value
these past results were considered while selecting experimental parameters for the present
of y/D ≥ 2.5 is needed to neglect the flow shallowness effect on the pier scour experiments
experiment.
Hence, the recess was filled with silica sand no. 4 (manufactured by Mikawa Silica
Co., Ltd., Aichi, Japan) having a mean grain size (d50 ) of 0.87 mm and a geometric standard
 0.5
deviation (s.d.) of grain size distribution (σg = dd84 ; d84 and d16 = grain size such
16
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 5 of 18

that 84% and 16% particles are finer than that size, respectively) equal to 1.27. A constant
flow depth (y) of 12 cm was selected for all experimental cases, and a wooden cylinder
of diameter (D) = 4 cm was selected for the pier model considering the criteria for side
wall effect, flow shallowness, and sediment coarseness parameters mentioned above. The
selection of various parameters and dimensions is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of selection of experimental parameters.

Selection Parameters Selection Criteria Suggested By Purpose Selected Value Remarks

Mean size (d50 ) d50 > 0.7 mm [14] To avoid ripple formation d50 = 0.87 mm
To avoid the Silica sand no. 4
Sand
Geometric s.d. (σg ) σg < 1.3 [15] σg = 1.27
armoring effect
Diameter (D) B/D ≥ 10 [16] To avoid side wall effect D = 4 cm B = 70 cm
Pier To avoid the effect of
D/d50 = 25–50 [4] D = 4 cm
sediment size
To avoid the effect of flow
Depth (y) y/D ≥ 2.5 [18] y = 12 cm
shallowness
Flow Maximum scour under
Velocity (V) 0.9 < V/Vc < 1 [8] 0.92
clear-water conditions

2.2. Flow Conditions

All the experiments in this study were performed under steady, uniform, subcritical,
and turbulent flow conditions with a constant flow depth of 12 cm. Since the maximum
scour depth for uniform sediments occurs at near-threshold conditions, first, the critical
velocity causing the threshold of sediment motion was determined. The critical shear
velocity (u*c ) corresponding to the incipient motion condition was first approximated
theoretically using Shield’s diagram. A useful approximation to Shield’s diagram for
quartz sediments in water was given by [19] as follows:

u*c = 0.0115 + 0.0125 d50 1.4 (0.1 mm < d50 < 1 mm) (1)

where u*c is in m/s, and d50 is in mm. The corresponding mean velocity (VC ) was deter-
mined using logarithmic velocity distribution suggested by [15]:
 
Vc y
= 5 · 75log 5 · 53 (2)
u∗c d50

The theoretical calculation showed that the incipient motion condition was likely to
occur at a flow velocity of 36.1 cm/s. For validating the theoretically obtained value of
critical velocity experimentally, the 18.4 cm deep recess was filled by silica sand no. 4
without placing the pier model, and the sand bed was properly leveled. At the beginning
of the experiment, the sand bed was fully saturated by applying a very small discharge
without disturbing the sand grains. The tailgate was fully closed, and the flow depth of
12 cm was established without disturbing the mobile bed. The discharge into the channel
was then gradually increased while maintaining the flow depth of 12 cm by adjusting
the tailgate opening. The incipient condition of the sand grains was confirmed by visual
observation. The average flow velocity at this stage was measured using an EVM. The EVM
was always placed at a fixed distance of 40 cm from the beginning of the mobile bed, and
the measurements were always made in the middle of channel section at mid-flow depth to
avoid any errors due to the measurement location. Since the EVM readings fluctuated over
time, the readings were recorded for 1 min duration and then averaged, with the average
value calculated being 30.1 cm/s. This average velocity at which incipient motion was
observed was lower than the theoretical approximation. This was probably because the
theoretical calculation used the mean grain size for the approximation; however, the grains
smaller than the average size started moving at a lower velocity. The value obtained from
practical observation was selected as the critical velocity, as it was more accurate than the
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 6 of 18

theoretical approximation. After that, the valve opening was slightly reduced, maintaining
the flow depth so that the incipient motion condition of the sand grains was stopped. The
valve opening was then marked for the rest of the experiments. At this valve opening, the
average flow velocity was measured, and the average value was equal to 27.6 cm/s such
that the flow intensity value (V/Vc), when calculated, was found to be 0.92. For the rest
of the experimental cases, the valve opening was made exactly at that marking such that
the average flow velocity was constant in all the experimental cases. By adopting a scale
of 1:25, the flow conditions are summarized in Table 2 below. On the same scale, the pier
diameter of 4 cm and the sacrificial piles of 8 mm diameter represented the prototype pier
diameter of 1 m and the prototype piles of 20 cm diameter, respectively.

Table 2. Flow conditions adopted.

Parameters Model Prototype Remarks

Flow depth (y) 12 cm 3m Lr (Length ratio)
Critical flow velocity (Vc) 30.1 cm/s 1.50 m/s Vr = Lr0.5
Mean flow velocity (V) 27.6 cm/s 1.38 m/s Vr = Lr0.5
Design discharge (Q) 23.2 lps 72.4 m3 /s Qr = Lr5/2
Froud no., Fr = V/(gy)0.5 0.254 0.254 Froude similarity
Pier Reynold’s no., Re = VD/v 11,040 1.38 × 10−6

2.3. Single Pier Scour Experiments

The local scour experiment for a single pier without placing sacrificial piles was
performed at a flow intensity of V/Vc = 0.92. The results of this experiment served as the
control experiment for scour experiments with sacrificial piles. For this experiment, the
pier model was placed in the middle of the mobile bed, and the sand bed was properly
leveled. Very thin masking tapes were attached to the four faces of the pier model before
placing it, to facilitate the scour depth readings during and after the experiment. The sand
bed was digitized using a laser displacement gauge before the experimental run. The same
procedure of increasing the flow discharge while maintaining the flow depth (as explained
in incipient motion test above) was followed until the valve opening reached the previously
marked position corresponding to the desired average velocity (27.6 cm/s). The flow
velocity was confirmed from the EVM readings each time. The first test was performed
for a total duration of 3.5 h, and the instantaneous maximum scour depth readings were
recorded at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, and 210 min.
An inspection camera capable of working under water was used to record and read the
instantaneous scour depth values from the graduated tape attached to the pier model. The
device had a small camera fitted at the tip of a long cable, which was connected to the main
component where visuals could be seen on a screen. The camera also facilitated a closer
look at the scour process. The temporal scour evolution data showed that after 3 h, the
increase in scour depth was very small, and hence, an experimental duration of 3 h was
adopted for all the remaining experiments in this study. For all experimental cases, after
3 h, the tailgate opening was gradually reduced, and the valve was closed accordingly,
maintaining the flow depth such that when the valve was fully closed, the tailgate was
also fully closed. At the end, the tailgate was slowly opened to drain the water without
disturbing the scour and deposition geometry. A perforated drainage pipe placed at the
bottom of the sand bed was used to drain the water from the sand. Finally, the scour hole
and deposition zone geometry were scanned using the laser scanner at 2 cm intervals along
the length, and the scour hole profile and cross-section data as well as scour depths at
key points were also taken using a point gauge for cross-verification. The graduated tape
readings were also recorded.
To understand the effect of flow intensity on scour depth, more tests using flow
intensity values of 0.88, 0.78, and 0.68 were also conducted, each for a duration of 3 h.
Hence, the experimental cases with a single pier are summarized in Table 3 below.
Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Fluids 2024, 9, 35
To understand the effect of flow intensity on scour depth, more tests using flow7 of in-18
tensity values of 0.88, 0.78, and 0.68 were also conducted, each for a duration of 3 h. Hence,
the experimental cases with a single pier are summarized in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Single pier experimental cases.
Table 3. Single pier experimental cases.
Experimental Case Name Pier Diameter (D) [cm] Flow Depth (y) [cm] Flow Intensity (V/Vc)
S-0.92 Experimental Case4.0 Name Pier Diameter (D) [cm]
12.0Flow Depth (y) [cm] Flow Intensity
0.92 (V/Vc)
S-0.88 S-0.92 4.0 4.0 12.0 12.0 0.880.92
S-0.78 S-0.88 4.0 4.0 12.0 12.0 0.780.88
S-0.68 S-0.78 4.0 4.0 12.0 12.0 0.680.78
S-0.68 4.0 12.0 0.68

In the naming of the experimental cases, “S” refers to the single-pier scour experiment,
In the naming of the experimental cases, “S” refers to the single-pier scour experi-
and the numeric value after it refers to the flow intensity at which the experiment was
ment, and the numeric value after it refers to the flow intensity at which the experiment
conducted. For example, “S-0.92” refers to the scour experiment with a single pier at flow
was conducted. For example, “S-0.92” refers to the scour experiment with a single pier at
intensity value of 0.92.
flow intensity value of 0.92.
2.4. Scour Experiments with Linear Sacrificial Piles
2.4. Scour Experiments with Linear Sacrificial Piles
Experiments were conducted by placing a linearly arranged group of sacrificial piles
Experiments
in front of the pier. were
Twoconducted by placing
main parameters a linearly
associated arranged
with group of
the sacrificial sacrificial
piles piles
were varied:
in front of the pier. Two main parameters associated with the sacrificial piles
(a) the number of piles, i.e., N (or sheltered area, As), and (b) the distance of the piles from were varied:
(a)
thethe number
face of piles,
of the pier (X). i.e., N (ornine
In total, sheltered area,
different As),consisting
cases and (b) the ofdistance of theprotected
a pier model piles from by
the
sacrificial piles were studied. All the experiments were performed at flow depthprotected
face of the pier (X). In total, nine different cases consisting of a pier model y = 12 cm
by
andsacrificial piles were
flow intensity V/Vcstudied.
= 0.92,All the experiments
similar wereexperiment.
to the control performed at Theflow depth y =piles
sacrificial 12
cm
wereand flow intensity
modeled by using V/Vc
8 mm= 0.92, similar
diameter to the cylinders
wooden control experiment.
in emergentThe sacrificial
condition piles
in all the
were modeled cases.
experimental by using The8 mm
samediameter wooden
experimental cylindersthat
procedure in emergent condition
was followed in theincase
all the
of a
experimental
single-pier scourcases. The same was
experiment experimental
adopted. Theprocedure thatofwas
efficiency followedpile
a sacrificial in the case of a
arrangement
single-pier scour experiment was adopted. The efficiency of a sacrificial
was determined in terms of % decrease in the value of the maximum depth of local scour pile arrangement
was
neardetermined
the pier with in sacrificial
terms of % decrease
piles in the value
in comparison withofthe
themaximum
maximumscour depth of local
depth scour
in the case
near
of anthe pier with pier
unprotected sacrificial
in thepiles
controlin experiment
comparison (V/Vc
with the maximum scour depth in the
= 0.92).
case of an unprotected pier in the control experiment (V/Vc = 0.92).
% efficiency (E) = 100 × (ds1 − ds2 )/ds1 (3)
% efficiency (E) = 100 × (ds1 − ds2)/ds1 (3)
where
where
•ds1 =dsmaximum
1 = maximum scour depth
scour in the
depth casecase
in the of aof
single pierpier
a single in the absence
in the of protection;
absence of protection;
•ds2 =dsmaximum
2 = maximum scour depth
scour at the
depth pierpier
at the withwith
sacrificial pilepile
sacrificial configuration.
configuration.
Figure
Figure22shows
showsthe thegeneral
generallayout
layoutof ofthe
thesacrificial
sacrificialpile
pilearrangement.
arrangement.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2.2.Scour
Scourexperiment
experimentwith
withaalinear
lineararrangement
arrangementofofsacrificial
sacrificialpiles:
piles:(a)
(a)general
generallayout;
layout;(b)
(b)aa
picture of the experimental run.
picture of the experimental run.

The
Theexperimental
experimentalcases
casesthat
thatwere
wereperformed
performedwith
withlinear
lineararrangements
arrangementsof ofsacrificial
sacrificial
piles
pilesare
arepresented
presentedin inTable
Table4.4.Case
Case11totocase
case99were
wereperformed
performedwith
withsacrificial
sacrificialpiles
pilesplaced
placed
ininfront
frontofofthe
thepier.
pier.Cases
Cases10,
10,11,
11,and
and1212were
wereperformed
performedwith
withsacrificial
sacrificialpiles
pilesonly
only(without
(without
placing the pier) to have a better understanding of the scour and deposition characteristics
of the linear arrangement of sacrificial piles.
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 8 of 18

Table 4. Experimental cases with linear arrangements of sacrificial piles.

Sheltered Area Diameter. of Pile Distance of Piles from the

Experimental Case Name No of Piles (N) Remarks
(As) [%] (d) [mm] Face of the Pier (X)
L-P2-D 2 40 8 D
L-P2-2D 2 40 8 2D
L-P2-3D 2 40 8 3D
L-P3-D 3 60 8 D
L-P3-2D 3 60 8 2D
L-P3-3D 3 60 8 3D
L-P4-D 4 80 8 D
L-P4-2D 4 80 8 2D
L-P4-3D 4 80 8 3D
L-P2 2 8 Piles only
L-P3 3 8 Piles only
L-P4 4 8 Piles only

The sheltering area (As) provided by the sacrificial piles is calculated as follows:

As = 100 × (N × d)/D (4)

In the naming of the experimental cases, “L” refers to the linear arrangement of
sacrificial piles; “P2”, “P3”, and “P4” refer to the number of piles used in the configuration;
and “D”, “2D”, and “3D” refer to the distance of the piles from the upstream face of the pier.
For example, the configuration name “L-P2-D” refers to a linear arrangement of sacrificial
piles consisting of two piles placed at a distance D from the upstream face of the pier.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Single-Pier Scour Experiments
Figure 3 illustrates the outcome of the temporal scour evolution test for a single pier.
From the plot, it can be seen that there was a rapid development of a scour hole during
the initial period, and about 80% of the maximum scour depth was attained in the first
30 min. Results also show that after 3 h from the beginning of the experiment, the increase
in scour depth was very small. During the experiment, the first sign of movement of bed
material was seen behind the pier due to the lee-wake vortices. However, the formation
of the scour hole began once the horseshoe vortex was formed. The horseshoe vortex
stretched from the sides to the front of the pier, and there was a rapid growth in scour
depth at the front. A rapid entrainment of the bed materials due to the formation of a
horseshoe vortex was observed, and the scour hole increased in all three dimensions. With
the increase in scour depth, the strength of the horseshoe vortex gradually decreased, due
to which there was a fall in the rate of expansion of scour hole as time elapsed. Finally, the
horseshoe vortex was no longer capable of removing a significant volume of bed materials,
and equilibrium was assumed to be reached, although the scouring never stopped. The
lee-wake vortices, formed behind the cylinder as a result of the horizontal separation of
the boundary layer, acted like tornadoes, lifting the bed particles from behind the pier by
suction action, resulting in sediment entrainment into the main flow. The entrained bed
materials were then carried downstream due to the periodical vortex shedding behind
the pier and deposited in the wake zone at the back of the pier, forming a dune. The size
of the dune behind the pier increased with time as the total volume of scoured materials
increased over time. The wake vortices were also responsible for the expansion of the
scour hole behind the pier. During the scour process, the horseshoe vortex was the most
dominant feature and acted at the front toe of the pier, and hence, maximum scour depth
was observed near the front face of the pier. The wake vortices, due to their lower strength,
acted mostly on displacing the entrained sediment, and consequently, scour depth was
minimum at the back of the pier. Due to symmetry of the arrangement, the scour depths at
the two sides of the pier were almost equal.
 dominant feature and acted at the front toe of the pier, and hence, maximum scour depth
was observed near the front face of the pier. The wake vortices, due to their lower strength,
acted mostly on displacing the entrained sediment, and consequently, scour depth was
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 minimum at the back of the pier. Due to symmetry of the arrangement, the scour depths 9 of 18
at the two sides of the pier were almost equal.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Temporal
Temporal scour
scour evolution
evolution of
of single pier at V/Vc
V/Vc==0.92.
0.92.

After the
After the temporal
temporal scour
scour experiment,
experiment, aa single-pier
single-pier scourscour experiment
experiment of of 33 hh duration
duration
at flow
at flow intensity
intensityV/VcV/Vc = 0.92
= 0.92 was was conducted
conducted as aascontrol
a controltesttest
for for sacrificial
sacrificial pilepile
scourscour
ex-
experiments
periments based
based on on
thethe result
result of the
of the temporal
temporal scourscour evolution
evolution experiment.
experiment. Additional
Additional sin-
single-pier
gle-pier tests
tests were
were conducted
conducted at at three
three additionalflow
additional flowintensities
intensities(0.68,
(0.68,0.78,
0.78,and
and0.88)
0.88) to
to
study the
study the effect
effect ofof flow
flow intensity
intensity onon scour
scour depth.
depth. From
From thethe experiment,
experiment, it it was
was found
found that
that
the depth
the depth of of local
local scour
scour varied
varied linearly
linearlywith
withflow
flowintensity.
intensity. The
Thehigher
higherthetheflow
flowintensity,
intensity,
the greater the scour depth and longer the deposition length behind.
the greater the scour depth and longer the deposition length behind. This was because This was because
the
the strength of the horseshoe vortex depends directly on the inflow
strength of the horseshoe vortex depends directly on the inflow velocity. During the anal- velocity. During the
analysis,
ysis, the maximum
the maximum scourscour
depths depths were determined
were determined by twobymethods:
two methods:
(a) from(a)the from the
gradu-
graduated tape pasted directly on the pier face and (b) by analyzing
ated tape pasted directly on the pier face and (b) by analyzing the data obtained from the the data obtained
from scanner.
laser the laser scanner.
In general,In general, the maximum
the maximum scour obtained
scour depth depth obtained after processing
after processing the
the data
data obtained from the laser displacement meter was slightly higher
obtained from the laser displacement meter was slightly higher than the graduated tape than the graduated
tape readings
readings because because
maximummaximumscourscour
depthdepth was usually
was usually foundfound
to beto be located
located at a small
at a small dis-
distance away from the pier face rather than exactly at the pier face.
tance away from the pier face rather than exactly at the pier face. The higher value of The higher value of the
the
scour depth readings obtained from graduated tape and laser scanner
scour depth readings obtained from graduated tape and laser scanner was recorded as the was recorded as the
maximum local
maximum local scour
scour depth.
depth. The
The maximum
maximum scourscour depth
depth results
results are
are tabulated
tabulated in in Table
Table 5.5.
Table 5.
Table Measured scour
5. Measured scour depth
depth values
values of
of single
single pier
pier scour
scour experiments.
experiments.

Experimental Case Measured ValueValue

Measured of Scour Depth
of Scour [cm]
Depth [cm] Maximum
Maximum Scour
Scour
Flow Intensity
Experimental Case Name (V/Vc)(V/Vc)
Flow Intensity Depth (d smax ) [cm]
Name Front Front Back Sides (Averaged) Depth (dsmax) [cm]
BackSides (Averaged)
S-0.92
S-0.92 0.92 0.92 6.20 6.20 3.90 3.90 5.35 5.35 6.20
6.20
S-0.88
S-0.88 0.88 0.88 5.64 5.64 3.10 3.10 4.70 4.70 5.64
5.64
S-0.78
S-0.78 0.78 0.78 4.80 4.80 2.60 2.60 4.05 4.05 4.80
4.80
S-0.68 0.68 3.40 1.80 3.30 3.40
S-0.68 0.68 3.40 1.80 3.30 3.40

The
The final
final scour depth readings from the graduated tape are shown in Figure 4.
The scour hole profile and cross-section data from the single-pier scour experiment
were plotted and are presented in Figure 5.
The variation of maximum scour depth with flow intensity and the contour diagram
of scour and deposition geometry are presented in Figure 6.
In Figure 6b, XX represents the streamwise direction (cm), YY represents the cross-
stream direction (cm), and ZZ represents the vertical direction (cm). The dotted contour
lines represent points of equal scour depth below the original bed level, while the solid
contour lines represent points of equal deposition height above the original bed level. In
addition, the size (length and width) of the scour hole as well as the length and width of
the deposition can also be observed from the contour diagrams. The larger white circle
represents the position of the pier model, while small black circles represent the position of
sacrificial piles.
 Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Fluids2024,
Fluids 2024,9, 9, 35 PEER REVIEW
x FOR 10 of 19 10 of 18

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Final scour hole depth readings at the end of each test: (a) V/Vc = 0.92, (b) V/Vc = 0.88, (c)
V/Vc = 0.78, and (d) V/Vc = 0.68.
(c) (d)
Figure The
4. Final scour hole profile and cross-section data from the
V/Vcsingle-pier scour experiment
Figure 4. scour
Final hole
scourdepth
holereadings at the endat
depth readings ofthe
eachend
test:of(a)
each = 0.92,
test: (a)(b) V/Vc
V/Vc == 0.92,
0.88, (c)
(b) V/Vc = 0.88,
were plotted and are presented
V/Vc = 0.78, and (d) V/Vc = 0.68. in Figure 5.
(c) V/Vc = 0.78, and (d) V/Vc = 0.68.
The scour hole profile and cross-section data from the single-pier scour experiment
were plotted and are presented in Figure 5.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Scour and deposition plot from single pier scour experiment: (a) stream-wise 11
Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW centerline
of 19
Figure 5. Scour and deposition plot from single pier scour experiment: (a) stream-wise centerline
profile; (b) cross-section.
(a) profile; (b) cross-section. (b)
The variation of maximum scour depth with
Figure 5. Scour and deposition plot from single pier scour experiment: flow intensity
Single Pier ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth and the contour
(a) stream-wise diagram
centerline
of (b)
profile; scour and deposition geometry
cross-section. are presented in Figure 6.
ZZ: -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25
(cm)
100

The variation of maximum scour depth

95
with flow intensity and the contour diagram
90
of scour and deposition geometry are presented
85
in Figure 6.
80
75
YY (cm)

70
65
60
55
50
45
40
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
XX (cm)

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Results of single-pier scour experiments: (a) variation of maximum scour depth with flow
Figure 6. Results of single-pier scour experiments: (a) variation of maximum scour depth with flow
intensity; (b) contour diagram for single-pier scour experiment at V/Vc = 0.92.
intensity; (b) contour diagram for single-pier scour experiment at V/Vc = 0.92.
In Figure 6b, XX represents the streamwise direction (cm), YY represents the cross-
stream direction (cm), and ZZ represents the vertical direction (cm). The dotted contour
lines represent points of equal scour depth below the original bed level, while the solid
contour lines represent points of equal deposition height above the original bed level. In
addition, the size (length and width) of the scour hole as well as the length and width of
the deposition can also be observed from the contour diagrams. The larger white circle
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 11 of 18

3.2. Linear Sacrificial Pile Scour Experiments

Experiments were conducted by placing sacrificial piles in a variety of configurations
in front of the pier for protection against local scouring. Sacrificial pile configurations
were made by varying the number of piles and the distance between piles and the pier,
and the experimental cases are listed in Table 6. When the approach flow reached the
sacrificial pile group, it was obstructed, and a local flow field was generated around the
sacrificial pile group due to three-dimensional boundary-layer separation. The horseshoe
vortex at the front toe of the piles and lee-wake vortices on the rear side of the piles acted
together, forming a local scour hole around the pile group. The size of the scour hole
around the piles increased with an increase in the number of piles as more flow was
obstructed, and consequently, the size and strength of the horseshoe and wake vortices also
increased. Due to the formation of a wake region behind the piles, the flow velocity was
substantially reduced behind the piles. Due to this reduction in velocity, the strength of
vortices (horseshoe and wake) forming at the pier located in the wake region behind the
piles was also reduced. This is called the shielding effect of sacrificial piles. The shielding
effect depended on the number of sacrificial piles as well as on the distance between the pier
and the piles, and thus, a varying protection effect was observed for different configurations
of piles.

Table 6. The efficiency of linear arrangements of sacrificial piles.

Reduction in dsmax Compared to

S.N. Experimental Case Name dsmax Observed [cm] % Reduction in dsmax
Unprotected Pier [cm]
1 L-P2-D 3.62 2.58 41.6
2 L-P2-2D 4.15 2.05 33.1
3 L-P2-3D 4.62 1.58 25.5
4 L-P3-D 3.85 2.35 37.9
5 L-P3-2D 4.05 2.15 34.7
6 L-P3-3D 4.4 1.8 29.0
7 L-P4-D 4.23 1.97 31.8
8 L-P4-2D 4.04 2.16 34.8
9 L-P4-3D 4.11 2.09 33.7

In addition to the shielding action, another action of piles was also observed during
the experiment. The bed materials scoured from around the piles were carried downstream
by the turbulent eddies shedding from the piles before being deposited at some distance
behind the piles. When a pier was located behind the piles, the scoured bed materials
reached the pier scour hole and filled it partially, due to which the scour depth around the
pier was reduced. This sediment flux from piles depended on the number of piles installed.
The higher the number of piles, the higher the sediment flux due to the increased scouring
around the piles. The amount of sediment reaching the pier was affected by the gap width
between piles and the pier. This was also a reason for the varying efficiency of sacrificial
piles observed in the experiment under different configurations.
A schematic diagram showing the mechanism of local scour in the case of linear
sacrificial piles scour experiment is presented in Figure 7.
The results of the sacrificial pile scour experiments were compared with the single-
pier scour experiment at V/Vc = 0.92. In all sacrificial pile experiments, the maximum
scour depth around the pier was less than that of an unprotected pier, thus justifying the
protection provided by the sacrificial piles to the pier. However, it was observed that the
linear arrangement of piles itself was subjected to substantial scour. The scour depth in
front of the piles also exceeded that in front of the pier in many cases tested, particularly
when the number of piles was high. The efficiency of each arrangement in reducing the
maximum scour depth around the pier is presented in Table 6 in terms of % reduction in
the maximum depth of local scour around an isolated bridge pier without the protection of
sacrificial piles.
 increased scouring around the piles. The amount of sediment reaching the pier was af-
fected by the gap width between piles and the pier. This was also a reason for the varying
efficiency of sacrificial piles observed in the experiment under different configurations.
A schematic diagram showing the mechanism of local scour in the case of linear sac-
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 rificial piles scour experiment is presented in Figure 7. 12 of 18

Flow
Figure7.7.Flow
Figure structures
structures andand mechanism
mechanism of local
of local scour
scour in the
in the casecase of sacrificial
of sacrificial pilespiles
withwith
pier: pier:
(a)
(a) plan
plan view;view; (b) side
(b) side view.
view.

The above calculations were performed based on the maximum scour depth of 6.2 cm
The results of the sacrificial pile scour experiments were compared with the single-
recorded in the test of an unprotected, single pier. From the results, it was seen that the
pier scour experiment at V/Vc = 0.92. In all sacrificial pile experiments, the maximum scour
highest protection was obtained when two piles were linearly arranged in front of the pier
depth around the pier was less than that of an unprotected pier, thus justifying the pro-
at distance D (i.e., L-P2-D), while the least protection was obtained when the same was
tection provided by the sacrificial piles to the pier. However, it was observed that the lin-
placed at distance 3D (i.e., L-P2-3D).
ear arrangement of piles itself was subjected to substantial scour. The scour depth in front
Scour and deposition profiles for all the experimental cases were plotted, and the
of the piles also exceeded that in front of the pier in many cases tested, particularly when
variations in maximum scour depth with change in sheltered area (As) and spacing between
the number of piles was high. The efficiency of each arrangement in reducing the maxi-
piles and pier (X) were also plotted, which are presented in Figure 8.
mum scour depth around the pier is presented in Table 6 in terms of % reduction in the
Figure 8b shows the importance of the number of piles (or sheltering area) for a given
X/D value. From the results, it can be concluded that when the sacrificial pile groups are
placed close to the pier (at distance D), the maximum scour depth at the protected pier is
likely to rise with a rise in the number of sacrificial cylinders (or sheltered area). This is
because when the number of piles was increased, the size and strength of the wake vortices
behind the piles increased significantly, which caused a deeper scour hole to be formed
behind the piles due to the higher entrainment of the sediments into the flow. When the
number of piles was high, and the piles were placed close to the pier (at D), the gap width
was directly under the influence of those strong wake vortices, and the bed materials in the
gap width were eroded by the recirculating flow, which were then transported downstream
of the pier. In addition, the strong wake vortices caused high turbulence in the small gap
width, which did not allow the scoured materials from around the piles be deposited in the
pier scour hole; rather, they were transported downstream from the sides of the pier. Due
to this action, the bed material in the gap width eroded over time, resulting in an increased
scour depth in front of the pier. This shows the adverse effect of placing a large number of
piles close to the pier. On the other hand, when a small number of piles (two piles) were
placed at distance D, the wake vortices behind the pile group were small in size, which
were not able to scour the vicinity of the pier and were also able to reduce the flow velocity
behind them for the desired shielding of the pier. In addition, the materials scoured from
the piles fed the scour hole around the pier properly. On the contrary, the scenario was
opposite in the case of three and four piles, where the gap width D was insufficient to avoid
 Fluids 2024, 9, 35 13 of 18

the ill effect caused by the increased size of the wake vortices, as explained above. However,
if the pile groups are placed far from the pier (at distances of 2D and 3D), the maximum
scour depth around the pier decreases with an increase in the number of piles (or sheltered
area). This is because when the distance between the piles and the pier was larger (2D and
3D), the wake vortices behind the piles could not affect the bed in the vicinity of the pier
directly, as in the case when the gap width was D, and the scouring around the pier was
Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW primarily due to the horseshoe vortex formed in front of the pier. When the number 13 of 19of
piles is increased, the size of the wake region behind the piles also increases, due to which
the pier is subjected to a low-velocity near-wake region. As the flow velocity increases in
the streamwise
maximum depth ofdirection along
local scour a wake
around anregion,
isolateda pier
bridgelocated in a near-wake
pier without region of
the protection will
have a weaker
sacrificial piles. horseshoe vortex. In addition, the volume of scouring around a higher
number of piles
The above is also higher.
calculations were This increasesbased
performed the volume
on theofmaximum
scoured materials
scour depthreaching
of 6.2the
pier compared with a smaller number of piles. In the case of a small number
cm recorded in the test of an unprotected, single pier. From the results, it was seen that of piles, the
volume
the highestofprotection
scoured materials from around
was obtained when two the piles
piles were
is alsolinearly
small, which is mostly
arranged deposited
in front of the
in the gap width, and hence, fewer materials reach the pier scour hole.
pier at distance D (i.e., L-P2-D), while the least protection was obtained when the same Due to this reason,
the variation in scour depth with
was placed at distance 3D (i.e., L-P2-3D). sheltering area showed an opposite trend at 2D and 3D
compared to the case when the piles were located at distance D. From the
Scour and deposition profiles for all the experimental cases were plotted, and the slope of the plots,
we can conclude
variations in maximum that when
scourthe spacing
depth withbetween
change in piles and thearea
sheltered pier (As)
was and
2D, the protection
spacing be-
offered by the piles was the least sensitive to the change in
tween piles and pier (X) were also plotted, which are presented in Figure 8. sheltered area, while it was
more sensitive to the sheltered area at lower and higher values of spacing (at D and 3D).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8. Results of linear sacrificial pile scour experiment: (a) comparative profile; (b) variation of
Figure 8. Results of linear sacrificial pile scour experiment: (a) comparative profile; (b) variation of
dsmax with the sheltered area for a given distance between piles and pier; (c) variation of dsmax with
dsmax with the sheltered area for a given distance between piles and pier; (c) variation of dsmax with
the spacing between piles and pier for a given value of the sheltered area; (d) % reduction in dsmax
the spacing between piles and pier for a given value of the sheltered area; (d) % reduction in dsmax for
for different configurations tested.
different configurations tested.

Figure 8b shows the importance of the number of piles (or sheltering area) for a given
X/D value. From the results, it can be concluded that when the sacrificial pile groups are
placed close to the pier (at distance D), the maximum scour depth at the protected pier is
likely to rise with a rise in the number of sacrificial cylinders (or sheltered area). This is
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 14 of 18

Figure 8c shows the importance of the distance between the pile group and the pier for
a given value of the sheltered area (or pile numbers). For lower values of the sheltered area
(40% and 60%), the protection provided by the pile group tended to decrease as the distance
increased. This is because when the distance between piles and the pier increases while
keeping the number of piles constant, the pier is subjected to a higher approach velocity as
it shifts from the near-wake region to the far-wake region of the piles. In addition, when
the distance is increased, materials scoured from around the piles are mostly deposited in
the gap width, and hence, a smaller volume of scoured materials reach the pier scour hole
to fill it. Due to this reason, the pier placed close to the piles (at distance D) experienced
less local scouring in the current experiment. However, for 80% sheltering (four piles), the
strong wake vortices directly influenced the pier at distance D, and hence, protection was
better when the pier was placed outside the direct influence zone of the wake vortices. In
this experiment, the optimum protection was observed at X = 2D. From the slope of the
plots, it can be concluded that the efficiency of piles in reducing the depth of local scour
was highly sensitive to the spacing between the piles and the pier for lower sheltering
Fluids 2024, 9, x FORconditions,
PEER REVIEW which decreased as the sheltered area was increased. 15
The scour and deposition contours for all sacrificial piles and pier arrangements are
presented in Figure 9.
L-P2-D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth L-P2-2D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -3.8 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.2 (cm) ZZ: -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.25 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5
(cm) 90
90
85
85

80
80

75
75
YY (cm)
YY (cm)

70 70

65 65

60 60

55 55

50
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
(a) XX (cm) (b) XX (cm)

L-P2-3D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth L-P3-D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 (cm) ZZ: -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 (cm)
95 95

90 90

85 85

80 80
YY (cm)

YY (cm)

75 75

70 70

65 65

60 60

55 55

50 50
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(c) XX (cm) (d) XX (cm)

L-P3-2D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth L-P3-3D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 (cm) ZZ: -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 (cm)
95 95

90 90

85 85

80 80

75 75
YY (cm)

YY (cm)

70 70

65 65

60 60

55 55

50 50

45 45

40 40
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(e) XX (cm) (f) XX (cm)

L-P4-D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth L-P4-2D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

Figure
ZZ:
9. Cont. -6.5 -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.25 ZZ: -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.3 (cm)
(cm) 95
100
90
95
85
90
80
85
75
80
YY (cm)

70
YY (cm)

75
65
70
60
65
55
60
50
55
45
50
40
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
45
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 XX (cm)
(g) XX (cm) (h)
 80 80

75 75

YY (cm)

YY (cm)
70 70

65 65

60 60

55 55

Fluids 2024, 9, 35 50 50
15 of 18
45 45

40 40
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(e) XX (cm) (f) XX (cm)

L-P4-D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth L-P4-2D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -6.5 -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.25 ZZ: -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.3 (cm)
(cm) 95
100
90
95
85
90
80
85
75
80

YY (cm)
70

YY (cm)
75
65
70
60
65
55
60
50
55
45
50
40
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
45
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 XX (cm)
(g) XX (cm) (h)

L-P4-3D ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -6 -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 (cm)
95

90

85

80

YY (cm) 75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(i) XX (cm)
Fluids 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19
Figure 9. Contour plots
Figure 9. of sacrificial
Contour plotspiles experimental
of sacrificial pilescases: (a) L-P2-D,
experimental (b) (a)
cases: L-P2-2D, (c)(b)
L-P2-D, L-P2-3D,
L-P2-2D, (c) L-P
(d) L-P3-D, (e) L-P3-2D, (f) L-P3-3D, (g) L-P4-D, (h) L-P4-2D, and (i) L-P4-3D.
(d) L-P3-D, (e) L-P3-2D, (f) L-P3-3D, (g) L-P4-D, (h) L-P4-2D, and (i) L-P4-3D.
The contour plots of linear sacrificial piles only (without placing the pier), i.e., cases
The contour plots of linear sacrificial piles only (without placing the pier), i.e., cases
L-P2, L-P3, and L-P4, are presented in Figure 10. Pier locations were placed on the result-
L-P2, L-P3, and L-P4, are presented in Figure 10. Pier locations were placed on the resulting
ing contour diagrams to understand the effect of sacrificial piles. The purpose of these
contour diagrams to understand the effect of sacrificial piles. The purpose of these cases
cases was to understand the scouring and deposition patterns around the piles.
was to understand the scouring and deposition patterns around the piles.
NP=2, As = 40%, No Pier ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth Np=3, As = 60%, No Pier ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.7 (cm) ZZ: -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5 (cm)
85 90

85
80
80

75
75
YY (cm)
YY (cm)

70 70

65
65
D D
60
2D 2D
60 3D 55 3D

55 50
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
(a) XX (cm) (b) XX (cm)

Np=4, As = 80%, No Pier ⏐ 16 Jan 2024 ⏐ scourdepth

ZZ: -5.5 -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 -0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 (cm)
95

90

85

80

75
YY (cm)

70

65

60 D

55
2D
50
3D
45

40
-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
(c) XX (cm)

Figure 10. Contour plot of cases of sacrificial piles only: (a) L-P2, (b) L-P3, and (c) L-P4.

From Figure 10, it can be seen that when the pier is located in the outer region of the
scour zone of sacrificial piles, the maximum scour depth around the pier tends to reduce,
and when the pier is placed in the inner region of the scour zone or outside the scour
region (or in the deposition zone) of the piles, the highest scour depth in the vicinity of
the pier tends to increase.
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 16 of 18

From Figure 10, it can be seen that when the pier is located in the outer region of the
scour zone of sacrificial piles, the maximum scour depth around the pier tends to reduce,
and when the pier is placed in the inner region of the scour zone or outside the scour region
(or in the deposition zone) of the piles, the highest scour depth in the vicinity of the pier
tends to increase.
The results obtained in this experiment for lower sheltering (40% and 60%) conditions
are consistent with the results obtained by [6] in their scour experiments using a single
sacrificial pile. Ref. [6], in their study, concluded that the optimal gap width for scour
reduction using a single sacrificial pile (d = 1 cm) in front of a circular pier (D = 5.6 cm)
as 1D, for which the scour-reduction efficiency decreased as the gap width increased. In
the present experiment, the highest protection was observed at 1D in the cases of two and
three piles, and the efficiency was reduced as X increased. Ref. [20], in their numerical
simulations, also concluded that the closer the sacrificial pile to the pier, the higher the
protection efficiency. Ref. [7] also reported a higher percentage of scour depth reduction
at the pier when a single sacrificial pile was close to the pier. In their experiment with the
tandem arrangement of bridge piers, [21] also mentioned a reduction in the shielding effect
when the spacing was increased beyond 1D. These results conclude that the closer the
sacrificial pile to the pier, the better the protection against local scouring. This is because
when the pier was close to the sacrificial piles, the pier was in the low-velocity wake region
formed by the piles, resulting in a weaker horseshoe vortex in front of the pier, while it was
exposed to higher approach velocity when placed at larger distances. In addition, more
scoured materials from around the piles reached the pier scour hole when the piles were
placed close to the pier.
However, protection against local scouring is not only governed by the gap width
but also by the size of the pile group (sheltering area). The scouring around the piles itself
is another important factor, which depends on the overall size of the pile group. In the
experiment of [6], when they increased the diameter of the sacrificial pile and kept the
gap width equal to the optimum value 1D, the protection decreased with increase in the
sacrificial pile diameter. This result is consistent with the results obtained in the present
experiment at X = 1D. The size and extent of scouring around the pile group increased
with the increase in the number of piles. In the linear arrangement of piles in the present
study, substantially high scouring around the piles was observed, particularly in cases with
a larger number of piles. When the number of piles was increased while keeping the piles
close to the pier (at 1D), scour depth increased sharply around the pier, which was similar
to the findings reported by the previous studies. This is because the stronger wake vortices
directly affected the gap width region, resulting in scouring in front of the pier.
From the above discussions, it can be concluded that the spacing between sacrificial
piles and piers should be small enough for the pier to be located within the low-velocity
wake region formed by the piles (particularly in the near-wake region), while it should be
large enough to avoid the high-turbulence recirculation zone behind the piles eroding the
materials from the vicinity of the pier. Taking these into consideration, it can be concluded
that the optimal gap width for a linear arrangement is 1D for sheltering areas below 60%,
and the gap width should be increased for higher sheltering conditions to avoid reduced
efficiency caused by the increased size of wake vortices behind the piles. In their study, [8]
concluded that increasing the sheltering area from 60% to 100% in the case of linearly
arranged sacrificial piles upstream of a circular cylinder at 2D yielded a sharp rise in the
depth of the scour hole, suggesting that the gap width of 2D was insufficient for a 100%
sheltering condition. Comparing this with the results of the present study, 2D can be
considered the optimal gap width for more than 60% to around 80% sheltering conditions,
and the gap width should be increased further for higher sheltering conditions (above 80%).

4. Conclusions
An experiment at model scale was carried out in this investigation for the purpose
of studying the performance of sacrificial piles linearly arranged in a group ahead of a
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 17 of 18

bridge pier on minimizing local scour phenomena in proximity to the pier. Sacrificial pile
configurations with three different values of sheltering area to the pier were tested for three
different values of distance between piles and the pier. A single pier without the protection
of sacrificial piles was tested as a control experiment. Piles-only cases without placement
of the pier were also tested. After conducting a number of experiments for the current
investigation, the following results were drawn:
• Sacrificial piles linearly arranged in front of a circular bridge pier are effective in
controlling the local scour around bridge piers. In the present research, their efficiency
in controlling the maximum depth of local scour around the pier ranged between
25.5–41.6%;
• A configuration consisting of two piles placed at distance D was found to minimize
the local scour depth in proximity of the bridge pier to the highest extent (41.6%),
while the least protection was achieved when two piles were placed at a distance of
3D (25.5%);
• The closer the sacrificial piles to the pier, the better the protection. However, piles
should be far enough apart to avoid the scouring effect of the recirculation zone behind
the piles. The selection of the optimal distance depends on the sheltering area (or the
number of piles);
• The efficiency of linearly arranged sacrificial piles depends on both the gap width (X)
and the sheltering area (As). A gap width of 1D is suggested for sheltering areas below
60%, while 2D is suggested for sheltering areas around 80%, and a higher gap width is
suggested for sheltering areas above 80%.
In this study, experiments were conducted using a circular pier and emergent sacrificial
piles under steady, uniform, turbulent, and subcritical flow conditions on a uniform,
cohesionless sediment bed. The sheltering area values of 40%, 60%, and 80% with the
distance between piles and pier (X) values of D, 2D, and 3D were adopted. Due to the
limitations of available facilities and materials, the results of this experiment may have
suffered some inherent scale/size effects (to some extent) associated with laboratory flume
experiments of local scouring, as stated by [18]. However, the authors of this study tried
to minimize this by following the suggestions provided by past researchers [4,8,14–16,18]
during the selection of experimental parameters (explained in Table 1) and believe that
the results are a closer representation of the actual phenomenon occurring in the field,
thereby providing a sufficient idea about the efficiency of sacrificial piles. Considering the
availability of experimental facilities and materials, future experiments using prototype-
sized models, leading to more accurate geometric similitude between model and prototype,
are recommended for higher accuracy in the assessment of local scour depths. In addition,
the efficiency of sacrificial piles is also affected by the variation in thickness of the oncoming
boundary-layer flow. In this experiment, due to the limitations of the experimental facility,
measurement of boundary-layer thickness (δ) was not performed. Future studies are
recommended with the measurement of flow velocity variation along the flow depth to
determine the boundary-layer thickness at the locations of sacrificial piles and the pier and
to understand the effect of boundary-layer thickness on the performance of sacrificial piles.
Future experiments are also suggested to be performed considering different pier
shapes (e.g., rectangular, elliptical, sharp nose, etc.) to understand the performance of linear
sacrificial piles on different pier shapes. In addition, submerged piles with different degrees
of submergence can be studied to understand the effect of pile submergence. Likewise, a
greater number of flow intensity values (low to high) and flow skewness conditions can be
studied for understanding the performance under such flow conditions. A wider range of
sheltering area values and wider range of values of distance between piles and the pier are
recommended to be tested for a better understanding of the functioning of linear sacrificial
piles. For each parameter investigated, statistical analysis should be conducted to confirm
whether the difference is meaningful or not for the future study.
Fluids 2024, 9, 35 18 of 18

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.G. and N.T.; methodology, S.G.; model preparation S.G.,
investigation S.G., data processing and analysis, S.G.; writing—original draft, S.G.; visualization, S.G.;
resources, N.T.; writing—review and editing, N.T.; supervision, N.T.; project administration, N.T.;
funding acquisition, N.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Japan Development
Services-JDS Scholarship. The authors also acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their valuable
comments to improve this manuscript. I also sincerely thank Yoshiya Igarashi, Sai Seisin, Shohail
Iqbal, and Dipak Negi for their continuous support of my studies.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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