Here are the answers to your 2-mark questions:

1. What is protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules or standards that define how data is transmitted and received
over a network. It ensures that devices communicate effectively and understand each other,
regardless of their differences in hardware or software.

2. What is cladding?
Cladding refers to the outer material or coating that surrounds the core of an optical fiber.
It helps keep the light within the core by reflecting it back through total internal reflection,
preventing signal loss.

3. What is a proxy server?

A proxy server is an intermediary server that sits between a user's device and the internet. It
acts as a gateway, forwarding requests from clients and providing content or services,
often for security, privacy, or performance enhancement.

4. What is meant by class test Addressing?

Class test addressing is likely referring to the classification of IP addresses in networking.
IP addresses are divided into classes (A, B, C, etc.) based on their range and usage. The
"test" part might refer to assessing or understanding these address ranges.

5. What is transmission media?

Transmission media refers to the physical pathways or channels through which data is
transmitted from one device to another. Examples include copper cables, fiber optics, and
wireless signals.

6. What is internetwork?
An internetwork is a network of networks, where multiple distinct computer networks are
connected together, allowing communication between them. The internet is the largest
example of an internetwork.

7. Define steganography?
Steganography is the practice of concealing information within other non-suspicious data,
such as embedding a message in an image or audio file, to prevent detection.

8. What is Hub?
A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a local area network
(LAN). It broadcasts data to all connected devices, which can lead to collisions and
inefficiency in traffic management.

9. What is Standard Ethernet?

Standard Ethernet refers to a widely-used networking technology for local area networks
(LANs). It uses protocols and physical cabling (typically twisted pair or fiber optic cables)
to transmit data. The most common version is 100BASE-TX (100 Mbps speed), but newer
versions support faster speeds.
 10. What is Firewall?
A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules. It is designed to protect
networks from unauthorized access or cyberattacks.

11 Write the names of addresses used in TCP/IP protocol.

The main types of addresses used in the TCP/IP protocol are:

● IP address: A unique identifier for a device on a network.

● MAC address: A hardware address used to identify devices at the data link layer.

12 Define Computer Network.

A computer network is a group of interconnected devices (such as computers, servers,
routers) that can communicate with each other to share data, resources, and services
.
13 What are the types of transmission media?

The types of transmission media are:

● Guided Media: Wired media, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optics.
● Unguided Media: Wireless media, such as radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.

14 What is wireless LAN?

A wireless LAN (Local Area Network) is a type of network that uses wireless
technology, like Wi-Fi, to connect devices within a limited area, such as a home, office,
or campus.

15 Define HUB.
A hub is a networking device that connects multiple devices in a local area network
(LAN). It broadcasts incoming data to all connected devices, regardless of the intended
recipient, leading to potential data collisions.

16 What is encryption?
Encryption is the process of converting data into a coded format to prevent
unauthorized access. It ensures that only authorized parties can read or understand the
data.

17 What is the need for network security?

Network security is needed to protect the network and its resources from unauthorized
access, cyberattacks, data theft, and damage. It ensures the confidentiality, integrity,
and availability of data and services.

18 Define Intranet.
An intranet is a private network used within an organization, typically based on internet
protocols, that allows employees to share information and resources securely. It is not
accessible from outside the organization.
 19 What is a bridge?
A bridge is a network device used to connect and filter traffic between two or more
network segments. It operates at the data link layer and helps reduce traffic by dividing
large networks into smaller segments.

20 What are the two types of standards?

The two types of standards are:
● De jure standards: Official standards established by recognized bodies like ISO or IEEE.
● De facto standards: Standards that become widely accepted due to usage, even though
they may not be formally approved by standards organizations.

Here are the answers to your 4-mark networking questions:

A) What is Computer Network? Explain the Goals of Computer Network.

A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices, such as servers, routers, and
printers, that are connected to share data, resources, and services. These connections can be made
using wired (cables) or wireless (radio waves) communication methods. Networks can range in
size from small local area networks (LANs) to vast global networks like the Internet.

Goals of a Computer Network:

1. Resource Sharing: Allows devices to share hardware, software, and data, improving
efficiency and reducing costs.

2. Communication: Enables devices to communicate via email, instant messaging, file

sharing, and voice/video calls.

3. Scalability: Supports the growth of networks, allowing new devices and services to be
added without major disruption.

4. Security: Ensures data and resources are protected from unauthorized access or
malicious attacks.

5. Fault Tolerance and Reliability: Ensures the network continues to operate even if some
components fail, through redundancy and backup systems.

B) Explain the Function of Each Layer in the ISO-OSI Reference Model.

The ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand network communication. It divides network functions into 7 distinct layers, each with
specific responsibilities:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1): This layer deals with the physical connection between devices. It
transmits raw bit streams over physical media like cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals.

o Example: Ethernet cables, radio waves.

 2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections between devices on the same network. It organizes data into frames and
handles error detection and correction.

o Example: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC address.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3): Handles routing and forwarding of data packets across different
networks. It ensures data reaches the correct destination by determining the best path.

o Example: IP (Internet Protocol), routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4): Manages end-to-end communication and error recovery. It
ensures reliable data transfer by dividing the message into segments and controlling flow
and congestion.

o Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5): Manages sessions or connections between applications. It

controls the dialog between devices, ensuring data exchange occurs in an organized
manner.

o Example: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call).

C) What is Wireless Transmission? Explain Any One Media in Detail.

Wireless transmission refers to the transfer of data or signals without the need for physical cables.
It uses electromagnetic waves (such as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared) to transmit data over
the air.

One common type of wireless transmission medium is Radio Waves:

● Radio Waves are electromagnetic waves with a frequency range from 3 Hz to 300 GHz.
They are commonly used in wireless communication for devices like radios, cell phones,
and Wi-Fi networks.

● Characteristics: Radio waves can travel long distances and pass through obstacles like
buildings. Their range depends on factors like transmission power and frequency. They can
be used for various forms of wireless communication, including broadcast TV, FM radio,
and Wi-Fi.

● Usage: In a Wi-Fi network, radio waves are used to transmit data between wireless routers
and devices like laptops and smartphones.
D) Explain IEEE Standard 802.11 (WLAN) in Detail.

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) for wireless local area networks (WLANs). It specifies how data is transmitted over wireless
connections in a local area network (LAN). The most widely used of these standards is Wi-Fi.

Key features:

1. Frequency Bands: 802.11 standards typically operate in the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and more
recently 6 GHz frequency bands, providing options for range and data throughput.

2. Data Rates: The 802.11 standards support various speeds depending on the version:

o 802.11b: Up to 11 Mbps (2.4 GHz).

o 802.11g: Up to 54 Mbps (2.4 GHz).

o 802.11n: Up to 600 Mbps (2.4 GHz/5 GHz).

o 802.11ac: Up to 1.3 Gbps (5 GHz).

o 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Up to 9.6 Gbps (2.4 GHz/5 GHz).

3. Modulation: It uses techniques like Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for
efficient data transmission.

4. Security: 802.11 supports various encryption and security methods, such as WEP (Wired
Equivalent Privacy), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), and WPA2, to protect the data
transmitted over WLAN.

E) What is an Attack? Explain Various Types of Attacks.

An attack is an attempt to compromise the security or functionality of a system, network, or service.

It can be aimed at gaining unauthorized access, stealing data, disrupting operations, or causing
harm.

Types of Attacks:

1. Malware Attacks: Malicious software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized

access to a computer system.

o Examples: Viruses, worms, Trojans, ransomware.

2. Phishing: A type of social engineering attack where attackers impersonate legitimate

organizations to steal sensitive information (like passwords or credit card details) from
users.

3. Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks: The attacker floods a system or network with traffic to
make it unavailable to users. A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack uses multiple
systems to perform the attack.

4. Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attack: An attacker intercepts and potentially alters

communication between two parties without their knowledge.
 5. SQL Injection: A method of attacking web applications by inserting malicious SQL queries
into an input field to gain access to a database.

Here are the answers to your 4-mark networking questions:

A) Difference Between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Models.

Criteria Connection-Oriented Model Connectionless Model

A communication model where a connection A communication model where data is

is established before data transmission and sent without establishing a connection.
Definition
is maintained during the communication Each data packet is routed
session. independently.

Unreliable. Packets may arrive out of

Reliable. Data is delivered in order, and the
Reliability order, be lost, or duplicated, with no
connection is managed for reliability.
guarantee of delivery.

Example
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Protocols

Data is sent in a continuous stream, ensuring Data is sent as individual packets,

Data Flow
error-free delivery. without any error checking.

Connection Requires a connection setup phase No connection setup is needed; data is

Setup (handshaking) before communication begins. sent immediately.

Higher overhead due to connection setup, Lower overhead as there is no need for
Overhead
maintenance, and teardown. connection management.

Slower compared to connectionless due to

Faster as it doesn’t involve connection
Speed the overhead of establishing and maintaining
setup or maintenance.
connections.

B) Explain TCP/IP Protocol in Detail.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a suite of protocols used to

communicate over a network, particularly the internet. It forms the basis for internet
communication and is responsible for routing, addressing, and ensuring reliable data transmission.

TCP/IP Model Layers:

1. Application Layer: Deals with end-user services and protocols that facilitate
communication between applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP).

2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between hosts and provides flow control
and error correction (e.g., TCP, UDP).

TCP and IP:

 ● TCP: Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication. It ensures that data packets
arrive in order, retransmits lost packets, and checks for errors.

● IP: Handles logical addressing and routing. It is a connectionless protocol that sends
packets independently without checking whether they arrive or not.

Key Features:

● Routing: Determines the best path for data to travel across multiple networks.

● Error Handling: Ensures the integrity of data through error-checking mechanisms.

● End-to-End Communication: Supports communication from source to destination through

multiple intermediary devices.

c) Define Unguided Media. Explain Any One in Detail.

Unguided media refers to transmission mediums that do not require physical cables or wires to
transmit data. Instead, they use electromagnetic waves that travel through the air or vacuum.

Types of Unguided Media:

1. Radio Waves

2. Microwaves

3. Infrared Waves

4. Satellite Communication

Example - Radio Waves:

Radio waves are a type of unguided media used in wireless communication. They have frequencies
between 3 Hz and 300 GHz and are ideal for transmitting data over long distances without the need
for physical cables.

● Characteristics:

o Range: Depending on the frequency and transmission power, radio waves can
cover vast areas, from a few meters to thousands of kilometers.

o Penetration: Radio waves can pass through walls and other obstacles, making
them useful for wireless communication in urban environments.

o Applications: Used in Wi-Fi networks, AM/FM radio broadcasts, mobile phones, and
GPS systems.

● Advantages:

o No need for physical wiring.

o Can transmit over long distances and through obstacles.

● Disadvantages:

o Susceptible to interference from other radio signals.

o Limited bandwidth in some frequency ranges.

D) Describe the Frame Format and Physical Layer of Ethernet.

Ethernet Frame Format:

Ethernet frames are the fundamental units of data transmission in an Ethernet network. They
consist of several fields that encapsulate data and are used to ensure successful transmission.

1. Preamble: A 7-byte field used for synchronization. It helps the receiver synchronize its clock
with the sender's transmission.

2. Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD): A 1-byte field indicating the start of the frame (after the
preamble).

3. Destination MAC Address: 6 bytes, specifying the MAC address of the destination device.

4. Source MAC Address: 6 bytes, specifying the MAC address of the source device.

5. EtherType/Length: 2 bytes, indicating the type of protocol being used (e.g., IPv4, IPv6, ARP)
or the length of the data field.

Physical Layer of Ethernet:

The physical layer defines how data is transmitted over a physical medium. It specifies:

● Cabling: Ethernet uses twisted pair cables (e.g., Cat5, Cat6) or fiber optics for data
transmission.

● Signal Encoding: Data is encoded into electrical or optical signals that travel over the
cables.

● Data Rate: Ethernet supports varying speeds, including 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast
Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), and 10 Gbps (10-Gigabit Ethernet).

● Topology: Ethernet traditionally uses a star topology, with devices connected to a central
hub or switch.

E) What is Cryptography? Explain Symmetric Key Cryptography.

Cryptography is the practice of securing communication and information through the use of codes,
algorithms, and ciphers to protect data from unauthorized access. It is used in various applications,
including securing online transactions, protecting sensitive data, and ensuring privacy in
communication.

Symmetric Key Cryptography:

In symmetric key cryptography, the same key is used for both encryption (converting plaintext to
ciphertext) and decryption (converting ciphertext back to plaintext). This method is fast and
efficient, but both parties must securely share and store the secret key.

Key Features:

● Same Key for Encryption and Decryption: Both sender and receiver use the same secret
key.
 ● Efficiency: Symmetric algorithms are typically faster than asymmetric ones.

Examples of Symmetric Key Algorithms:

● AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A widely used encryption standard.

● DES (Data Encryption Standard): An older encryption standard (now considered less
secure).

● 3DES (Triple DES): A stronger variant of DES, which applies the DES algorithm three times
with different keys.

Advantages:

● Speed: Symmetric encryption is fast and requires less computational power.

● Security: If the key is kept secret, the communication remains secure.

Disadvantages:

● Key Distribution: Both parties must securely exchange the secret key beforehand, which
can be a security challenge.

● Scalability: In systems with many users, managing and distributing keys securely can
become complex.

Here are the answers to your 4-mark questions:

a) Explain types of security services

There are several types of security services used in networking to protect data and systems from
unauthorized access, corruption, or attacks:

1. Confidentiality: Ensures that data is only accessible to authorized users. It prevents

unauthorized entities from accessing sensitive information, typically achieved using
encryption.

2. Integrity: Ensures that data is not altered in an unauthorized way. It guarantees that the
data remains accurate and unmodified during transmission or storage.

3. Authentication: Verifies the identity of the users or systems involved in communication. It

ensures that the sender and receiver are legitimate parties, often done using passwords,
biometrics, or digital certificates.

4. Non-repudiation: Ensures that neither the sender nor the receiver can deny the authenticity
of their communication. This is achieved through digital signatures or logging mechanisms.

5. Access Control: Restricts access to data or systems based on permissions and security
policies, ensuring that only authorized users can access or modify resources.

b) Define ISO/OSI reference model. Explain any one layer in detail.

The ISO/OSI (International Organization for Standardization / Open Systems Interconnection)
reference model is a conceptual framework used to understand network communication in seven
layers. Each layer has specific functions and interacts with adjacent layers.

The seven layers of the OSI model, from top to bottom, are:

1. Application Layer

2. Presentation Layer

3. Session Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Network Layer

6. Data Link Layer

7. Physical Layer

Transport Layer (Layer 4): This layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and error
recovery. It ensures that data is delivered error-free, in sequence, and without losses. Two common
protocols used in this layer are:

● TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable communication with error checking
and flow control.

● UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster but unreliable communication without error
correction.

c) Difference between twisted pair cable and coaxial cable

Here’s a comparison of Twisted Pair Cable and Coaxial Cable:

Feature Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable

Consists of pairs of wires twisted Has a central conductor, insulation, a

Structure together to reduce electromagnetic metallic shield, and an outer insulating
interference. layer.

More expensive compared to twisted pair

Cost Generally cheaper than coaxial cables.
cables.

Lower bandwidth, suitable for shorter Higher bandwidth, suitable for longer
Bandwidth
distances. distances and faster data transfer.

More susceptible to interference (EMI) Better at rejecting interference due to its

Interference
and crosstalk. shielding.

Common in Ethernet networks (e.g.,

Usage Used in cable TV and broadband internet.
Cat5e, Cat6).
d) Define network topology? Explain any one in detail.

Network Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of the elements (nodes, links, etc.)
in a computer network. It defines how different devices and components in the network are
connected and how data flows between them.

Example of Network Topology:

1. Bus Topology:

o In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus). Data
sent by a device is available to all other devices on the network, but only the
intended recipient accepts and processes the data.

o Advantages: Easy to implement and extend, and requires less cabling.

o Disadvantages: If the bus cable fails, the entire network can be disrupted.

e) What is wireless transmission? Explain any two media in detail.

Wireless Transmission refers to the transfer of data without the use of physical cables, utilizing
electromagnetic waves (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, etc.) to communicate over distances.

Two common wireless transmission media are:

1. Radio Waves:

o Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave that can travel through the air and
are widely used for wireless communication.

o Used in technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and mobile networks (cellular

communication).

o Advantages: Can cover large distances, easily penetrate through obstacles.

o Disadvantages: Can be prone to interference and security issues.

2. Microwaves:

o Microwaves are higher-frequency electromagnetic waves used for long-distance

communication, especially in satellite communication and point-to-point
communication systems.

o Advantages: Provides high bandwidth and efficient data transfer.

o Disadvantages: Requires line-of-sight between transmitters and receivers,

susceptible to weather disruptions (e.g., rain fade).
Here are the answers to your 4-mark networking questions:

a) What is Bridge? Explain types of bridges.

A bridge is a networking device that connects two or more network segments (usually within the
same network) to form a single larger network. It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model and helps in managing traffic between segments, forwarding data frames, and reducing
collisions in a network.

Types of Bridges:

1. Transparent Bridge:

o This type of bridge learns the MAC addresses of the devices in each network
segment and uses them to forward data frames between the segments. It does not
require any manual configuration and works automatically by learning the
addresses.

2. Source Routing Bridge:

o It is used primarily in Token Ring networks. The source routing bridge adds
information to the data frames about the route they should take across the network,
which is useful in complex network topologies.

3. Bridge with Spanning Tree Protocol (STP):

o A bridge that uses the Spanning Tree Protocol to prevent loops in the network. It
dynamically determines the most efficient path between two devices and blocks
redundant paths that might cause data loops.

b) Explain different modes of communication with sketch.

There are three main modes of communication in networking:

1. Unicast:

o Definition: Unicast refers to the communication between a single sender and a

single receiver.

o Example: A user sending an email to another user.

Diagram:

Sender -----> Receiver

2. Broadcast:
 o Definition: Broadcast communication sends data from a single sender to all
devices on the network.

o Example: A router sending a routing update to all devices on the network.

Diagram:

Sender -----> All Receivers

3. Multicast:

o Definition: Multicast communication is a one-to-many communication where data

is sent from a sender to a specific group of receivers.

o Example: Streaming a video to a group of users.

Diagram:

Sender -----> Group of Receivers

c) Explain TCP/IP protocol in detail.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is a suite of communication protocols

that is used to interconnect devices on the internet and other networks. It is the foundation of
internet communication.

The TCP/IP model consists of four layers:

1. Application Layer:

o This is where high-level protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS operate. It is
responsible for end-user applications and the communication between them.

2. Transport Layer:

o The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication between devices.

It includes protocols like:

■ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable,

connection-oriented communication by ensuring data integrity,
retransmissions, and sequencing.

■ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless

communication without ensuring reliability.

3. Internet Layer:

o The internet layer is responsible for routing data across different networks. The
main protocol used is IP (Internet Protocol), which handles addressing and routing.

■ IPv4 and IPv6 are the two versions of IP.

4. Link Layer:
 o The link layer deals with the physical transmission of data over various media, such
as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and other data link technologies.

d) What is guided media? Explain any one in detail.

Guided Media refers to transmission media that use physical pathways to guide data signals. It
requires the use of cables or wires that direct the transmission of data over specific routes.
Common types of guided media include twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber-optic cables.

Fiber-Optic Cable (as an example of guided media):

● Structure: A fiber-optic cable consists of a core made of glass or plastic fibers that
transmit data using light signals. The core is surrounded by cladding that reflects light
signals back into the core, keeping the signal contained and minimizing losses.

● Advantages:

o Extremely high bandwidth and speed.

o Very low signal loss over long distances.

o Resistant to electromagnetic interference.

● Applications: Used for high-speed internet connections, telecommunications, and in

environments where electrical interference is a concern.

e) What is Fast Ethernet? Explain categories of Fast Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet refers to Ethernet technology that supports data transfer speeds of 100 Mbps, a
significant upgrade over the original Ethernet speed of 10 Mbps (10Base-T). Fast Ethernet uses the
IEEE 802.3u standard and is commonly used in local area networks (LANs).

Categories of Fast Ethernet:

1. 100Base-TX:

o Medium: Twisted pair cables (Category 5 or higher).

o Max Distance: 100 meters.

o Connector: RJ45 connectors.

o Common Use: Most common form of Fast Ethernet for network connectivity in
offices and homes.

2. 100Base-FX:

o Medium: Fiber-optic cables.

 o Max Distance: Can range from 412 meters (multi-mode fiber) to 40 km
(single-mode fiber).

o Connector: SC or ST connectors.

o Common Use: Used for high-speed networking over long distances, especially in
large enterprises and between buildings.

3. 100Base-T4 (rarely used now):

o Medium: Cat 3 or higher twisted-pair cables.

o Max Distance: 100 meters.

o Connector: RJ45 connectors.

o Common Use: Designed for older network infrastructure, but less common now due
to advancements in Cat 5 and Cat 6 cabling.

a) What are the network connectivity devices? Explain any one in detail.

Network Connectivity Devices are hardware components used to establish, maintain, and manage
communication between devices in a network. These devices include:

1. Hub: A basic networking device that broadcasts incoming data packets to all connected
devices.

2. Switch: A more advanced version of a hub, forwarding data only to the specific device that
needs it.

3. Router: A device that forwards data between different networks, such as between a local
network and the internet.

4. Bridge: A device that connects two or more network segments and filters traffic between
them.

Explained Device: Router

● Function: A router forwards data packets between different networks. It determines the
best path for data to travel across interconnected networks, like from a home network to
the internet.

● Operation: Routers use routing tables and protocols (like RIP, OSPF) to forward packets.
They also provide functions like Network Address Translation (NAT) to map private IP
addresses to a public address and DHCP for assigning IP addresses to devices.

● Example: A home router connects your local network (e.g., laptops, smartphones) to the
internet service provider (ISP).

b) Explain communication modes in details.

Communication Modes refer to the way data is transmitted between two devices. There are three
main modes:

1. Unicast:

o Definition: Unicast is the communication mode where data is sent from one sender
to one specific receiver.

o Example: A computer sending an email to another computer.

o Characteristics: Involves a one-to-one connection. It is the most common type of

communication on the internet.

Diagram:

Sender -----> Receiver

2. Broadcast:

o Definition: Broadcast involves sending data from one sender to all devices in the
network.

o Example: A router sending a broadcast message to all devices in a local area

network (LAN).

o Characteristics: Data is sent to every device in the network. Typically used in

smaller networks, as large-scale broadcast can lead to congestion.

Diagram:

Sender -----> All Receivers in Network

3. Multicast:

o Definition: Multicast is a communication mode where data is sent from one sender
to a specific group of receivers.

o Example: Streaming a live video to multiple subscribers.

o Characteristics: Data is sent only to members of the group, reducing network

congestion compared to broadcasting.

Diagram:

Sender -----> Group of Receivers

c) Comparison between server-based LAN and peer-to-peer LAN.

Here is a comparison between Server-based LAN and Peer-to-Peer LAN:

Feature Server-based LAN Peer-to-Peer LAN

Feature Server-based LAN Peer-to-Peer LAN

Centralized Yes, the server manages resources and No, each device has equal control over
Control security. resources.

Centralized administration of user access, Each device manages its own

Administration
data, and applications. resources and users.

Easily scalable with additional servers and Difficult to scale due to lack of
Scalability
resources. centralized management.

High security with centralized user Less secure, as each device manages
Security
authentication and access control. its own security settings.

Higher initial cost due to the need for a Lower cost as no dedicated server is
Cost
dedicated server. needed.

Can handle large volumes of traffic with Performance may degrade as more
Performance
high performance. devices are added.

d) What is copyright? Explain its application.

Copyright is a legal right granted to the creator or author of an original work, giving them exclusive
rights to use, distribute, and reproduce the work. It protects a variety of works such as literature,
music, art, films, software, and more.

Application of Copyright:

1. Protection of Creative Works: Copyright ensures that creators have control over how their
works are used and distributed. This includes the right to reproduce, distribute, and display
the work.

2. Digital Content: In the digital age, copyright applies to software, websites, music, videos,
and other digital media.

3. Fair Use: Copyright allows for limited use of the work by others under the doctrine of "fair
use" for purposes like criticism, education.

4. Duration: Copyright generally lasts for the life of the author plus a set number of years (e.g.,
70 years in many countries).

e) Explain classful addressing in details.

Classful Addressing is an older method of IP address allocation that divides the available IP
address space into five distinct classes: A, B, C, D, and E. It is primarily used for IPv4 addressing.

1. Class A:

o Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

o Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

 o Use: Reserved for large networks with a need for a large number of host addresses.
The first octet (8 bits) determines the network.

o Number of Networks: 128 networks with up to 16 million hosts per network.

2. Class B:

o Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

o Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0

o Use: Used for medium-sized networks. The first two octets (16 bits) define the
network.

o Number of Networks: 16,384 networks with up to 65,536 hosts per network.

3. Class C:

o Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

o Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

o Use: Suitable for smaller networks. The first three octets (24 bits) define the
network.

o Number of Networks: Over 2 million networks with up to 256 hosts per network.

4. Class D (Multicast):

o Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

o Use: Reserved for multicast communication, where data is sent from one source to
multiple receivers.

5. Class E (Experimental):

o Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

o Use: Reserved for experimental purposes and not typically used in public networks.

a) What is topology? Explain types of topology.

Network Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices (such as computers,
routers, switches, etc.) and their interconnections within a network. It defines how the network
devices communicate and share information.

Types of Topology:

1. Bus Topology:

o Definition: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable
(the bus). Data is broadcasted across the network, and each device checks if the
message is addressed to it.

o Advantages: Simple and inexpensive to install.

 o Disadvantages: A failure in the central cable can bring down the entire network.

2. Star Topology:

o Definition: All devices are connected to a central device (usually a switch or hub).
The central device manages data traffic between devices.

o Advantages: Easy to manage and troubleshoot.

o Disadvantages: If the central device fails, the entire network is affected.

3. Ring Topology:

o Definition: Devices are connected in a circular manner, with each device having two
connections: one to the previous device and one to the next.

o Advantages: Data transmission is faster because data travels in one direction.

o Disadvantages: A failure in any single device or connection can disrupt the entire
network.

4. Mesh Topology:

o Definition: Every device is connected to every other device, providing multiple paths
for data transmission.

o Advantages: Highly reliable and fault-tolerant.

o Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to set up due to the high number of

connections.

b) What is addressing? Explain different types of addresses.

Addressing refers to assigning identifiers to network devices so that data can be sent to the
correct destination.

Types of Addresses:

1. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address):

o Definition: A hardware address that uniquely identifies a device on the network at

the Data Link Layer (Layer 2). It is assigned by the manufacturer and is typically
stored in the device's network interface card (NIC).

o Format: 48-bit hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

2. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address):

o Definition: A logical address used for identifying devices on a network. It operates

at the Network Layer (Layer 3) and is essential for routing data across networks.

o Types:

■ IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

■ IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

 3. Port Address:

o Definition: A logical address used by the Transport Layer (Layer 4) to identify

specific processes or services running on a device. It helps in directing data to the
correct application.

o Examples: HTTP (Port 80), HTTPS (Port 443).

4. Broadcast Address:

o Definition: A special address used to send data to all devices on a network. For
IPv4, the broadcast address is usually the last address in a subnet .

c) Explain propagation method.

Propagation refers to the way signals travel through a medium from one point to another. The
speed and effectiveness of propagation depend on the type of medium (e.g., cable, air) and the
environment.

Propagation Methods:

1. Guided Propagation:

o Definition: In guided propagation, the signal is directed through a physical medium

such as cables or fiber optics.

o Examples:

■ Copper Cables: Signals travel through electrical impulses in twisted pair

cables or coaxial cables.

■ Fiber Optic Cables: Light signals propagate through the core of the cable,
reflecting off the cladding.

2. Unguided Propagation:

o Definition: In unguided propagation, the signal travels through the air or vacuum
without being confined to a physical medium.

o Examples:

■ Radio Waves: Used for wireless communication over short to long

distances (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

■ Microwaves: Used for high-speed communication over long distances (e.g.,

satellite communication).

Factors Affecting Propagation:

● Distance: The farther the signal must travel, the more attenuation occurs.

● Interference: External factors like noise, weather, or obstacles can distort or weaken the
signal.

d) What is copyright? Explain the application of copyright.

Copyright is a legal right granted to the creator of an original work, such as literary, artistic, musical,
or other intellectual properties, that gives the creator exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and
perform the work.

Application of Copyright:

1. Protection of Original Works: Copyright protects a wide range of works, including books,
software, music, films, and artworks, from unauthorized copying and distribution.

2. Economic Rights: The creator can control the reproduction, distribution, public
performance, and adaptation of the work.

3. Moral Rights: Copyright also provides the creator with the right to object to derogatory
treatment of their work, such as alteration or distortion that could harm their reputation.

4. Duration: Copyright generally lasts for the life of the author plus a certain number of years
(typically 70 years in many jurisdictions).

e) What is Bluetooth? Explain its architecture.

Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology used to exchange data over short distances,
typically within a range of 10 meters. It is commonly used for connecting devices like smartphones,
headphones, keyboards, and other peripherals.

Bluetooth Architecture: Bluetooth uses a piconet architecture, where one device acts as the master,
and others serve as slaves. A piconet consists of up to eight devices, but a master can
communicate with many more devices in a scatternet.

1. Bluetooth Devices:

o Master: The device that controls the communication link and coordinates the
devices in a piconet.

o Slave: Devices that are connected to the master in the piconet. They follow the
master's lead in communication.

2. Bluetooth Radio:

o Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band,
allowing devices to communicate wirelessly.

o It uses frequency hopping to avoid interference from other devices that may
operate in the same frequency band.

3. Bluetooth Profiles:

o Profiles define specific uses for Bluetooth communication, such as A2DP

(Advanced Audio Distribution Profile) for streaming audio or HFP (Hands-Free
Profile) for communication in vehicles.

Advantages of Bluetooth:

● Low power consumption.

 ● Easy pairing and setup for devices.

Applications:

● Wireless audio (headphones, speakers).

● File sharing between devices.

Here are short notes on the topics you requested:

A) Switch

A Switch is a network device that operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It
connects devices within a local area network (LAN) and forwards data based on MAC addresses.
Unlike a hub, which broadcasts data to all connected devices, a switch intelligently sends data only
to the device it is intended for, improving network efficiency. Some switches also operate at Layer 3,
providing routing capabilities and thus known as Layer 3 switches.

● Function: Learns MAC addresses and uses them to forward data frames.

● Advantages: Efficient data transmission, reduced collisions, improved bandwidth utilization.

B) Virtual LAN (VLAN)

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of devices within a network, irrespective of their physical
location. VLANs are used to segment a larger physical network into smaller, isolated networks. This
is done by configuring switches to treat certain devices as part of the same VLAN, even if they are
on different physical switches.

● Function: Reduces network congestion and enhances security by segmenting traffic.

● Advantages: Improved traffic management, security (by isolating groups of devices), and
flexibility in network management.

● Example: Devices in the HR department and Marketing can be on separate VLANs for
security, even if they share the same physical infrastructure.
C) Types of Network

There are different types of networks based on their geographic scope, size, and connectivity:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

o Definition: A network that connects devices within a small geographical area, like a
home, office, or building.

o Example: A network in a company that connects all computers and printers.

2. WAN (Wide Area Network):

o Definition: A network that spans a large geographic area, often covering cities,
countries, or even continents.

o Example: The internet is the largest example of a WAN.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

o Definition: A network that covers a city or a large campus. Larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN.

o Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network):

o Definition: A small network typically around a single person, covering a short range,
such as a Bluetooth-connected network.

o Example: Connecting a smartphone, tablet, and laptop via Bluetooth.

D) Propagation Modes

Propagation refers to how signals travel across a medium. There are three primary propagation
modes:

1. Guided Propagation:

o Signals travel through a physical medium, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial
cables, or fiber optics.

o Example: Ethernet cables, fiber-optic lines.

 2. Unguided Propagation:

o Signals travel through the air (wireless transmission), such as radio waves or
microwaves.

o Example: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and satellite communication.

3. Surface Propagation:

o Signals travel along the surface of the Earth, often seen in technologies like
ground-based microwave communication.

E) Intranet and Extranet

● Intranet: A private network that is used internally within an organization. It uses internet
protocols and is restricted to authorized users, providing access to internal resources such
as documents, applications, and databases.

o Example: A corporate intranet that employees access to share files, access internal
websites, or communicate via internal messaging systems.

● Extranet: A network that allows external users, such as business partners or customers,
limited access to certain parts of an organization's intranet. It is essentially an extension of
an intranet that is accessible to authorized external parties.

o Example: A supplier accessing a company's extranet to check inventory levels or

order status.

F) Firewall

A Firewall is a security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules. Firewalls can be implemented in hardware or software, and
their primary function is to prevent unauthorized access while permitting legitimate communication.

● Types:

1. Packet Filtering Firewall: Inspects packets and blocks or allows them based on
predefined rules (e.g., IP address, port number).

2. Stateful Inspection Firewall: Keeps track of the state of active connections and
ensures that incoming packets are part of a valid session.

3. Proxy Firewall: Acts as an intermediary between the internal network and external
sources, filtering requests and masking the internal network.

● Function: Prevents unauthorized access, protects against cyberattacks (e.g., DDoS), and
enforces security policies.