INTRODUCTION TO

MICROPROCESSOR
S
SUBJECT: CPE 412/317
PROFESSOR: ENGR. MARIO JR. GARCIA BRUCAL
DATE: SEPTEMER 23-27, 2024
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students must be
able to:
• Define microprocessor and microcontroller
• Familiarize the basic architecture of
Microprocessor
Introduction
Computer: A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates
data/information, and provides output in a useful format.

Address
bus

I/O I/O
ROM RAM interfac devices
CPU e
Data Control
bus bus

Block diagram of a basic

computersystem
Microprocessor
It is a programmable VLSI chip which includes
ALU, register circuits & control circuits. Its main
units are:
⚫ ALU
⚫ Registers
⚫ Control Unit
Block Diagram of a
Microprocessor
 Basic Concepts of
Microprocessor
⚫ Microcomputer:-
It is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: Respond to a
specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions
(a program). Its main components are the CPU, Input & Output devices, and Memory

⚫ Microprocessor:-
It is a programmable VLSI chip that includes ALU, register circuits & control circuits. Its main
units are:
⚫ ALU
⚫ Registers
⚫ Control Unit

⚫ Microcontroller:-
Silicon chip, which includes microprocessor, memory & I/O in a single package
 Microprocessor
A microprocessor (abbreviated
μP) is a programmable digital
electronic component that
incorporates the functions of a
central processing unit (CPU) on
a single semiconducting
integrated circuit (IC).
Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a programmable device
that takes in numbers, performs arithmetic or
logical operations according to the program
stored in memory, and then produces other
numbers.
Microprocessor
Programmable device: The microprocessor
can perform different sets of operations on the
data it receives depending on the sequence of
instructions supplied in the given program.
By changing the program, the microprocessor
manipulates the data in different ways.
Microprocessor
Instructions: Each microprocessor is designed
to execute a specific group of operations. This
group of operations is called an instruction set.
This instruction set defines what the
microprocessor can and cannot do.
Microprocessor
Takes in: The data that the microprocessor
manipulates must come from somewhere.
•It comes from what is called “input devices”.
•These are devices that bring data into the system
from the outside world.
•These represent devices such as a keyboard, a
mouse, switches, and the like.
Microprocessor
Numbers: The microprocessor has a very narrow view of
life. It only understands binary numbers.
• A binary digit is called a bit (which comes from a binary
digit).
• The microprocessor recognizes and processes a group
of bits together. This group of bits is called a “word”.
• The number of bits in a Microprocessor’s word is a
measure of its “abilities”.
Microprocessor
Arithmetic and Logic Operations:
• Every microprocessor has arithmetic operations such as add and
subtract as part of its instruction set.
– Most microprocessors will have operations such as multiply and divide.
– Some of the newer ones will have complex operations such as square
root.
• In addition, microprocessors have logic operations as well.
Such as AND, OR, XOR, shift left, shift right, etc.
• Again, the number and types of operations define the
microprocessor’s instruction set and depends on the specific
microprocessor.
Microprocessor
Stored in memory:
•When a program is entered into a computer, it is
stored in memory. Then, as the microprocessor
starts to execute the instructions, it brings the
instructions from memory one at a time.
•Memory is also used to hold the data.
– The microprocessor reads (brings in) the data from
memory when needed and writes (stores) the results
into memory when it is done.
Microprocessor
Produces: For the user to see the result of the
execution of the program, the results must be
presented in a human readable form.
•The results must be presented on an output device.
•This can be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a
simple LED or many other forms.
History of Microprocessor
The Electrical Age
The 1800s saw the advent of electrical motors (by Michael Faraday),
all based on the mechanical calculator developed by Blaise Pascal.
In 1889 Herman Hollerith developed the punched card for storing
data. He borrowed the punched card idea from Jacquard. In 1896
Hollerith formed a company called the Tabulating Machine
Company. After several mergers, the Tabulating Machine Company
was formed into International Business Machines Corporation
(IBM).
History of Microprocessor
The Electrical Age
In 1941 Zuse constructed the first electronic calculating machine.
His Z3 calculating computer was used in aircraft and missile design
during war II. The first fixed-program electronic computer system
was placed into operation in 1943 to break secret German military
codes. This system was invented by Alan Turing. Turing called his
machine Colossus.
History of Microprocessor
The Electrical Age
The ENIAC (Electronics Numerical Integrator And Calculator)
is the first general-purpose, programmable electronic computer
• Containing over 17000 vacuum tubes.
system was developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania. The
ENIAC has the following specifications:
• Containing over 500 miles of wires.
• Weighed over 30 tans.
• Perform about 100000 operations per second.
• Programmed by rewiring its circuit.
History of Microprocessor
The Electrical Age
In 1948 the transistor was developed at Bell Labs, followed by the
1958 invention of the Integrated Circuit (IC) by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments.
History of Microprocessor
The Microprocessor Age
• Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first IC
in 1959.
• In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove resigned
from Fairchild Semiconductors.
• They founded their own company Intel (Integrated Electronics).
• Intel grown from 3 man start-up in 1968 to industrial giant by
1981.
• It had 20,000 employees and $188 million revenue.
History of Microprocessor
The Microprocessor Age
The first microprocessor was developed at Intel
Corporation in 1971.
History of Microprocessor
Intel 4004
Introduced in 1971.
It was the first microprocessor by Intel.
It was a 4-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 740KHz.
It had 2,300 transistors.
It could execute around 60,000
instructions per second.
History of Microprocessor
Intel 4040

Introduced in 1974.
It was also 4-bit µP.
History of Microprocessor
Second Generation – 8 bit Microprocessor

The second generation began in 1973 by Intel as the

first 8 – bit microprocessor. It was useful for
arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. The
first
History of Microprocessor
Intel 8008
Introduced in 1973.
It was first 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 500 KHz.
Could execute 50,000
instructions per second.
 History of Microprocessor
Intel 8080 Introduced in 1974.
It was also 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
It had 6,000 transistors.
Was 10 times faster than 8008.
Could execute 60,000
instructions per second.
History of Microprocessor
Intel 8085 Introduced in 1976.
It was also 8-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 3 MHz.
Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit.
It had 6,500 transistors.
Could execute 769,230 instructions per second.
It could access 64 KB of memory.
It had 246 instructions.
Over 100 million copies were sold.
History of Microprocessor
Third Generation – 16 bit Microprocessor

The third generation began with 8086-88

microprocessors in 1978 with 4.77, 8 & 10 MHz
speed and 2.5 million instructions per second. Other
important inventions were ZILOG Z8000, and 80286,
which came out in 1982 and could read 4 million
instructions per second with 68 pins inside.
History of Microprocessor
Intel 8086 Introduced in 1978.
It was first 16-bit µP.

Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz,

depending on the version.

Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit.

It had 29,000 transistors.

Could execute 2.5 million instructions

per second.

It could access 1 MB of memory.

It had 22,000 instructions.
It had Multiply and Divide instructions
History of Microprocessor
Introduced in 1979.
Intel 8088
It was also 16-bit µP.

It was created as a cheaper

version of Intel’s 8086.

It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external

bus.

Could execute 2.5 million instructions per

second.

This chip became the most popular in the

computer industry when IBM used it for its
first PC.
History of Microprocessor
ZILOG Z8000

Introduced in 1979.

It was also 16-bit µP.

Introduce by Zilog
It had 17, 500 transistors.
History of Microprocessor
Introduced in 1982.
Intel 80186 & 80188 They were 16-bit µPs.
Clock speed was 6 MHz.
80188 was a cheaper version of
80186 with an 8-bit external data
bus.
They had additional
components like:
Interrupt Controller
Clock Generator
Local Bus Controller
Counters
History of Microprocessor
Intel 80286
Introduced in 1982.
It was 16-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 8 MHz.
Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is
24-bit.

It could address 16 MB of memory.

It had 1,34,000 transistors.

It could execute 4 million instructions

per second.
History of Microprocessor
Fourth Generation – 32 bit Microprocessor

The fourth-generation came into existence from

1981 to 1995. The 32-bit processors using HMOS
fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and
Motorola 68020 are some of the popular processors
of this generation.
History of Microprocessor
Intel 80386 Introduced in 1986.
It was first 32-bit µP.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit.
It could address 4 GB of memory.
It had 2,75,000 transistors.
Its clock speed varied from 16 MHz to 33 MHz depending
upon the various versions.
Different versions:
80386 DX
80386 SX
80386 SL
History of Microprocessor
Intel Pentium Introduced in 1993.
It was also 32-bit µP.
It was originally named80586.
Its clock speed was 66 MHz.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit.
It could address 4 GB of memory.
Could execute 110 million
instructions per second.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
23
History of Microprocessor
Intel Pentium Pro
Introduced in 1995.
It was also 32-bit µP.
It had L2 cache of 256 KB.
It had 21 million transistors.
It was primarily used in server systems.
Cache memory:
8 KB for instructions.
8 KB for data.

It had L2 cache of 256 KB.

 History of Microprocessor
Intel Pentium II
Introduced in 1997.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed was 233 MHz to 500 MHz.

Could execute 333 million

instructions per second.
MMX technology was
supported.

L2 cache & processor were on one circuit.

History of Microprocessor
Intel Pentium III

Introduced in 1999.
It was also 32-bit µP.
Its clock speed varied
from 500 MHz to 1.4 GHz.
It had 9.5 million
transistors.
History of Microprocessor
Intel Pentium IV
Introduced in 2000.

It was also 32-bit µP.

Its clock speed was from 1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz.

L1 cache was of 32 KB & L2 cache of 256

KB.

It had 42 million transistors.

All internal connections were made from

aluminium to copper.
History of Microprocessor
Motorola 68020 Introduced in 1984.
It was also 32-bit µP.

Designed by Motorola
Max. CPU clock rate 12.5 MHz to
33 MHz
L1 cache 256 byte instruction
cache
It had 200,000 transistors.
History of Microprocessor
Intel Dual Core Introduced in 2006.
It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
It has two cores.
Both the cores have there own internal
bus and L1 cache, but share the external
bus and L2 cache (Next Slide).
It supported SMT
technology.

SMT: Simultaneously Multi- Threading

E.g.: Adobe Photoshop supported

SM29 T.
History of Microprocessor
Fifth Generation – 64 bit Microprocessor

The fifth-generation came into existence from 1995

until now.
History of Microprocessor
Introduced in 2006.

Intel Core 2 It is a 64-bit µP.

Its clock speed is from 1.2 GHz

to 3 GHz.
It has 291 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core and 4 MB of L2 cache.
It is launched in three different
versions:
Intel Core 2 Duo
Intel Core 2 Quad
Intel Core 2 Extreme
History of Microprocessor
Intel Core i3
Introduced in 2007.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.66 GHz to 3.33
GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core, 256 KB
of L2 cache and 8 MB of L3 cache.
History of Microprocessor
Intel Core i5 Introduced in 2009.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.40
GHz to 3.60 GHz.
It has 781 million transistors.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per
core, 256 KB of L2 cache and
8 MB of L3 cache.
History of Microprocessor
Intel Core i7 Introduced in 2010.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 2 physical cores.
Its clock speed is from 2.93
GHz to 3.33 GHz.

It has 781 million transistors.

It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core,
512 KB of L2 cache and 4 MB of L3
cache.
 Features of Microprocessor
•I tis low in cost as it uses integrated circuit technology, reducing the overall
cost of a computer system.
•It generates less heat as semiconductors emit less heat than vacuum tube
devices.
•The microprocessor is very fast due to advanced technology, executing
millions of instructions every second.
•It consumes low power because of metal oxide semiconductor technology.
•Its small size and less power consumption make it portable as well.
•It is small due to its smaller footprint but has a large-scale integration
technology.
•It has a versatile nature as it is usable for several applications.
•The microprocessor has a very low failure rate becoming reliable for the
computer system.
 Types of Microprocessor
Complex Instruction Set Computer
CISM can take care of orders as well as other low-level activities
like downloading, uploading, etc. to support the system. It can also
perform complex mathematical calculations with just a command.
They make good personal computers that work well with simpler
compilers. Their instructions have more than one clock cycle. Some
examples are – Intel 386 & 486, Pentium, etc.
 Types of Microprocessor
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
RISC is to carry out small specific commands at a faster
rate and high optimization. The instruction set is shorter
due to simple commands and the same length. They
reduce memory references by adding registers.
RISC follow pipelining which leads to overlapping of
instruction fetching and execution. They take one CPU
cycle to execute mostly. Some examples are – AMD K6,
and K7, etc.
 Types of Microprocessor
Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing

EPIC is a mixture of RISC and CISC, with the best

features of both processors. They follow parallel
instructions without a fixed width. They enable
compilers to communicate with the hardware using
sequential semantics. Some examples are – Intel
IA-64, Itanium, etc.
 Types of Microprocessor
Superscalar Microprocessors
The superscalar processor supports
performing multiple tasks simultaneously. They
are commonly present in ALUs or multipliers as
they are capable of carrying multiple
commands. They use different operational units
for transmitting instructions inside the
processor.
 Types of Microprocessor
Application Specific Integrated
Circuit
ASICs are common for automotive
emissions control use or as a personal
digital assistant. Their architecture is very
properly specified but at the same time
made with off-the-shelf gears.
 Types of Microprocessor
Digital Signal Multiprocessor
The DSPs are famous for encoding and decoding video
files or converting analog to digital and vice versa.
They are excellent for mathematical calculations. RADAR,
home theaters, SONAR, etc. use these chips for the task
execution. Companies like Intel, Motorola, DEC, etc. have
made many such microprocessors like this.
 Types of Microprocessor
SIMD Processors
Single Instruction Multiple Data are for computations in
vectors using elements in parallel instead of serially. They
have more than one ALUs and each of them has a local
memory for data storage.
 Types of Microprocessor
Symbolic Processors
Symbolic processors are mainly for expert systems,
machine/artificial intelligence, and pattern recognition.
They don’t need floating-point operations to function.
 Types of Microprocessor
Bit-Slice Processors
The Bit-Slice processors have specific word lengths and
building blocks according to the user preference. They have
4-bit ALUs, generators, and micro programs sequencers.
Some examples are – AMD-2900, 29300 series, and Texas
instrument SN-74AS88XX series.
 Types of Microprocessor
Transputers (Transistor Computer)
Transputer microprocessors are famous for
managing internal components like Chip RAM and
serial links, etc. The communication link is one of the
elements that connect all transputers. Some examples
are – INMOS T414 and INMOS T800.
 Types of Microprocessor
Graphics Processors
A microprocessor by Intel that is made for
high-definition games and movies. Some examples
are Intel 82786, Intel i860, and Intel i750.
 RISC Processor
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is
designed to reduce the execution time by simplifying the
instruction set of the computer. Using RISC processors,
each instruction requires only one clock cycle to execute
results in uniform execution time. This reduces the
efficiency as there are more lines of code hence more RAM
is needed to store the instructions. The compiler must also
work more to convert high-level language instructions into
machine code.
 RISC Architecture
RISC microprocessor architecture uses highly-optimized set
of instructions. It is used in portable devices like Apple iPod
due to its power efficiency.
RISC Architecture
RISC Characteristics
The major characteristics of a RISC processor are as follows:
• It consists of simple instructions.
• It supports various data-type formats.
• It utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed-length
instructions for pipelining.
• It supports register to use in any context.
• One cycle execution time.
• “LOAD” and “STORE” instructions are used to access the
memory location.  It consists of larger number of
registers.
• It consists of less number of transistors.
 CISC Processor
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is
designed to minimize the number of instructions per
program, ignoring the number of cycles per instruction. The
emphasis is on building complex instructions directly into
the hardware. The compiler has to do very little work to
translate a high-level language into assembly level
language/machine code because the length of the code is
relatively short, so very little RAM is required to store the
instructions. Some of the CISC Processors are: IBM
370/168 ,VAX 11/780 , and Intel 80486
 CISC Architecture
Its architecture is designed to decrease the memory cost
because more storage is needed in larger programs resulting
in higher memory cost. To resolve this, the number of
instructions per program can be reduced by embedding the
number of operations in a single instruction.
CISC Architecture