Expression of traits Rules of Inheritance Crossing over during through Protein – Gregor J Mendel Meiosis synthesis
Mendel’s Law of Mendel’ experiments Inheritance
MONOHYBRID Law of Independent
DIHYBRID CROSS Law of Dominance Law of Segregation CROSS Assortment • Outcome of reproduction – generation of individuals of same design. • Heredity is the transmission of characters (or traits) from the parents to their offspring or the continuity of features from one generation to the next. • Characteristics of an individual are present in the genes on chromosomes. • Variations are the differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species which occur due to: ✓ Crossing over during meiosis ✓ Alterations in genetic material due to mutations. ✓ Mixing of female and male gametes coming from two different individuals. • Rules of heredity in humans - Both father and mother contribute equal amounts of genetic material to the child - • Each trait will be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA. HOMEWORK HEREDITY Transmission of characters from one generation to next generation. Gregor Johann Mendel – Father of Genetics – Formulated the Laws of inheritance – experimented on Pisum sativum - Garden pea plant BQ: Why did Mendel choose pea plant for his experiment? Pisum sativum or pea plants were selected as experimental plants because: a. Easy to grow b. Short generation time of 2-3 months allowed for studying of multiple generations. c. Easily observable and varied seven characters d. Easily distinguishable contrasting traits for the seven studied characters e. Larger flower size f. Controlled pollination: Mendel could allow self- or cross pollination, which helps to study heredity of traits better. Character with contrasting traits Dominant Trait Recessive Trait Height of the plant TALL SHORT Shape of the seed ROUND WRINKLED Colour of the seed YELLOW GREEN Shape of the pod FULL CONSTRICTED Colour of the pod GREEN YELLOW Position of flower AXIAL TERMINAL Colour of flower VIOLET WHITE IMPORTANT TERMS • GENE / FACTOR : A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a specific protein or set of proteins. These proteins determine the traits and functions of an organism. Genes are the basic units of heredity and are passed from parents to offspring. • LOCUS: The position of a gene on the chromosome. • ALLELE: An alternative form of gene for a character present on identical locus of an homologous chromosome. For example, if the gene determines eye color, one allele might result in blue eyes, while another might result in brown eyes. Alleles can be dominant or recessive, affecting how traits are expressed in an organism. • HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES : The pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism that are similar in shape, size, and genetic content. One chromosome of each pair is inherited from the organism's mother, and the other is inherited from the father. These chromosomes have the same genes at the same loci (positions), but they may have different alleles of those genes. 6 IMPORTANT TERMS • HOMOZYGOUS : The individual having identical alleles of a particular gene for a character. Eg; Tall character – TT, Dwarf - tt • HETEROZYGOUS: The individual having different alleles of a particular gene for a character. Eg: Tall plant- Tt
7 IMPORTANT TERMS • PHENOTYPE : The external appearance of an organism due to the influence of genes & environmental factors. • GENOTYPE : The genetic constitution of an individual responsible for the phenotype. • PHENOTYPIC RATIO: The proportion of phenotypes in a population. • GENOTYPIC RATIO: The proportion of genotypes in a population.
8 IMPORTANT TERMS • DOMINANT ALLELE : The allele that expresses its trait in heterozygous condition. • RECESSIVE ALLELE : The allele that fails to express its trait in heterozygous condition. • HYBRID: The progeny obtained by crossing two parents that differ in traits.
9 Types of crosses
Monohybrid cross is a cross between parents differing in only one trait or in which only one character is being studied.
Dihybrid cross is a cross between parents in which two pairs of characters are studied simultaneously.
10 Inheritance of One Gene – MONOHYBRID CROSS • Mendel took pea plants with contrasting traits, like a tall plant with a short plant, produced progeny by crossing them, and calculated the percentages of tall or short offspring. Observations of first cross: No halfway characteristics in first generation/F1 progeny – no medium height plants. F1 progenies always resembled one of the parents and trait of the other parent was not seen. • Then, F1 tall plants are self-pollinated to test if the genotypes of the F1 offspring is the same as original tall parent. Observations of second cross: Among F2 progeny, not all are tall. Instead, ¼ was short, while ¾ were tall. • This result proves that both tallness and shortness trait were inherited in the F1 generation, but only tallness was expressed. • This led Mendel to prove that two copies of factor (now called genes) controlling traits are present in sexually reproducing organism. These two may be identical, or may be different, depending on the parentage. 11 Practice Problems : MONOHYBRID CROSS 1. In guinea pigs, the allele for smooth fur (S) is dominant over the allele for rough fur (s). A homozygous smooth guinea pig (SS) is crossed with a heterozygous smooth guinea pig (Ss). If they produce 80 offspring, how many of the offspring are expected to have smooth fur and how many are expected to have rough fur? 2. What is the outcome of a cross between homozygous purple-flowered (P) pea plants and homozygous white-flowered (p) pea plants? With reference to F2 generation, What are the possible genotypes of the offspring? What are the possible phenotypes of the offspring? What is the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring? What is the expected genotypic ratio among the offspring? 3. In mice, the allele for black fur (B) is dominant over the allele for brown fur (b). If a homozygous black mouse (BB) is crossed with a brown mouse (bb), what are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring, and what is the probability of each phenotype in F2 generation? 4. In garden peas, the allele for yellow seeds (Y) is dominant over the allele for green seeds (y). If two heterozygous plants (Yy) are crossed, what are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring, and what is the probability of each phenotype? 6. In flowers, the allele for red petals (R) is dominant over the allele for white petals (r). If a homozygous red flower (RR) is crossed with a heterozygous red flower (Rr), what are the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring, and what is the probability ofeach phenotype? 7. In a plant species, the allele for purple flowers (P) is dominant over the allele for white flowers (p). If a heterozygous purple-flowered plant (Pp) is crossed with a white-flowered plant (pp), and they produce 100 offspring, how many of the offspring are expected to have purple flowers and how many are expected to have white flowers in the F2 generation? DI-HYBRID CROSS • Mendel took pea plants with two different characters , like a plant with round yellow seeds and crossed it with another plat having green wrinkled seeds. The possible phenotypes, genotypes, etc were calculated. • Observation : In the F1 generation, all plants were heterozygous with round yellow seeds. • F1 plants were self-pollinated to test if the genotypes of the F1 offspring is the same as original tall parent and if the alleles for each character segregated independently. • Observations of second cross: • In addition to parental combination of traits like round-yellow and green- wrinkled, new combinations like round-green and wrinkled-yellow seeded plants were also present. This indicates that the characters were inherited independent of each other. Practice Problems : DIHYBRID CROSS 1. If a pea plant that is homozygous dominant for round seeds and heterozygous for yellow seeds (RRYy) is crossed with a plant that is homozygous recessive for round seeds and homozygous dominant for yellow seeds (rrYY), what will be the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring? 2. In a particular plant species, the allele for tall height (T) is dominant over short height (t), and the allele for red flowers (R) is dominant over white flowers (r). A plant that is heterozygous for both traits is crossed with a plant that is homozygous recessive for both traits. What will be the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring? 3. In pea plants, round seeds (R) are dominant to wrinkled seeds (r), and yellow seeds (Y) are dominant to green seeds (y). A plant that is heterozygous for both traits is crossed with a plant that is homozygous recessive for both traits. Calculate the phenotypic ratio of the offspring, using a punnett square. 4. In guinea pigs, black fur (B) is dominant to white fur (b), and rough fur (R) is dominant to smooth fur (r). Two guinea pigs that are heterozygous for both traits are crossed. What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring? Laws of Inheritance Proposed by Gregor Mendel – based on his experiments on Pisum sativum(pea plant)
Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one character expresses itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character and the character/factor which cannot express itself is called the recessive character. Law of Segregation : The law of segregation is one of the fundamental principles of genetics discovered by Gregor Mendel. It states that during the formation of gametes (sex cells), the two alleles (alternate forms of a gene) responsible for a trait separate from each other so that each gamete receives only one of the two alleles. Law of Independent assortment : The law of independent assortment states that alleles of two or more genes(character) are inherited independently within the gametes. Alleles received from one gene never influence the one received from the other gene. How do germs -cells make a single set of genes from the normal two copies that all other cells in the body have ? During sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents. During fertilisation, the male and the female gametes fuse to form the zygote, that later develops to form the embryo. The gametes posses a haploid genome of either parent and during fusion, these characters present in the genome pass on to the offspring to form a diploid zygote. There are 22 chromosomes pairs (autosomes) and a pair of sex chromosomes (allosomes). Thus, a single set of genes is formed from the two copies. The germ cells (having the sex chromosomes) formed initially are therefore diploid in nature. Diploid germ cells must undergo many rounds of cell division and create many new cells in order to produce haploid gametes. Meiosis, therefore, helps the germ cells make a single set of genes (haploid) from the normal two copies (diploid). SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS • The process by which the sex of a person is determined is called sex determination. • Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. Out of these, one pair of chromosomes which determine the sex are called sex chromosomes. There are two types of sex chromosomes X and Y. • The female individual has two X chromosomes (XX) and male has one X and one Y chromosome (XY). • The reproductive cells are haploid. i.e., sperms and eggs have one set of sex chromosomes. Some sperms have X chromosome and some have Y chromosome. All eggs have X chromosome. If a sperm having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a girl. If a sperm having Y chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a boy. OTHER SEX DETERMINATION MECHANISMS • In some of the animals, sex determination is also controlled by the environmental factors. • For example, in some reptiles, the temperature at which the fertilized egg is incubated before hatching, plays a role in determining the sex of the offspring. • It has been found that in a turtle, high incubation temperature leads to the development of female offspring. • On the other hand, in the case of lizards, high incubation temperature results in male offspring. • In some animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that sex is not determined genetically in such animals. Q1. All the variations in a species do not have equal chances of survival. Why? (Foreign 2014) All the variations do not have equal chances of survival in the environment in which they live. Depending on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds of advantages. The organisms which are most adapted to the environment will survive.
Q2. “Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a population.” Justify this statement. (Foreign 2011) Variations are the structural, functional or behavioural changes from the normal characters developed in the living organisms. Inheritable variations participate in evolution. According to Darwin, natural selection sorts out individuals with favourable variations. Such organism will survive, reproduce more and thus, will leave more progenies. Hence, useful variations get established in nature.
Q3. Assertion (A) : The sex of a child in human beings will be determined by the type of chromosome he/she inherits from the father. Reason (R) : A child who inherits ‘X’ chromosome from his father would be a girl (XX), while a child who inherits a ‘Y’ chromosome from the father would be a boy (XY). (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of the assertion (A). (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of the assertion (A). (c) (A) is true, but (R) is, false. (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (2020) (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of the assertion (A).
Q4. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding pea plants bearing violet flowers with pea plants bearing white flowers. What will be the result in F1 progeny? (2018) According to the Mendelian experiment, violet colour (VV) is a dominant trait while white colour (ww) is a recessive trait. Hence, the colour of the flower in F1 progeny will be violet (Vw).
Q5. Name the information source for making proteins in the cells. (Delhi 2014) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) present in the chromosomes of cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. Q6. What is a gene? (AI 2014) A gene is a unit of DNA on a chromosome which governs the synthesis of particular protein that controls specific characteristics (or traits) of an organism. Q7. What is heredity? (AI 2014) The inheritance of characters (or trails) from the parents to their offsprings is called heredity. Q8. Why is the progeny always tall when a tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea plant? (Foreign 2014) When a tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea plant, the resultant progeny is always tall because tall is dominant trait and short is recessive trait. Therefore, dominant trait expresses itself in the progeny. Q9.Write a difference between inherited traits and acquired traits giving one example of each. (Delhi 2013C) A trait (or characteristic) of an organism which is ‘not inherited’ but develops in response to the environment is called an acquired trait. For example, if a group of mice are normally bred, all their progeny will have tails. Now, if the tails of these mice are cut by surgery in each generation, tail-less mice will not be produced. This is so because removal of tail is an acquired character. A trait (or characteristic) of an organism which is caused by a change in its genes (or DNA) is called an inherited trait. Inherited traits can be passed on to the progeny of the organism because they have produced changes in the genes (or DNA) of the organism. For example, skin colour in human beings. Q10.(a) Why did Mendel carry out an experiment to study inheritance of two traits in garden pea? (b) What were his findings with respect to inheritance of traits in F1 and F2 generation? (c) State the ratio obtained in the F2 generation in the above mentioned experiment. (2020) (a) Mendel carried out crosses with two traits to see the interaction and basis of inheritance between them. In a dihybrid cross given by Mendel, it was observed that when two pairs of characters were considered each trait expressed independent of the other. (b) For example, a cross between round yellow and wrinkled green parents. In F1 generation, all plants are with round yellow seeds. But in F2 generation, we find all types of plants : Round yellow, Round green, Wrinkled yellow, Wrinkled green. F2 generation ratio : Round-yellow = 9 : Round- green = 3 : Colour of stem in F1 progeny Wrinkled- yellow = 3 : Wrinkled-green = 1 Question 11. A green stemmed rose plant denoted by GG and a brown stemmed rose plant denoted by gg are allowed to undergo a cross with each other. (a) List your observations regarding : (i) Colour of stem in their F1 progeny (ii) Percentage of brown stemmed plants in F2 progeny if plants are self pollinated. (iii) Ratio of GG and Gg in the F2 progeny. (b) Based on the findings of this cross, what conclusion can be drawn? (2020) (a) (i) Colour of stem in F1 progeny:The colour in the F1 progeny is green stemmed as green stem colour is dominant. (ii) F1 progeny on self pollination: F2 generation Green stemmed: Brown stemmed 14 or 25% of F2 progeny are brown stemmed rose plant. (iii) Ratio of GG and Gg in F2 progeny: Genotype of F2 progeny – GG : Gg 1 : 2 (b) This is a monohybrid cross. This shows that out of two contrasting traits only one dominant trait appears in F1 generation and the trait which does not express is recessive. On selfing the F1 plants, both the traits appear in next generation but in a definite proportion.
