UNIT II

Stages and Principles of Child Development

Stages and Principles of child Development from conception to early childhood.

Objectives:

 Meaning and nature of development.

 Significant Characteristics of Growth and Development.
 Stages of development from Conception to early childhood.

Structure

Meaning and Nature of Development

Principles of child development.

Factors influencing growth and development.

Stages of growth and development.

Characteristics during Early Childhood.

Educational Planning for Early Childhood.

Meaning and Nature of Development

“Growth” & “Development” interchangeable. In reality they are different through they are
inseparable. Growth refers to quantitative and quantitative changes –increases in size and
structure. Development, by contrast, refers to qualitative and quantitative changes. It may
be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes. “Progressive” signifies that
the changes are directional, that they lead forward rather than backward. “Orderly” and
“Coherent” suggest that there is a definite relationship between the changes taking place.

Holistic development sees the child in the round, as a whole person- Physically,
emotionally, intellectually, socially, morally, culturally and spiritually. Developmental
norms are sometimes called milestones- they define the recognised pattern of development

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that children are expected to follow. Each child develops in a unique way; however using
norms helps In understanding these general patterns of development while recognizing the
wide variation between individuals.

Principles of Child Development

Although children develop at different rates and therefore, the nation of inter individual
differences exists, a single child can show more rapid change in some developmental areas
than in others; thus intra individual differences also exist. Regardless of the perspective,
there are certain principles of development that apply to all children.

These includes:-

 Development progresses in a step-by-step fashion. It is orderly sequential and

proceeds from the simple to complex.
 Rates of Development vary among children as well as among developmental areas in
a single child.
 Development is characterized by increasing specificity of functions (differentiation)
as well as integration.

Each child has his own rate of development. To divide entire life span into some
specific stages is artificial; because development is a gradual and continuous process. Still
psychologists, for convenience, have been trying to classify the life span of human beings;
Elizabeth B. Hurlock has given the following classification:

Table-1

Stage Period & Age

1. Prenatal Period Conception to birth
2. Infancy From ninth week to approximately 2 years
3.Babyhood From ninth week to approximately 2 years
4. Child hood From 2 years to puberty
a. Early Childhood Extending upon the sixth year
b. Later Childhood From seventh year to eleven or twelve years

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5. Adolescence From 11-12 years to age of 21 years.
a. pre-adolescence Eleventh or twelfth year to the age fourteen year.
b. Early-adolescence From pre adolescence to the age of sixteen or seventeen.
c. Late adolescence From early adolescence to twenty or twenty one year .
6. Adult hood Twenty first years onwards.
Shortly we may divide the entire life span into four major stages as:

1. Infancy : From birth to two years.

2. Childhood : From two years to 11 or 12 years.
3. Adolescence : From eleven or twelve years to twenty or twenty one years.
4. Adulthood : From twenty or twenty one year’s onwards.

Each of these stages of development can be studied with respect to the followings aspects:

 Physical development
 Mental or intellectual development.
 Social development
 Emotional development
 Moral development

Child development has been a subject of deep interest since the earliest days of
psychological theory. Numerous psychologists and psychiatrists have put forth their own
theories but perhaps none has been as influential as Erik Erikson. A student of Sigmud
Frued, Erikson divided human development into eight stages. Five of which take place
during childhood.

Erikson believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage
in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. According to
Erikson psychological development, occurs through different stages which are mentioned
as follows;

Stage Period Characteristics

Stage-1 Birth-1 year Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage-2 Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.
Stage-3 Preschool yrs Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage-4 Early school years 5 -11 yrs Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage-5 Adolescence period Identity vs. Confusion
Stage-6 Early adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage-7 Adulthood Generatively vs. Stagnation
Stage-8 Old age Integrity vs. Despair

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Views of Psychologists:

 Crow and Crow (1973) defined that “growth refers to structural and psychological
changes while development refers to growth as well changes in behavior”.
 “Development does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or improving
one’s ability. Instead development is a complex process of integrating many
structures and functions” (Anderson, 1950)
 “Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an orderly
predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience” (Hurlock, 1959).

Child development according to Elizabeth B. Hurlock, “Development of human being is a

continuous process from conception to birth”:

1. Prenatal Conception to birth Development is rapid mainly physiological

Period
2.Infancy Birth to 10-14 days Newborn, adjust to new environment,
outside mothers body. Growth is at a
standstill.
3. Babyhood 2 week to 2 years Baby learns to control his/her muscle, so
can becomes increasingly self reliance
independent
4. Childhood 2 years to Adolescence Starts to learn
Early Childhood (2-6 years) -To make social adjustment
Late Childhood (6-13 years) -School age socialization
5. Puberty 11-16 years Transformed into an adult body

Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) developmental stages of Piaget a Swiss educator observed

children. He lived for about 50 years and wrote more than 20 books on the various aspects
of development. He pointed out 4 stages of development.

Table Piaget’s Classification

Stage Period Characteristics

1. Sensory motor stage Birth to 2 years Manipulation of objects in
the environment
2. Pre. Operational stage Between 2 to 6 years Child begins to acquire
vocabulary
3. Concrete operational Between age of 6 and 11 or Child learns to add, subtract,
stage 12 multiply & divide
4.Formal operational stage Between 11 or 12 to 14-15 Child begins to think
years logically

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The entire development is influenced by the important factors as heredity and
Environment.

Different characteristics of each stage of human growth and development:

Human development is the basic fact of human existence and each person develop
uniquely. It occurs in an orderly sequence involving physical, cognitive and emotional
development.

Factors influencing Growth and Development

A. Internal factors- These are within the individual are called includes:-

i. Heredity factors
ii. Biological and constitutional factors
iii. Intelligence
iv. Emotional factors
v. Social factors

B. External Factors- influence the growth and development of the child. The external
factors which impact development are:

i. Environmental influences on the fetus.

ii. Environmental influences after birth

C. Dimension of Development.

Social Physical Cognitive

Development Development Development

Development of Spiritual
Aesthetic Child Development
Development

Language Emotional Development of

Development Development Creative expression

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Major Dimensions of Development:

Human Development is often studied by the developmental psychologists separated as 3

domains-

(i) Biosocial (ii) Cognitive and (iii) psychosocial domain

Domain Description
Biosocial The part of human development that includes physical growth and
development as well as the family, community and cultural factors that
affect growth and development
Cognitive Includes all the mental process through which the individual thinks,
learns and communicates, plus the institutions involved in learning and
community.
Psychosocial Includes emotions, personality characteristics and relationship with
other people as well as cultural influences

2.3. Stages of Growth and Development:

(Physical, Social, Emotional and Intelligence) Life begins with conception in the mother’s
womb. This period is called Pre-natal period. The time before the fetus come out from the
womb is known as antenatal period. The post natal starts immediately after the child
contacts the environment.

Prenatal Period: Prenatal period has six important characteristics-

 The hereditary endowment is fixed which serves for later development

 Favorable environmental conditions in the mother’s body can foster the
development of hereditary potentials.
 The sex of the newly created individuals is fixed at the time of conception by
hereditary endowment.
 Greater growth and development take place during this period than at any other
period in entire life.
 The prenatal period is a time when environmental or psychological hazards can
have a marked effect on the pattern of later development.
 Attitudes towards newly individual have an effect on the normal development.

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Infancy (Birth to 3 years)

1. Infancy begins with birth and extends to two years. It is the stage of rapid
development.
2. During the first two weeks are neonates. They have usually wrinkled blocky red skin
and a large head. The sleep for about 18 to 22 hours a day.
3. During six months age infants can discriminate between faces of parents and
strangers, and colours.
4. By the age of nine months, a baby can sleep.
5. By one year of age, babies can associate sounds and say dada, mama or bye-bye.
6. At the age of two years, baby cooperates with others especially adults and latter
with his playmates.
7. Parents have a profound influence in shaping their children’s personality.

Early Childhood (3-6 years)

This is a period from 3 to 6 years. This period is labeled by parents the toy age, problem or
troublesome age, as the pre-school age: and by the psychologists as the pre-gang age, the
explorative or initiative age.

2.4. Characteristics during Early Childhood

A. Physical Development:

1. Physical growth is at a slow rate.

2. The average annual height is three inches, by the age of six, the average child
measured 46.6 inches.
3. The average annual increase in weight is 3 to 5 pounds. At the age of six, children
weight approximately seven times as much as they did at birth.
4. The arms and legs lengthen and the hands and feet grow bigger.
5. The muscles become larger, stronger and heavier.
6. The baby teeth begin to be replaced by permanent teeth.
7. The child in pre-school stage develops a variety of motor skills like walking, running,
jumping, hopping and climbing.

B. Social development:

1. Early childhood is named as pre-gang age, the time when children are learning the
foundations of social behavior.
2. Children have one or more favorite playmates with which they communicate their
feelings, emotions and interests.

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 3. Children identify themselves with the group by imitating a person whom they
admire.
4. Children develop inter personal and sex appropriate relationships with others.
5. Feelings of autonomy develops in children. They begin to explore their environment
independently .
6. Social environment expands beyond home.

C. Emotional Development:

1. Emotions are spontaneous.

2. Emotions are expressed in relation to concrete objects.
3. Child shifts his emotions very rapidly. Emotions are temporary.
4. Emotional expressions are intense irrespective of the intensity of the stimulus.
5. Children fail to hide their emotions but express them through different activities
such as crying, nail biting, thumb-sucking, and speech difficulties.

D. Intellectual Development:

1. Child enters into Piaget’s second stage of development-pre operational stage. The
child begins to think symbolically.
2. Child develops the perception of size, shape, colour, time and distance.
3. Memory increases rapidly.
4. Creativity and imagination begin to grow.
5. Thinking and reasoning develop in relation to concrete materials.
6. Span of attention and interest in exploring the environment increases.

Educational Planning for Early Childhood:

This is a stage for formal schooling followings points may be helpful for planning
kindergarten education for children-

1. Peal and Lambert (1962) found that bilingual (two languages) children had higher
cognitive abilities than monolingual children. So it is essential in school to introduce
another language along with mother tongue.
2. Listening radio and television can be an aid in learning correct pronunciation.
3. Teaching-learning process should follow play way method instead of rigid syllabus.
4. Physical development of children should be concentrated upon for the activities like
playing games, simple physical exercises for hand, foot, eye hand coordination etc
are to be practiced.
5. Children in preschool interact more with their peers than do home raised children.
6. Creativity, activities like singing, dancing, recitation, art activities, including
painting, cutting and pasting various shapes.

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 Principles of Development
2.6.Principles of Development:

Objectives:

 To understand the meaning of development growth and maturation.

 To understand principles of development
 Distinction between development growth and maturation.

Structure:

Principles of Development

Difference between Growth and Development

Principle of Development and their educational implication

Some general Implication

Human development is a lifelong process of physical behavioral, cognitive and emotional

growth and change. It describes the growth of the human throughout the life span from
conception to death. A lot of charges take place at various stages of life. Childhood
adolescence and adulthood. Throughout the stages, each individual develops attitudes,
values and guide choices relationships and understanding.
All aspects of human growth and development include physical, emotional, social,
intellectual perceptual and personality development.

‘Growth’ and ‘Development’ are often used inter changeably in terminologies. But both are
different from each other.

2.6.1.Differences between Growth and Development:

Growth Development
1. Growth is physical changes in 1. Development is over all and progressive
organism. changes in the organism.
2. Growth is cellular 2. Development is organizational.
3. Growth is change in shape, form, 3. Development is structural and functional
structure and size of the body changes in body.
4.Growth stops at maturation 4. Development continues till death

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5. Growth is a part of development 5. development includes growth
6.Growth is quantitative in nature 6. development is qualitative in nature

Maturation

This means simply changes, which take place as a result of physical growth of Biological
change, rather than those, which takes place through experience. Major development in
early childhood is the result of maturation learning to walk, talk etc are the example of
maturation. It provides the base for the future development.

There are two kinds of behavior.

Kinds of behavior

Phylogenetic Ontogenetic

Phylogenetic Behaviors:

It refers to those behaviors which are common to human species like walking, talking etc.
later more development results from experience.
Ontogenetic Behaviors:

It refers to those behaviors which are individually learned on an individual time table.

A child who is not taught to walk will nevertheless begin to do so when strength and ability
permit, it is a natural consequence of human maturation. But a child, who is capable of the
physical skill necessary to swing a racket or write a word will not be able to do so unless
shown how.

Physical skills can be taught much more quickly and easily to a child, who is at appropriate
development level.

Principles of Development and their Educational Implications:

Development is governed by certain principles:-

1) Development is the product of heredity and environment: Research studies and

investigations have revealed the fact that development is a product of heredity and
environment. An individual inherits many physical, mental and personal qualities
from his ancestors but those qualities are greatly influenced by the environment.
As presents or teachers are unable to control and change the heredity, they should
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 provide suitable environment for the child, so that there will be proper
development.

2. Development is a continuous Process: Development is a continuous process that

takes place at a slow and regular pace. Though for convenience the entire life span
is divided into certain stages, one cannot notice any clear-cut distinction between
two consecutive stages. Nothing happens all on a sudden. For example we cannot
say exactly when a child has developed the power of speech.

Teachers must be very particular about the fact that development is gradual and
continuous. They should not accept a child to achieve something suddenly, rather
they should encourage the gradual achievement and success of the child.

3. Development of various traits are correlates: it is clear from research findings

that various traits are correlated. If a child is having a high IQ, he will generally, have
good physique; and the backward children generally, have various physical
handicaps.

As the development of various traits is correlated, the school should provide

different curricular and co curricular activities so that there will be development in
all aspects of the children.
4. Development proceeds from general to specific:

Development occurs from mass activity to differentiation. The newly born baby, at
first moves his body as a whole. The gradually he/she make finer movements. The
baby also produces some general babbling sounds first; and then gradually learns to
speak specific words. Teacher should take into consideration this principle of
development while teaching.

5. Developments Follow a pattern:

Development takes place in a sequential order; it is a step-by-step process. The

physical development follows two sequences:

(i) Cephalo-Caudal Sequence- The body grows from head region downwards. That
means the distant part of the body from the head, the late is its growth.

(ii). Proximo-distal sequence- the growth process from the central part of the
peripheral parts of the body, i.e. the spinal cord develops first and then the outward
development takes place.

If the teacher finds any abnormality in the pattern of development in any child, the
case should immediately be referred to the specialist.

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 6. Rates of development of different aspects are different:

Different parts of the body and different mental aspects develop at different rates.
For example, the brain attains its maximum size around the age of six to eight years;
the hands and legs attain their maximum size and strength by sixteen to twenty
years; general intelligence reaches the peak between sixteen to eighteen years and
so on.

The school should provide learning materials and activities that will facilitate the
development of different aspects at the proper time.

7. Development can be predicated:

The rate of development of each child is approximately constant throughout. So it is

possible to predict the development of any particular aspect of any child at any
particular time.

If the teacher has the knowledge of the rate of development of a particular child he
can easily control the behaviour of the child.
8. Rate of Development is not even throughout:

During infancy and early years both the physical and mental growth are more rapid
than during the later years of life. The school should realize the importance of the
early years of the child’s life. The preschool and early school years should be
provided with enjoyable and productive experiences, which will facilitate the
learning as well as the development of the child.

9. Individual difference in development:

Each child has his own rate of development. There is wide range of differences
among the individuals in the development of various physical and mental aspects.
The teacher should take into consideration the individual differences while
preparing instructional materials and providing other activities in school.

10. Revision is a feature of development:

When a child passes from one stage to the next, he sometimes reverts back to the
earlier behavior. This happens due to the lack of mastery over the new behaviors.
Such simple deviations from the normal behaviour should be considered as usual
and should not be seriously in the school.

11. Spiral and non linear development:

This principle implies that the development of the child is not in a straight line
(linear) but is in the form of a cork-screw (spiral). He advances in his development
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 in one period but takes rest in the following period. This enables him to consolidate
his development.

12. Principle of struggle:

While the child is developing up towards maturity there are conflicting impulses
and demands. The child struggles against these in his striving for maturity.

13. Indigenous Motivation is the principle of Development:

Child matures in his capacities of doing, thinking and feeling. He has an impulse to
put them to use and he does it whole heartedly. This has been described by Jersild
as “Indigenous Motivation”.

14. Anticipation is the principle of Development:

The child in his/her process of development also uses his capacity of self repair. He
modifies his behavior and even habits keeping in view what is going ‘to become’ in
future. Thus he consciously anticipates his future direction of development.

15. Interrelation is the principle of development:

It is observed that the growth and development in various aspects like physical,
mental, social etc are inter related and independent. Growth and development of the
child in one aspect leads to the development in other aspects as well.

2.6.3. Some General Educational Implications:

The educational implication of each of the principles of development has been
mentioned above. The general educational implications can be summarized below.

1. Development and learning are closely related:

Development determines how learning should proceed. If the child is forced to learn
a material when he has not developed to the stage to learn the particular material,
the learning becomes superficial.
2. Physical growth and maturation prepares the stage on which learning occurs:
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 The materials an individual’s learns, the speed with which he learns it; and the
ability to retain it, all depend on physical growth and maturation.
3. The teacher, with a knowledge of child development becomes more practical and
understanding. He knows what to expect from a child at a particular stage.
4. Knowledge of growth and development helps teachers and administrators to plan
the curriculum and select the effective methods of teaching for children.
5. Knowledge of development aids the teachers to access learning readiness, because
readiness is a product of both training and maturation.
6. As development is a product of heredity and environment, both the factors should
be taken into consideration for taking any decision about the child.
7. Emphasis on Doing: ‘Doing’ helps in the development of mental, physical and social
skills.
8. Different modes of Teaching Learning: Singing songs and learning rhymes,
drawing pictures and reading stories help the child’s mind to grow at the pre
primary, primary and middle stages.
9. Due recognition: For proper development, all children need adequate praise and
recognition for their work.
10. Aspects of satisfaction of curiosity: Children are curious to learn and respond
with interest to new things.
11. Need for a pragmatic Outlook- Every stage of growth has its possibilities and
limitations. Teachers and parents should not place under demands on the child.
Such demands lead to mental tension for the child.
12. Observation: Observation of children leads to better understanding on thr part of
parents and teachers.
Needs of children from conception to Pre-School Stage:
Objectives

 To understand the basic needs of the children(0-3years)

 To understand the importance of the needs
 To understand the psychological needs of the children
 To find out the Educational Implications of the needs

Structure:

Needs of the Children from conception to 3 years

Child’s basic needs and categorization

2.9. Physiological needs

2.10 Emotional needs and Educational Implication

Social needs and their satisfaction

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 Intellectual needs

Understands the need of the child- It is easy for parents to identify their child’s
needs: physical-nutrition, food, warm clothes when it is cold, bedtime, at a
reasonable hour. However a child’s mental and emotional needs may not be as
obvious. Good mental health allows children to think clearly, develop socially and
learn new skills. Additionally, good friends and encouraging words from adults are
all important for helping children develop self confidence, high self esteem and a
healthy emotional outlook on life.

From 0-3 Years:

 Protection from physical danger

 Adequate nutrition and health care
 Appropriate immunizations
 An adult with whom to form an attachment.
 An adult who can understand and respond to their signals
 Things to look at, touch, hear, smell, taste
 Opportunities to explore their world
 Appropriate language stimulation.
 Support in acquiring new motor, language and thinking skills.
 A chance to develop some independence
 Help in learning how to control their own behavior.
 Opportunities to begin to learn to care for themselves.
 Daily opportunities to play with a variety of objects.

Basics for a Child’s Good Physical Health

 Nutritious Food
 Adequate shelter and sleep
 Exercise
 Immunization
 Healthy living environment

Basics for Child’s Good Mental Health

 Unconditional love from family

 Self confidence and high self esteem
 The opportunity to play with other children
 Encouraging teachers and supportive caretakers
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  Safe and secure surroundings
 Appropriate guidance and discipline

Give Children Unconditional Love

Love, security and acceptance, should be at the heart of family life.

 Children need to know that your love does not depend on his/her accomplishment.
 Mistakes and defeats should be expected and accepted.
 Confidence grows in a home that is full of unconditional love and affection.

Kids need the basics of life- like food warmth, shelter, clothing protection etc.

Ten things kids need most are

i. Meeting their everyday needs.

ii. Feel safe and secure
iii. Love and hugs
iv. Plenty of praise
v. Smiles
vi. Talking
vii. Listening
viii. Learn new things
ix. Take care of their feelings
x. Rewards and special treats.
Why “basic needs of children” important?

 They contribute to positive/optimal growth and development of children.

 Meeting children’s needs does not spoil them. Rather it teaches them that they are
valued, helps them to develop trust, decreases stress and distress in the child,
assists them in proceeding down a more optimal developmental trajectory, and
decreases the likely hood of development and behavioral problems (e.g. Brown,
2000: Dunn 2 Kontos, 1997).

Children’s needs may be broadly categorized into the followings:

1. Physiological Needs
2. Emotional Needs
3. Social Needs
4. Intellectual Needs

There are 7 psychological needs of the children

1. Attention
2. Respect

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 3. Acceptance
4. Belonging
5. Love
6. Achievement
7. Friendship

1. Attention: Be attentive to the child. If ignore him he will behave negatively.

2. Acceptance: A Child is happy when he/she is accepted by his parents. Hence it is to be

accepted to your child unconditionally.

3. Respect: A child needs to have self respect and to be self-respected. Praise your child
whenever he does something right to boost his self confidence.

4. Belonging: Everyone hopes to be part of a group. It is the same with your child. He
wants to have a place in a group. If he is rejected or bypassed it will affect his healthy
development.

5. Love: the emotional support and the love of his parents stimulate the child’s mental and
physical growth-shower him/her with love and tender care.

6. Achievement: it is the motive of your child to learn something and to achieve success.
Provide positive reinforcement in his quest for knowledge.
7. Friendship: it is natural for a child to make friends. Encourage your child to socialize so
that he learns to get along with others in a normal and healthy situation.

All the above psychological needs promote a positive impact on the growth of the child.

Physiological needs of a child:

According to Maslow, a child’s first need is physiological. Children need food, water, clean
air and a safe, warm place to sleep. Parents and Teachers may meet these needs.

 Make time to meet these needs in a “family” (small or big family may be)
 Set the breakfast table together the night before.
 Plan a healthy menu about nutrition.
 Keep the air in your home clean. Avoid your child to cigarette smoking excessive
dust and toxic fumes.
 Teach your child to be responsible for his/her own physiological needs overtime.

Teachers Should Know:

 Children cannot learn when hungry.

 Allow the children to drink water as needed.
 Create a warm and inviting classroom environment.
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  Provide students the opportunity to design and keep up the classroom environment.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Abraham Maslow in Psychology derived the human needs in one hierarchy of needs
represented as pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom.

Self
Actualization

Esteem

Love/belonging

Safety

Physiological

Emotional needs and the Educational Implications

Everyone has emotional needs, but sometimes we are not sure about our child’s emotional
needs. By looking at our child’s behavior we can be more in tune with his emotional needs
and a good way to start is by looking at his personality. It is very difficult to decide which
are the top most emotional needs at the child? However some are listed below:-

1. Accepted
2. Believed in
3. Cared about
4. Forgiven
5. Loved
6. Safe
7. Supported
8. Trusted
9. Understood
10. Valued
 Fulfilling a Child’s attention needs attention needs is a key competent in building a
strong self image and helps the parent teachers bond.
 Children should need some freedom, they don’t need punishment.
 Love is one of the most important needs for a happy childhood. Loving atmosphere,
makes the child to feel secure.
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  A child must be given full attention. Use a gentle caring voice to describe the feelings
and situations you see.

Social Needs and Their Satisfaction:

Belongingness is an important social need of the children. Social needs of the child-

 It is his need to learn to cooperate with others in work and in play.

 Acceptance by their group is important. If they feel they are being left out, they
may indulge in anti social activities.
 Various clubs, societies and teams help to give children a sense of belongingness.
In the school it should be ensured by the teachers.
 Discipline in the school should be social. Students need to understand the
necessity of observing rules and regulations through their participation in group
activities.
 Children need independence, but they also need control and discipline, both of
which come through self realization.
Intellectual Needs:
A child learns at his/her own pace, so everyone can be successful. Instead to provide a rich
environment of learning materials, stories, art, music, games and fun-filled activities are to
encourage intellectual growth. Children need opportunities for self expression. They feel
very happy when they feel free to speak. Children have a need to learn and to develop their
abilities.

Teacher has a major role in meeting intellectual needs of the children. The school
programmes and the methods of teaching must be geared to their felt needs. Children may
be encouraged to explore their environment. They may be allowed to experiment through
simple things. They may be provided time to read independently.
Principles of development According to Piaget:
Jean Piaget (1952-1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist. He developed one of the
most comprehensive theories of cognitive development. He developed genetic
epistemology a concept which refers to study of developmental changes in the process of
knowing and in the organization of knowledge. According to him cognitive development
means how knowledge is acquired and developed through successive stages and at various
age levels.

Mental Process: in Piaget’s theory all cognition takes place due to three processes. They
are:

 Assimilation means the fitting of new information into previously established

cognitive structure (schemes)
 Accommodation means the alteration of existing cognitive structures (schemes) in
response to new information.
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  Equilibrium means optimal level of intellectual functioning taking place when
there is a balance between assimilation and accommodation. The cognitive
structure changes from one stage to another by the process of equilibration,
maintaining balance between the child and his changing environment.

These 3 processes together facilitate adaptation is an ongoing process:

 Adaptation is an inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of environment through

assimilation and accommodation.
 Organization the process by which children combine existing schemes into new
and more complex intellectual structure.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget (1970) suggested that children throughout the world proceed through a series of
four stages in a fixed order. Cognitive development progress through:-

Four Stages:

 Sensory motor stage (Birth to 2 years)

 Pre operational stage (2 years to 7 years)
 Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)
 Formal operational stage (12 onward)

1. Sensory Motor-Stage (0-2 years)

 Learning through 5 senses

 Development of initiative behaviours
 Development of symbolic knowledge
 Develops object permanence
 The beginning of goal directed actions
 Imitation.

2. Pre operational stages (2-7years)

According to Piaget, the pre operational stage is a period from 2 to 7 years of age which is
characterized by language development. During this stage the child requires the ability to
form mental images of objects and events; and thus begin to think symbolically. This stage
is further subdivided into two:

(a) Pre conceptual Phase (2 to 4 years)

(b) The Intuitive Phase (4 to 7 years)
(a) Pre conceptual Phase (2 to 4 years): During this period the child develops the
ability to identify and classify objects.

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  Semiotic function- ability to use symbols
 One way logic
 Differed Imitation
 Symbolic Play
 Transductive Reasoning: Child reasons from the particular to the particular.
 Ego Centrism: Child cannot think beyond his own view.
 Animistic Thinking: Children attribute human feelings and motives to non-
living objects.

(b) Intuitive Phase (4-7 years): the child in the intuitive sub stage lacks
understanding of relational terms and ability to sterilize objects.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years):

According to Piaget, the concrete operational period from 7 to 12 years is characterized by

logical thinking and loss of egocentrism. ‘Hands on’ thinking, identity Compensation,
Reversibility, classification serrations’ are important features of this stage-

 Inductive-deductive Reasoning- The child begins to think in terms of a set of

interrelated principles rather than single bits of knowledge.
 Flexibility in Thinking- The child sheds his egocentrism and is able to take view
points of others.
 Understanding the Principle of Conversation: The child develops the ability to
conserve both in terms of quantity and number of objects.
 Classification and Serialization: Child develops the ability to classify objects and
develops the understanding of relational terms and also the ability of
serialization.Reversibility of Thought: At this stage the child learns to carry a
thought backward and forward in time.

4. Formal Operational Stage:

The important features of this stage are:-

 Abstract Thinking-Child uses symbolism in the process of thought and learns to

deal with abstraction by logical thinking.
 Hypothetical Reasoning: Systematic assumption of possible solutions
(hypothesis) is derived by the child for the problem.
 Problem Solving: Individual follows the systematic approach in solving the
problems. He/she formulates multiple hypotheses and a number of alternate
solutions.
 Transfer of Knowledge: The individual is able to transfer his learnt knowledge
from one situation to another.

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Age Range Major Characteristics

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 year Development of object permanence,
development of motor skills, little or no
capacity for symbolic representation.
Pre operational 2 to 7 years Development of Language and symbolic
thinking, egocentric, thinking.
Concrete Operational 7 to 12 years Development of conservation, mastery of
concept reversibility.
Formal operational 12 to adult hood Development of logical and abstract thinking.

Some Educational Implications of Piaget’s View

 Read events and concrete objects play an important role in learning.
 In early years of the child if he is not allowed a fairly wide sensory and motor
experience in, his development is retarded.
 Children should be treated as children.
 Children should be made active.
 Children like to find out by themselves, by their own spontaneous activity.
 Children learn speedily if we provide concrete material to them.
 It provides a broad developmental perspective to the educator for building a
curriculum for the preschool children.
 A teacher should arouse curiosity of the child through planned activities.

Aspects of Development
Objectives

 Physical & Motor.

 Emotional development
 Social Intellectual
 Moral and Aesthetic.

Structure

Physical and Motor Development

Emotional Development

Social Intellectual Development

Moral and Aesthetic Development

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2.13.7 Aesthetic Developmen

Physical & Motor Development

Children begin developing at birth and continue to adulthood. The successful completion of
developmental milestones helps the child reach full potential.

A child develops rapidly in this stage. This period brings dramatic changes in body and
brain of the child. It supports the motor, perceptual and intellectual capacities.
Thelanguage begins with the first intimate ties with others. Infancy spans the first year of
the child and todler hood, the second year. The period of childhood takes place between 2
to 11year.

During Infancy the physical growth is most rapid. There is noticeable change in the
size and shape of the child. At birth the average weight of an infant is 6.3 pounds and height
is 18 inches. At the end of the second year, he is about 32 to 34 inches high and of a
considerable weight. During this period the child learns to crawl, stand and walk. He can
have the feelings of pain, temperature and pressure due to the development of sense
organs.

During Early childhood, the growth is even. Through it is rapid, it is not as

remarkable as in infancy. From age 2 to 6 year, the body becomes longer and learner.
During this period the child grow in average, 3 or 4 inches in height per year. Motor skills
start refining and children become more self- controlled and self sufficient. Thought and
language increases and sense of morality becomes evident. The arms and legs lengthen out,
the lower part of the face grow rapidly. During this time there is sufficient motor
development. The child is able to perform motor activities as balancing, climbing and
throwing a ball. This is the best period when child can be trained in different motor skills.
The young child is happy to repeat a n activity involving his muscles.

During Middle Childhood (6-11 years)

During this period children learn about wider world and experience new responses.
Improved athletic abilities, participation in organized games with rules, more logical
thought process mastery of basic literacy skills and advances in self understanding.

During this period the child appears more like an adult. The arms and legs grow faster than
the trunk and the child appears tall and thin. Child loses milk teeth and permanent teeth
begin to appear. Muscular coordination is further refined.

During Adolescence (11-18 years)

The second stage in which child develops very rapidly after infancy is adolescence. This
period initiates the transition to adulthood. Puberty leads to an adult sized body and sexual
maturation.

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Motor Development: defined as the development of strength speed and accuracy in the
use if muscular parts of the body such as arms eyes, legs and neck muscles. Motor
development is closely related with emotional, mental physical and social development.
Development of Large Gross Muscle Coordination:

It implies developing control over the movement of large muscles of the body such as
thighs, legs, arms etc. This helps later in life, particular in activities like sports, dancing,
gymnastics, dramatics etc.

Gross Motor skills Broadly fall into different categories: (1) the first category includes those
motor activities which are directed through efficient management of the body (balancing ,
climbing, gymnastic type of activities). (2). The second category of activity relate to trial of
strength and speed like a ball or bat catching, kicking throwing etc. (3). The third category
lay stress on rhymn. These lead to skills like dancing. (4). Development of fine muscle
coordination: This means developing control over movement of finer muscles, particularly
finger and wrist muscles and eye hand coordination. Creative art or writing are the
examples.

Classification of Motor Skills of Childhood:

Hand Skills Leg Skills

I. Self feeding skill i. Climbing

II. Self bathing skill ii. Cycling
III. Self dressing skill iii. Dancing
IV. Self combing self grooming iv. Hopping, Jumping, Skipping.
V. Ball throwing and catching v. Running
VI. Writing skill vi. Swimming
VII. Copying skill
VIII. Block making and creating skills.

Motor development Characteristics

(3 years child)

1. Manipulates play materials

2. Alternates feet going upstairs’
3. Rides a tricycle
4. Counts to three
5. Feeds self with little spilling.
6. Throws objects over heads.
7. Fashions objects with clay.
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 8. Stands on one foot.
9. Jumps upward.
(4 years Child)

1. Skips on one feet

2. Laces shoes
3. Dresses and undress
4. Cuts on lines with scissors
5. Runs broad jumps
6. Saws with handsaw
7. Throws over head with less body participation.

(5 years Child)

1. Ties shoe laces

2. Skips on alternate feet
3. Draws Recognizable figures
4. Picks up small items skillfully
5. Draw alphabet letters

(6 years Child)

1. Engages in all five year activities but with more skill and feelings
2. Throws and catches ball.
3. Climbs up rope swings.
4. Builds blocks, shoulder height with lighter touch.
5. Cuts pastes, models and colors skillfully
6. Builds crude items in workshop.
Emotional development
The world ‘emotion’ is derived from a Latin word ‘emovere’ which means the stirred up or
the excited state of body and mind. P.T. young defined emotion as “an acute stimulation of
the individual as a whole, psychological in origin, involving behavior, conscious experience
and visceral functioning”. The definition makes it quite clear that emotion is an intense
experience which moves individual to action. It causes psychological and bodily changes
and provokes behavior. There are two types of emotions; the pleasant emotions, such as
joy, happiness, affection etc; and the unpleasant emotions such as fear, anger and jealousy
etc. An emotion always is aroused by a certain stimuli which may be any event, object or
people and continues so long as the stimulus continues.

Garrison is of the opinion that the “Infant is poorly endowed emotionally. But the infant
sometimes shows behaviors that they seem to have an emotional quality”.

According toWatson emotion of fear, anger and love can be identified even in very young infants.
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However, the emotions of infants are uncoordinated, undifferentiated, diffused and gross”. As the
infant advances in years various emotions begin to differentiate.

The emotional element is present in infants it can be seen from crying and vigorous
movements of the child’s body parts. As the child develops and passes to higher stage of
life, the emotional pattern can be determined with increasing precision and accuracy. In the
process of emotional, development, the child gradually evolves definite patterns of reaction
to stimuli that cause emotional reaction.

Emotional Development in Childhood:

This development in childhood is influenced by family, peers, school and community. A

specific pattern of behavior is formed regarding adults and peers with whom the child
comes into contact. Environment of school and home influence the emotional development
of the child.

The atmosphere in both school and home should be as free as possible, so that the
child could freely manifest and express his/her emotions. Repression of emotions leads to
control in expression of emotions and it is dangerous for the development of the child.

Milestones of Emotional Development:

Age Emotional expressiveness Emotional understanding

0-6 months  Social smile emerges.  Detects emotions by
 Laughter appears. matching the caregiver’s
 Expressions of happiness increase feeling tone in face to face
when interacting with familiar people. communication.
 Emotional expressions gradually
become well organized patterns that
are meaning fully related to
environment events.
7-12 months  Anger and fear increase in frequently  Detects the meaning of
and intensity. others emotional signals.
 Uses caregiver as a secure base.  Engages in social referencing.
 Regulates emotion by approaching or
retreating from stimulation.
1-2 years  Self conscious emotions emerge but  Begins to appreciate that
depend on monitoring and others emotional relations
encouragement of adults. may differ from one’s own
 Begins to use language to assist with  Acquires a vocabulary of
emotional self regulation. emotional terms.
 Display empathy.
3-6 years  Self conscious emotions are clearly  Understanding causes,

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 linked to self evaluation. consequences and behavioral
 As representation and language signs of emotion improves in
improve uses active strategies for accuracy and complexity.
regulating emotions.  As language develops
 Begins to confirm emotional display empathy becomes more,
rules, can pose a positive emotion he effective.
or she does not feel.
7-11 years  Self conscious emotions are integrated  Can reconcile conflicting cues
with inner standards of excellence and when explaining offer’s
good behavior. emotions.
 Uses internal strategies for engaging in  Is aware that people can have
emotional self-regulation, shifts mixed feelings and that their
adaptively between problem- centered expressions may not reflect
and emotion- Centered coping . their true feelings.
 Conformity to and conscious  Empathy increases as
awareness of emotional display rules emotional understanding
improve. improves.

Social Intellectual Development:

“it can be defined as the progressive improvement through directed activity, of the
individual in the comprehension of social heritage and the formation of flexible conduct
patterns of reasonable conformity with this heritage ”- FF powers

According to the above definition,

social development as the progressive
improvement has been emphasized. An
individual is not passive and static.
He/she becomes the active member of
the group by his/her interest and desires.
Social development involves learning the
values, knowledge and skills that enable
children to relate to others effectively
and to contribute in positive ways in
family, school and community. He
experiences a large number of
interpersonal relationships and tries to
adopt to socially accepted behavior patterns. Family, friends, society and culture directly or
indirectly pass this learning to the children. Children build a sense about themselves and
their social roles, through their relationships with others.
Social development is the progressive development by means of which, the child

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maintains order and system in his/her relation with others in the community. During
different stages of development, social circumstances, relations with others and
expectations undergo constant change.

Social Development of Infancy (2 to 6 years):

Child’s social development takes place gradually with her/his age. Early childhood is
named as pre-gang age, the time when children are learning the foundations of social
behavior.

 Children have one or more favorite playmates with which they communicate their
feelings, emotions and interests.
 Children identify themselves with the group by imitating a person whom they
admire.
 Children develop inter personal and sex-appropriate relationships with others.
 Feeling of autonomy develops in children. They begin to explore their environment
independently.
 Social environment expands beyond home

Social development at childhood:

At this age children go to school and social development of this period is influenced by
schools atmosphere. During this period, the child is away from home for a considerable
part of the day. So in schools, teachers, peers environment of schools affect’s the social
development of the child.

During this period:

 Child develops social behavior necessary to adjust with others.

 Child becomes an active member of a peer group.
 Child believes in group loyalty and tries to confirm to the rules and values
maintained by the group.
 Boys and girls make individual groups, because their interests, habits and desires
become differentiated.
 Children develop group consciousness and they become less selfish, self centred and
aggressive but cooperative and outgoing.

Intellectual Development:
This development comprehends the development of intellect, mental capabilities,
imagination, thinking, emotion and other mental processes. Functions of brain(to know, to
experience and to make decisions), play an important role in the intellectual development.
Intellectual development refers to development in the ability to adopt behaviour to
environmental conditions as the individual strives to achieve increasingly conscious goals
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and purposes.

Intellectual development includes:

 Sensory Impulse or “Sensation”.

 The interpretation of sensations or “Perception” includes the power to build upon
perceptual material.
 The ability to recall the experience with the help of “memory”
 The highest form of mental/ intellectual development is “reasoning”.

During Infancy, mental development is also very rapid and remarkable. Skinner includes
the abilities in memory, imagination, language perception, conception, intelligence and
problem solving under mental abilities. The child at the time of birth, has certain
perceptual abilities visual, auditory and gustatory. The more elaborate perceptual skills
develop during the first year. Light and sound has remarkable effects on the child. During
the second year there is rapid progress in both receptive and productive language learning.
The child is able to understand some words and can use a few words to express his
feelings. Child can imitate, discriminate and recognize. At the early childhood stage:-

 Child enters into Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development-pre operational

stage. The child begins to think symbolically.
 Child develops the perception of size, shape color, time and distance.
 Memory increases rapidly.
 Creating and imagination begin to grow
 Thinking and reasoning develop in relation to concrete materials.
 Span of attention and interest in exploring the environment increase.

Intellectual Development in Childhood:

During the early childhood, the child’s behavior begins to show evidences of functioning of
those mental traits that will serve him/her in the later life. The child is aware of thrust,
hunger, sleep, temperature and other bodily needs. The child becomes more demanding
and more selective. The child is capable of logical thinking. Child’s speech becomes
increasingly socialized and communicative. Vocabulary increases remarkably.

During Later Childhood:

 Children enter into Piaget’s concrete operational stage of intellectual development.

 Child has a very short span of attention.
 6-7 years child learns poems and songs. He/she is interested in stories and believes
in fairies and witches. Age of 9-12 years child turns into a realist. He wants realism
in the stories. Rote memory continues to be good and the child learns with great
ease.
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  6-7 year old child can form concepts of concrete objects. Abstract concepts are still
vague.
 Child’s logical thinking increases.

Middle Childhood focuses in the following characteristics of intellectual development.

1. Curiosity it increases in the childhood, as the child is no longer contended with the
passive methods.

2. Play It is in the concrete form that helps in the development of psychomotor skills.

3. Creative Tendencies the child manifests an instinctive creative tendencies that

positively incline his/her in making new friends and playing or working creatively.

4. Solving Problems the child take special delight in solving puzzles and various kinds of
problems. The intellectual development becomes more complex and abstract in the
adolescence and adulthood.

Moral and Aesthetic development:

Moral concepts are specific in the beginning and are related to particular situations. The
child is able to distinguish between rights and wrong in simple situations. The word
‘Moral’ has been derived from a Latin word ‘Mores’ which means manners, customs,
and folkways. So moral behavior refers to behavior in conformity with moral code of
the society.

The infant is quite unable to think efficiently. He is unable to distinguish between what
is good and what is bad; because he has no conscience and no scale of values. He
performs some wrong acts unintentionally due to his ignorance, and inability to
distinguish between good and bad acts. Hurlock is of the view that since the child has no
conscience it is of no value to teach him moral behavior and moral concepts.

According to Frued, “The moral developments proceeds when the individuals selfish
desires are repressed and replaced by the values of important socialization as the
primary force behind the moral development”.

Piaget(1965) focused on the individual’s construction, construal, and interpretation of

morality from a social cognitive and social, emotional perspective.
According to “Lawrence Kohlberg, young children at this age base their morality on a
punishment and obedience orientation. Kohlberg believed that young children behave
morally because they fear authority and try to avoid punishment”.

He felt that moral development was a slow process and evolved overtime, he has
explained six stages of development.

Pre Conventional Level: The child of first and basic level, the conventional level, in
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 concerned with avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages;
and applies the children up to 10 year of age.

(1). Punishment Obedience Stage: Children obey rules because they are told to do so, by
an authority figure (Parent or Teacher) and they fear punishment if they do not follow
rules.

(2). Individual, instrumentation and Exchange Stage: Child follows the rules if there is a
known benefit to him or her. Children at this stage are very concerned with what is fair.

Conventional Level: This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs.
Children in this level are concerned about being accepted by others and living up to
their expectations. This stage begins around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood.

(3). “Good boy & Good Girl”, Interpersonal Conformity Stage- Children do the right
things because it is good for the family, peer group, team, school or institutions. They
understand the concepts of trust, loyalty and gratitude, morality is acting in accordance
to what the social group says is right and moral.

(4). Law and order or Social System and Conscience stage: Children and adults at this
stage abide by the rules of the society in which they live. These laws and rules become
the back bone for all right and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to do
their duty and show respect for authority.

Post Conventional Level: some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional
morality and enter morality based on reason, examining the relative values and
opinions of the groups with which they interact.

(5). Social Contact and individual Rights stage: individual in this stage understand that
codes of conduct are relative to their social group.

(6). The principled conscience or the universal ethical principles stage: Individuals
examine the validity of society’s laws and govern themselves by what they consider to
be universal moral principles. Usually involving equal rights and respect. They obeys
rules that fall in line with these universal principles.
During Childhood Period:

The moral concepts are specific in the beginning and are related to particular situations.
The child is able to distinguish between right and wrong in simple situations. But when
the child is about 8 or 9 years old he develops more generalized moral concepts
towards the 11 or 12 year the moral concept of the child oriented towards authority,
law, duty and maintaining the status quo. But the moral values of the child go on
changing as he encounters with more and more people.

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 School Programme for developing Moral Values of Various Kinds:

1. Celebration of National values.

2. Social service programmes.
3. Emphasis on the unity of religion harmony among communities and national
integration.
4. Development of scientific temper.
5. Community prayer in the school.
6. Health and cleanliness programmes.
7. Socially useful productive programmes.
8. Citizenship training programmes.
9. Cultural and recreational programmes.
10. Student self-government in schools.
11. Introduction of information technology.
12. International understanding.
13. Appropriate teaching learning situation.

The teachers and educators, the supervisors and administrators and above all the parents
must try their best to promote value oriented education.

Phases of Moral Development:

Moral development takes place in two distinct phases:

(1) Development of Moral behavior (2) Development of Moral Concept

(1) Development of Moral behavior: children can learn to behave in a socially approved
manner through trial and error through direct teaching or through identification. Out of
these 3 direct teaching and identification are not only the best methods but also the most
widely used.

Trial and Error Learning:

Children learn to behave in a socially approved way by trial and error, they do so by trying
out one pattern of behavior to see of it conforms to social standards and wins social
approval for them.

Direct Teaching:

Children must first learn to make correct specific response in specific situations. If the
objective aspects of different situations are similar children transfer the patterns of
behavior they have learned in one situation to other similar situations. On the other hand,
when these objective aspects are different, children will fail to see how, what they learned
in one situation applies to another situation.

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Identification: when children identify with people they admire they imitate the patterns of
behavior they observe in these people. Identification as a source of learning moral behavior
becomes increasingly important as children grow older and rebel against discipline in the
home and school.

(2) Development of Moral Concepts: The second phase of moral concepts consists of the
learning of moral concepts or the principles of right and wrong in an abstract verbal form.

Preschool children are in capable of abstract thinking; they define “good behaviour”
of specific acts such as “obeying mother” or “helping others” and “bad behavior” in terms of
not doing these things. At the age of 8 or 9 year, the concepts of the children become more
generalized. They realize for example that “Stealing is Wrong” rather than that is “wrong to
steal a ball”. Moral concepts reflect social values are known as “moral values”. The moral
values of children are not static, they tend to change as they associate with more people
and with people whose values differ from those they have learned at home.

Aesthetic Development:
Aesthetic is the awareness and appreciation of pleasant sensory experiences including the
ability to perceive, respond and sensitive to one’s natural environment. The way children
learn in their early years is important and will indirectly influence on their later
development and learning and to bring children’s potential to the maximum, they must be
given the opportunities to explore and experiment in the different areas of learning and
aesthetic learning is one of them.

Aesthetic is connected with beauty and the study of beauty. It can stimulate
children’s senses in the so form of music, dance and drama.

Stimulating environment created for such activities will enhance children’s learning
and thinking. Providing opportunities to the children, express their thoughts, ideas and
feelings freely through art, music, drama not only enable the children to express
thingsreatively. It also fosters the development of other domain such as physical, cognitive,
language and social.

Aesthetic Development in Children:

Possible categories to observe

 Children’s drawing or painting.

 Structures created with blocks, logos and other materials.
 Pretend play/ social dramatic play/playing roles in pretend play.
 Play-doe creations/creations made with art supplies.
 Child tells imaginative story/acting out stories with dolls, animals or other toys/
using language for creating and sustaining plots/story, reenactment.
 Having an imaginary friend.
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  Creating music/dance/playing musical instrument.
 Coming up with creative solutions to novel problems.
 Creating humor/playing with words.
 Making up games.

Aesthetic can refer to a wide range of responses and abilities. As mostly broadly defined, it
is the awareness and appreciation of pleasant sensory experiences. More narrowly it
means the ability to critically evaluate works of art according to criteria that are defined by
the culture. Commonly and in this article aesthetic refers to the love of beauty, to criteria
for judging beauty and to individual taste.

“Aesthetic perception involves the capacity to respond to the uniqueness, the

singular quality of things- to value individual integrity and to reject the cliché and the
stereotype” (Ross, 1981, P.158).

Preschool Programs will provide children with opportunities:

 Exhibit curiosity about an exposure how materials function and affect the senses.
 Create (imagine, experiment, plan, make evaluate, refine and present/ exhibit)
works that express or represent experiences, ideas, feelings.
 Represent
 Engage in musical and creative movement activities.
 Describe or respond to their own creative work or creative work of others.

Education in Grades K-1,2 Students

 Create(imagine, experiment, plan, make, evaluate, refine, exhibits) art work, that
express ideas,
 Perform(select, analyze, interpret rehearse, evaluates refine and represent)
 Respond (select analyze, interpret)
 Understand and use materials.
 Understand the importance of art.
 Identify representative works and recognize the characteristics of art, music, dance,
theatres dramas etc.
 develop sufficient mastery of at least one art from to be able to purpose further
study
 Seek arts experiences and participate in the artistic life of the school and
community.

Some suggested Experiences:

a) Role Play: This is an informal acting out of a situation, problem, story or scene.
Teacher is the leader and guide the whole play and setting the stage.
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 b) Finger play: these are most familiar to early childhood teachers and include songs,
chants and rhymes that are recited and acted out.
c) Story building and storytelling: story telling is common for children in everyday life.
As children’s stories are heard they develop a repertoire of vocabulary and ideas to
communicate with others. Elaboration by parents, teachers and other children
continues to build on creative thinking and problem solving.
d) Puppetry: Puppets encourage expression of ideas and provide an opportunity to
observe and evaluate the behavior of attracted puppets, and enjoy thinking that the
puppet may, in fact be real.
e) Best Practices: Early childhood educators are urged to consider the best practice
recommendations in the discipline of “creative dramatics”
 Provide time for children to play in settings with costumes, masks and
puppets
 Create a story
 Collect and organize easy use a collection of finger plays like five little
monkeys, going on a bear hunt, I know an old lady who shallows a fly ,
Ten in the bed etc.
 Create play opportunities.
 Using puppets, dramatize situations.
f) Music: Making music provides children with opportunities to express their feelings,
investigate rhythm, develop and understanding of their bodies in space, explore
movement and strength and experience concepts such as loud and soft, fast and
slow, and high and low. Music and movement can foster the development of
listening skills, promote oral language, strengthen auditory discrimination and
provide countless opportunities for problem solving.
Aims of Aesthetic Education:

1) To create interest about art among children.

2) To create respect for work among children and thereby make them self dependent.
3) To create conditions so that children can work according to their aptitudes.
4) To enable children to work in a free atmosphere.
5) To create interest in them for decoration
6) To help children in making toys and assist teachers in the teaching of preparing
material aids.

Some Activities provided to children

1. Collecting stamps, coins, flowers, leaves, roots stones and coloured glasses.
2. Making albums of the colored wings of different birds.
3. Moving freely in the open atmosphere and to examine the sky, green grass etc very
closely.

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 4. Collecting waste materials like paper, clothes, wood. etc making toys out of this
material.
5. Preparing painting and placing them in albums.
6. Preparing models
7. Listening to music
8. Composing songs and chorus songs
9. Singing songs and chorus songs.

Clay work in childhood

Clay work helps children to create and express themselves. Children have a natural
tendency to be creative and if they are not given any opportunity to create anything they
become dull. They should be encouraged to realize their potential.

It is necessary that pre-primary classes’ children are allowed to do clay work. They should
be taught how to use earth can take but also permit them to prepare designs for the
purpose of their self expression. Children should be asked to prepare different designs both
by hand and in moulds. Special care should be taken, so that articles made by children are
inexpensive, beautiful and useful.

 Children should be given freedom to work.

 Their works should be occasionally supervised and suggestions could be given.
 Teacher must exhibit the work done under his supervision.
 Children should be provided with proper environment where to take their own
decision and work according to their tastes.
 Child should be permitted to imitate and use his imagination in clay modeling.
 Precautions to be taken for them.

Nature and importance of Language Development

Objectives

 To enable the children to understand the importance of Language development

 To understand Language skill development
 To understand components of language development

Structure:

Nature and Importance of Language development

Language development in children

Listening skills development

2.13.11 Language development Chart

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 Nature and importance of Language Development
Language development supports the child’s ability to communicate, and express and
understand feelings. It also supports thinking and problem solving and developing and
maintaining relationships. Learning to understand, use and enjoy language is the critical
first step in Literacy and the basis for learning to write.

Language is an important skill that allows a person to communicate. A child begins

to develop language even before she can use words, as seen by a baby who cries to get her
needs meet. Language development is important to a child in order to adequately exchange
information with others in a meaningful way.

Language development in Children

It is the best way to encourage the child’s speech and language development is to talk
together frequently and naturally.
 Talking with the baby- When the baby starts babbling babble back with similar
sounds. This keeps the talking going and is great fun.
 Responding to the baby- when you tune in and respond to your child, it encourages
him to communicate.
 Every day talking- Talk to the baby even if she/he doesn’t understand. From the
time your child starts telling stories, encourage the baby to talk about things in the
past and in the future.
 Introducing new words- It is important for children to be continually exposed to lots
of different words in lots of different contexts. This help them learn the meaning and
function of words in their world.
 Reading with the baby- Read aloud with the child and point towords as you say
them. Talk about the pictures, use a variety of books. Books with interesting pictures
are a great focus for talking. Road aloud with your child and point to words as you
say them.
 Following your Child’s Lead- if the child starts conversation through talking, gesture
or behaviour, respond to it, making sure you stick to the topic your child started.
Repeat and build on what your child says.

Functions of Language

Language permits the communication of information from one generation to the other.
Broadly speaking language performs the following functions:-

1. Language helps to communicate ideas to others.

2. Language helps in the formation of concepts.
3. Language helps in the analysis of complex wholes.
4. Language helps to focus attention on ideas which would otherwise be difficult to
keep in mind.
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 Listening Skills Development:
Listening skills involve a lengthy process; it is developed through the reproduction of
sounds, their musical quality and rhythm. Imitation plays an important role in developing
listening skills.

Acquiring Listening Skills

(1) Increase in Vocabulary

(2) Helpful in the development of oral expression

(3) Helpful in the development of reading skills.

(4) Helpful in the development of writing skills.

Aims of developing Listening Skills

1) To develop the habit of knowing what others say

2) To teach proper pronunciation
3) To develop the modulation of voice
4) To develop the habit of understanding spoken language
5) To develop interest in learning language
6) To develop interest in literature
7) To develop interest in exchange of idea
8) To develop the skill in understanding the ideas and attitudes, and attitudes of the
speakers,

Components of Language development:

 Communication, which involves combination of several cognitively learnt

behaviours and skills.
 Phonology, implies the ability to produce specific sounds for specific words, speech
development which refers to
 Semantic Refers, to the correct use of the words (vocabulary) to express specific
thoughts.
 Grammar- Consists of two main parts the first one is syntax.
 Syntax is the appropriate use of grammar to make sentences. It is the rules by
which words are arranged into sentences and the second one is morphology. It the
use of grammatical markers (indicating tense, case, person etc) and other meanings.
 Pragmatics: it defines the ability to communicate effectively with the skills that go
beyond and the basic understanding of the words and the rules of grammar. It
demands child’s awareness of the social aspects associated with effective
communication such as –
i. Relationship with the partner one is conversing with.
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 ii. Social context in which the conversation is taking place.
iii. The environment at large.

2.13.11. Language Development Chart:

Age Typical Language development

6 months  Vocalization
 Responds to his name
 Responds to human voice without visual cues by turning head and eyes
 Responding appropriately to friendly and angry tones

12  Uses one more words with meaning

months  Understanding simple introduction, especially if vocal or physical cues are
given.
 Practices inflection
 Is aware of the social values of speech.
18  Has vocabulary of approximately of 5-20 words.
months  Vocabulary made up chiefly of nouns
 Some echolalia (repeating words phrase over and over)
 Is able to follow simple commands
 Much jargon with emotional content

24 months

 Can name a number of objects common to his surroundings.

 Is able to use at least two prepositions, usually chosen from the following: in, on
under,
 Combines words into a short sentences-largely noun verb combinations (mean)
length of sentences is of 1-2 words.
 Approximately 2/3 of what child says be intelligible vocabulary of 150-300 words
 Rhythm and fluency often poor.
 Volume and pitch of voice not yet well controlled.
 Can use two pronouns correctly
 My and mine are beginning to-emerge
 Responds to such commands as “Show me your eyes, (nose, mouth, ear)”

36 months

 Use pronouns, I, You, me correctly

 Is using some plurals and past tenses.
 Know at least 3 prepositions, usually in, on, under.
 Knows chief parts of body and should be able to indicate these if not name.

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  Handles 3 words sentences easily.
 Has in the neighborhood of 900-1000 words.
 About 90% of what child says should be intelligible.
 Verbs begin to pre dominate
 Understands most simple questions dealing with his environment and activities.
 Relates his experiences so that they can be followed with reason.
 Able to reason out such questions as “what must you do when you are sleepy,
hungry, cool or thirsty”.
 Should be able to give sex, name, age
 Should not be excepted to answer all questions even though he understands what is
expected.

48 months / 3 years of age

 Knows names of familiar animals

 Can use at least four prepositions or can demonstrate his understanding of their
meaning which given commands
 Names common objects in picture books and magazines.
 Knows one or more colours
 Can repeat 4 digits when they are slowly
 Can use repeat words of four syllables.
 Demonstrates understanding of over and under.
 Extensive verbalization as he carries out activities.
 Understands such concepts as longer, larger when a contrast is presented.
 Readily follows simple commands even thought the stimulus objects are not in sight.
 Much repetitions of words, phrases, syllables and even sounds

60 Months/ 5 year of age

 Can use many descriptive words spontaneously both adjectives and adverbs.
 Knows common opposites: big- little, hard- soft, heavy-light etc.
 Has number concept of 4 or more
 Can count to ten
 Speech should be completely intelligible in spite of articulation problems.
 Should be able to repeat sentences as long as nine words.
 Should be able to follow three commands given without-interruptions.
 Should know his age.
 Should have simple time concepts morning afternoon, night, day later after, while.
 Tomorrow, yesterday, today
 Speech on the whole should be grammatically correct.

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6 years of age

 He/she should be mastered: f, v.sh, zn, th, etc.

 He should have concepts of 7
 Speech should be completely intelligible and socially useful.
 Should be able to tell one a rather connected story about a picture, seeing
relationships.
 Between objects and happenings.
7 years of age

 Should have mastered the consonants s-z, r voice less, th, ch.wh and the soft g as
George.
 Should handle opposite analogies easily, girl-boy, man-woman, flies-swims, blunt-
sharp, short-long, sweet-sour etc.
 Understands such terms as: alike, different beginning and end etc.
 Should be able to tell time to quarter hour.
 Should be able to do simple reading and to write or print many words.

8 years of age

 Can relate rather involved accounts of events many of which occurred at some time
in the past.
 Complex and compound sentences should be used easily.
 Should be few lapses in grammatical constrictions - tense, pronouns, plurals.
 Should be reading with considerable ease and now writing simple compositions.
 Control of rate, pitch and volume are generally well and appropriately established.
 Can carry on conversation at rather adult level.
 Follows fairly complex directions with repetition.
 Has well developed time and number concepts.

Nature and Importance of Developing Number and Geometrical Concepts

Objectives:

 To understand the nature and Importance of number and geometrical concept

 To understand the concept formation
 To develop geometrical concepts among children
Structure:

Nature, Importance of developing number concept

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 Promoting children about Numbers and their operations

Principles of Concept formation

Learning about geometry concept formation

Development of geometric concept

Starkey (1992) showed that “very young children could represent numerical quantities
without the use of language. Even more importantly, they could understand that addition
increases the numerosity of the set of items or objects, while subtraction does the
opposite”.

According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000)” children develop

number sense and “learn mathematical concepts through everyday activities, sorting
(putting toys away or groceries away), reasoning (comparing and building with blocks)
representing (drawing to record ideas) recognizing patterns (talking about daily routines,
repeating, nursery rhymes, and reading predictable books, following directions(singing
motion songs such as ‘Hockey Pockey’), and using special visualization (working with
puzzles).

Math and number awareness involves a variety of skills, including (1) Numeral
identification (recognizing all 10 numerals from 0 through 9 and knowing each numeral’s
name), (2) Counting, (3) one to one correspondence, (4) counting on (5) patterning
recognition and creation: and sorting and classifying.

Importance of Strong Math and Number skills:

 Basic mathematics and number concepts utilized on a preschool or kindergarten

classroom set the foundation for learning more advanced math concepts. Early
exposure to math and number activities will promote child’s comfort with these
skills. Also additional opportunities to practice these skills will increase child’s
confidence when working with math and number concepts and will lead him to
believe he is “Good at Math”. If a child does not become comfortable with math and
number concepts at a young age, child will lack confidence in his abilities and may
become hesitant as more advanced math concepts are introduced. When this
happens, he may default to believing he is “Bad at Math”. As children grow they
learn abstract concepts like goodness, honesty and kindness etc,
 The process of concepts consists of the following elements:
(1) Experience (exploration)
(2) Abstraction. It implies the process of discovering the common elements in a large
number of situations.
(3) Generalization
(4) Analysis
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  Children learn important math skills through their play and routine, and need to
experience a lot of doing and saying, using concrete materials that they can
manipulate to learn math in the early years.
 When children learn basic math concepts early on, they generally have more
positive attitudes and way more confidence with mathematics later in school. Since
problem solving is key to being able to do all other aspects of mathematics, we need
to be sure to provide plenty of opportunities for problem solving and not be too
quick to help when they can figure things out of themselves.

Learning about Numbers and Operations:

It includes:-

 Counting
 One-on-One Correspondence
 How Many?
 More/less
 Rank order-(first, Second, Third)
 Recognizing Numerals
 Grouping
 Fractions as part of the whole (half, one fourth)

Promoting children about Numbers and their operations through following

Activities:
 Promote the concept of one-to-one correspondence through kinesthetic learning.
Combine the assignment of each number word with the physical act of either
moving, touching with a finger or at pointing at the object it represents.
 Provide activities that allow the child to easily see and physically do with objects.
 Use comparison words.
 Read books about numbers and counting-extend the learning with related activities.
 Use words that indicate order (first, second, third)
 Encourage children to compare quantities.
 Provide plenty of materials with numerals alongside the number written out and
corresponding objects, that add up to the number.
 Add telephones menus, money and other items with number.
 Talk about prices, addresses and time.
 Invite the child to group or sort objects and materials, during art, science or other
activities.
 Sing songs and finger plays that include numbers.
 Play board games
 Use numbers as you talk with children about what they are doing.

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 Principles of Concept formation
Followings are the principles.

1) Likeness and differences among things and ideas etc.

2) Cognizance (understanding), the attributes (qualities)
3) Correct terminology
4) Proper sequence
5) Analysis
6) Generalization
7) Self discovery
8) Use
9) Independent evaluat

Some activities for formation of Concepts

Concept Activity Experience

1. Formation of number concept 1. Number rhymes
2. Number games
3. Number Puzzles
2. Formation of time concept 1. Time perception cards
2. Improvise clock
3. Formation of color concept 1. Rhyme and songs
2. Dramatization
3. Experiences with cards clothes and objects
4. Formation of temperature concept 1. Activities with improvised thermometer
2. Simple experiments
5. Formation of concept of physical 1. Sand play
environment 2. Water play
6. Formation of concept of social 1. Celebration of functions
environment 2. Celebration of festivals
Methods of Teaching

1. Direct Method (2) Teaching Aid (3) self Discovery

2.14.3.Learning about Geometry concept formation

Geometry learning about shapes and space and includes the followings elements:

 Shape
 Size
 Position in shape
 Direction
 Movement
 Spatial relations

2.14.4.To develop the geometrical concepts in the child followings can be done:
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  Include toys and materials with different shapes and talks about what they are
called and the elements of different shapes.
 Have children cut items into shapes (Paper, folder )
 Provide nesting toys and other materials that fit into each other.
 Provide large card board boxes for the children to crawl in and out of
 Use positional words (in, next over, under)
 Play body games (Pat-a-cake)
 Provide standard measuring tools like rulers clocks, tape measures, measuring
cups and spoons, strings and other materials such as ribbons
 Provide nesting toys
 Use measurement words and talk about relative amounts
 Encourage children to compare
 Invite children to estimate things
 Make picture and word recipes for children to follow.

Measurement is another basic concept of mathematics

 Describing how long, tall, heavy, big something is

 How long something takes
 How much space something takes up
 Comparing and using tools for measurement.

Putting math into Daily activities

 Play clean up games that involve sorting by shape, size and color.
 Add telephones, menus money and other items with numbers on them to your
dramatic area.
 Talk about prices, addresses and time.
 Use comparison and sorting in art activities
 Provide empty containers of various shapes for making sculptures and other
creations.
 Provide measuring cups and spoons as well as many sizes for sand and water play.
 Include books about number concepts in your reading area.
 Play percussion games that emphasize patterns.
 Use a timer for games or cooking.
 Have children look for natural patterns in nature.
 Have children collect items for sorting and classifying.

Activities provided relating to the concept of volume

1. Explaining the concepts through demonstration of vessels of different sizes

containing water,
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 2. Discussing shapes of various vessels and containers.
3. Showing the differences in volume by pouring water in them or from one to another.
4. Repeating exercises sometimes by using sand cereals etc in place of water.

Sense experience, Aesthetic and creative experiences:

Objectives:

 To enable the children to provided different kinds of experiments for creative and
aesthetic development
 To enable the students develop skills of making different kinds of equipment needed
to develop creative and aesthetic sense among children.

Structure.

Meaning of Aesthetic experiences

Sensory experiences for a baby
2.14.7. Aesthetic Experiences
2.14.8 Creative Experiences
2.14.5 Meaning:
Aesthetic experiences emphasize doing things for the pure joy of it. Young children benefit
from aesthetic experiences. Children are fascinated by beauty. They love nature and enjoy
creating looking at and talking about art. They express their feelings through language ,
song, expressive movements music and dance for more openly than adults. Although
children respond differently to sensory experiences, these experiences can be therapeutic,
improve motor skills, raise awareness of how worls works and contribute to language
acquisition.

Exploration from Birth:

When babies first interact, they don’t have words to describe what they encounter. But
they do absorb information through their senses. A new born also begins to to hear sounds
in the womb and can distinguish her/his mother’s voice from other voices at birth. She can
differentiate between sweet and sour test, will gravitate towards more pleasant smells and
is comforted by warmth and soft touch.

Some examples of how could articulate a sensory experiences for a baby

Touch-Pouring water (Hot & Cold)

Sight- see the bird in the sky

Smell- smell of flower

Taste-sour, sweet
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Sound-different sounds

Sensory activities for babies:

 Sensory play- Through soft blanket and variety of objects for child to touch.
 Water scoping- playing with water is a favorite activities,
 Bean Bowl Exploration- Fill a large bowl or shallow tub with dry beans, rice, sand or
wheat berries, babies enjoy to shifting these materials with finger
 Tearing and feeling wet paper
The simple ingredients of paper, water and a large sensory activities for preschool
and kindergarten children.
 Water bead exploration- play experiences for small children
 Cloud dough exploration: dough is a combination of flour, oil, water etc. damp
sand. Replace the flour with rice flour.

There are number of sensory play for early childhood children.

Rachelle Doorely is an artist and mother of two. She published children’s creativity blog,
(Thinker, Lab, and com) Anambah of familiar play activities developed by her the sense of
experiences among small children. Followings are some of the sensory/ sense of
experiences of the children (fig.1-6).

Fig1.

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Fig.2.

Fig.3

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Fig.4

Fig.5.

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Fig.6.

Aesthetic Experiences
Generally aesthetic experience can be defined as a special state of mind that is qualitatively
different from the everyday experience. Aesthetic experience is also closely related to
Maslow’s concept of peak experience (Maslow 1968). In this experience, attention is fully
engaged and focused on a particular object, while the object is seen as detached from its
every day purpose and usefulness.

Aesthetics can refer to a wide range of responses and abilities. As most broadly
defined, it is the awareness and perception of pleasant sensory experiences. Aesthetics
refers to the love of beauty, criteria for judging beauty and to individual tasted (Stephanie
Feeney and Eva Moravcik). Aesthetic experiences with visual arts, poetry and storytelling
as integral to language and literacy learning are presented.

Some Ideas of Aesthetic Experiences

 Think nature-For example study a leaf, look at the veins, the colour, the colour
inside, those colours, shape within the shape, microspic line, textures, and look for
pattern.
 Become an object- Help children identify with and see the wonder in objects by
pretending to that objects. Facilitate use of the senses by asking children to sound,

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 feel, look, possibly smell or even taste like on every day object. For example say
children to become on orange what shape would they be?
 Go shopping- Showing the colors of the vegetables, storing, packaging, smell
through boxes.
 Eat Dinner- Aesthetic manners, use table, pick the table cloth, spoons fold napkin
feel the texture of food etc.
 Take a walk- study the dirt beneath the feet, listen the sounds of your steps, smell
the air, feel the temperature, touch, smell, see and respond to trees, grass, mud,
sand, rocks
 Sit in the sun-or wind or shade
Feel and taste cold, air, cloud, etc
 Watch the rain
 Look out of the window
 Examine your body
 Listen to music

According to Feeney and Moravik (1987:8) distinguish between two approaches in art
and education. The first refer to as studio-oriented. This approach places emphasis on the
followings:.

Some short of aesthetic experiences:-

 Jump and run- get lost in the moment, feel every muscle, try to hear heat beat.
 Experience silence-close your eyes and listen to the sound of nothing can you hear
it.
 Water a plant- notice color changes, watch the water as it slashes off leaves and is
sucked into mud.
 Wash your hands- awaken the senses to the feel of cold water, the foam of the soap,
smell aroma.
 Study your favorite object- Build a tower, work slowly, feel the wooden blocks in
your hand, keep it balanced.
 Watch a bird fly- or dog run, or horse jump or turtle crawl.
 Take a train ride- a boat ride, bicycle ride, a bus ride, a car trip, smell and taste the
air feel vibrations and speed, take in the colors as they pass by.

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Objective and Cognitive skills Development activities:

Objectives Activities
(3 to 4 years age) 1. Children to match blocks of same shape
1. Enable the learner to match and color.
object/picture 2. Asking the children to sort out leads of
2. Similar from a set of objects/pictures. different shapes and colors.
(age 4-6 years)

1. Children to identify object/picture/design 1. Preparing strips of 5 pictures ask children

different from a set of to locate different and identical.
2. find a particular shape in a given picture 2.Making visual cards making strips
3.Identify a word 3. Using alphabets.
4. Identify names 4.Name cards
(sense of Hearing)  Children may asked to recite
 To discriminate between various different rhymes involving sounds of
common sounds in the environment. animals
 To locate direction easily with the  Filling the empty boxes with marbles,
help of a sound. pebbles sands etc and make sound
 To identify a familiar object from the boxes
sound easily.  Identifying different sounds made
Sense of Touch  Making small sound
 Identify and distinguish between soft Provide opportunity to handle and
and hard and rough smooth manipulate different objects in the
 Classify and put in order rough and environment.
smooth surfaces and soft and hard.  Give 3 or more touch cards and
objects of different textures and
taking them to arrange them in order
from rough to smooth.
There are three basic ways to provide young children develop mentally appropriate
aesthetic experiences in the early childhood program (Althouse Johnson, Mitchell, 2003)

1. Provide many opportunities to create art.

2. Provide many opportunities to look at and talk about art.

3. Help children become aware of art in their everyday lives

Creative Experiences
According to Guilford, “creatively sometimes refers to creative potential, sometimes to
creative production and sometimes to creative productivity”. Creativity is the ability to
produce ideas, objects or problems, solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful.

Creativity refers to the phenomenon where by something new is created, which has some
kind of some subjective value.

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Early childhood experiences- Enhancement of creative learning centers for children with
set up tips and teaching strategies different assessment suggestions and resourceful ideas,
support creative experiences for children.

 Arts and crafts

 Building blocks
 Language and listening
 Out doors
 Pretend play
 Puzzles and games
 Science and nature

Family Involvement- Everyone benefits when families are involved in their children
learning.

Teachers Encourage Creativity

James D. Moran III, Dean of the college of Human Ecology at the University of Tennessee,
suggests that teachers: -

 Emphasize process rather than product.

 Provide a classroom environment that allows children to explore and play without
undue restraints.
 Adapt to children’s ideas rather than trying to structure the children’s ideas to
adults. Accept unusual ideas from children.
 Use creative, problem solving in all parts of the curriculum.
 Use the problems that naturally occur in everyday life.
 Use creative, problem solving in all parts of the curriculum.
 Allow time for children to explore all possibilities, moving from popular to more
original ideas.

Making creativity part of Every Day (Activities)

 Read stories
 Laugh together
 Use voices for the characters in the books you read out loud.
 Join the tea parties in housekeeping corner during imaginative play.
 Modify the house keeping/dress up corner into the home of the three bears.
 Bride towers or bridges with wooden blocks add cardboard tubes or craps to
change the possibilities.
 Invite puppets to talk with children and help them learn new songs and finger plays.
 Change the classroom furniture’s arrangement to encourage spaces with new
purposes and functions.

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  Have a picnic style snack on the floor instead of at the usual table.
 Move book into a private reading corner made from an appliance box.
 Use common everyday objects to new uses.

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