Scribd
Upload
21 views4 pages

Chapter2-26 On Twin

Recursion is a programming concept where a function calls itself to solve smaller instances of a problem until it reaches a base case, which stops the recursion. It is a fundamental concept in computer science and is commonly used to solve problems that can be divided into smaller, similar subproblems. Key Components of Recursion Base Case: The condition under which the recursion ends. Without a base case, the recursion would continue indefinitely and cause a stack overflow error. Recursive Cas

Uploaded by

Rahul Shukla
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
21 views4 pages

Chapter2-26 On Twin

Recursion is a programming concept where a function calls itself to solve smaller instances of a problem until it reaches a base case, which stops the recursion. It is a fundamental concept in computer science and is commonly used to solve problems that can be divided into smaller, similar subproblems. Key Components of Recursion Base Case: The condition under which the recursion ends. Without a base case, the recursion would continue indefinitely and cause a stack overflow error. Recursive Cas

Uploaded by

Rahul Shukla
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 4

Section 2.26.

Harmonic Functions 1

Section 2.26. Harmonic Functions

Note. In this section we define harmonic functions which map R2 → R and have
a number of applications to be explored later. Harmonic functions are then related
to analytic functions.

Definition. A real-valued function H : R2 → R is harmonic in an open connected


set D of the xy-plane if it has continuous partial derivatives of the first and second
order and satisfies the partial differential equation

Hxx (x, y) + Hyy (x, y) = 0

throughout D. The PDE is Laplace’s equation.

Note. Laplace’s equation describes the distribution of heat and electrostatic po-
tential in a two dimensional setting (at equilibrium). Chapters 10 and 11 explore
these problems in detail.

Example 2.26.1. Consider T (x, y) = e−y sin x. We have Txx = −e−y sin x and
Tyy = e−y sin x, so Txx (x, y) + Tyy (x, y) = 0. Also, T (0, y) = 0, T (π, y) = 0,
T (x, 0) = sin x, and limy→∞ T (x, y) = 0. So T (x, y) describes the steady state
temperature of a thin plate bounded by the region given in Figure 2.31 where the
temperature is held at 0 along the vertical sides and is given by half of a sine wave
along the lower boundary. The condition limy→∞ T (x, y) = 0 describes a condition
on the “boundary at infinity.”
Section 2.26. Harmonic Functions 2

Theorem 2.26.1. If a function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain


D, then its component functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic in D.

Example 2.26.2. The function f (z) = f (x + iy) = e−y sin x − ie−y cos x has
u(x, y) = e−y sin x and v(x, y) = −e−y cos x, so that ux (x, y) = e−y cos x = vy (x, y)
and uy (x, y) = −e−y sin x = −vx (x, y) for all (x, y). Therefore f satisfies the
Cauchy-Riemann equations and the partial derivatives exist and are continuous for
all (x, y), so f is an entire function. Therefore by Theorem 2.26.1, both u(x, y) and
v(x, y) are harmonic on all of R2 .
Section 2.26. Harmonic Functions 3

Definition. If two given functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic in an open
connected set in R2 and their first-order partial derivatives satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equations throughout the open connected set, then v(x, y) is a harmonic
conjugate of u(x, y).

Note. We will see soon that v(x, y) may be a harmonic conjugate of u(x, y), but
u(x, y) may not be a conjugate of v(x, y).

Theorem 2.26.2. A function f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in


a domain D if and only if v(x, y) is a harmonic conjugate of u(x, y).

Example 2.26.4. Suppose that u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy. Then


f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = z 2 . Since f (z) = z 2 is an entire function,
then by Theorem 2.26.2 v(x, y) is a conjugate of u(x, y). Now if we consider g(z) =
g(x + iy) = v(x, y) + iu(x, y) and try to apply the Cauchy-Riemann equations, we
have
vx = 2y and uy = −2y; vy = 2x and − ux = −2x.

The first Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied only for y = 0 and the second
Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied only for x = 0. So the Cauchy-Riemann
equations applied to g are satisfied only at 0. That is, g is analytic nowhere. So
u(x, y) is not a conjugate of v(x, y) by Theorem 2.26.2.
Section 2.26. Harmonic Functions 4

Note. In Section 9.104, it is shown that every harmonic function u(x, y) has a har-
monic conjugate. However, actually finding the harmonic conjugate can be tricky
since it involves integration (which can be hard). The next example illustrates a
way to find a harmonic conjugate where the integration is easy.

Example 2.26.5. Consider u(x, y) = y 3 − 3x2 y. We have ux (x, y) = −6xy,


uxx (x, y) = −6y, uy (x, y) = 3y 2 −3x2 , and uyy (x, y) = 6y, so uxx (x, y)+uyy (x, y) = 0
and u(x, y) is harmonic in the entire xy-plane. By Theorem 2.26.2, if v(x, y) is
a harmonic conjugate of u(x, y) then u and v must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations: ux = vy and uy = −vx . Here, this implies that vy (x, y) = ux (x, y) =
−6xy. So antidifferentiating with respect to y we have that v(x, y) = −3xy 2 + ϕ(x)
where ϕ is a function of x only. Also uy (x, y) = 3y 2 −3x2 = −vx (x, y) = 3y 2 −ϕ0 (x),
so we must have ϕ0(x) = 3x2 . Hence ϕ(x) = x3 + C for some C ∈ R. So v(x, y) =
−3xy 2 + x3 + C. This gives

f (z) = f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = (y 3 − 3x2 y) + i(−3xy 2 + x3 + C)

= i{x3 − 3xy 2 + i(3x2 y − y 3 )} + iC = iz 3 + iC.

Since the components of f have first-order partials which are continuous and satisfy
the Cauchy-Riemann equations for all (x, y), then by Theorem 2.22.A f is analytic
in the entire complex plane. By Theorem 2.26.2, v(x, y) = −3xy 2 + x3 + C (where
C ∈ R) is a conjugate of u(x, y) = y 3 − 3x2 y.

Revised: 3/23/2020

You might also like