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Phonetics

1:Phonetics is a level of linguistics that scientifically analyzes, studies and interprets the physical,
psychological and physiological aspects of speech sounds. It deals with three main interrelated yet
distinct factors of speech sounds.

2: There are three branches of phonetics. Those are given below-

-Articulatory phonetics: it deals with the production of speech sound.

-Acoustic phonetics: it deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.

-Auditory phonetics: deals with the perception of the speech sound by the listener.

In phonetics, 'voiced' refers to a sound produced with the vocal folds vibrating, causing audible
vibrations.while 'voiceless' sounds, occur when the vocal folds remain open without vibrating.

Examples of voiced sounds include 'b', 'd', and 'g', while 'p', 't', and 'k' are voiceless.

There are seven articulators above the larynx, these are:

the pharynx, the soft palate, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the tongue, the teeth and the lips.

2-The vowel quadrilateral is a four-sided shape marked with symbols representing different vowel
sounds.while primary cardinal vowels, representing the maximally possible vowel space in acoustic/
auditory terms and reflecting the universal markedness conditions with respect to lip rounding.

Vowels

A diphthong is a sound composed of two vowel sounds in English, from the Greek for ''two sounds. '

Example:my,boy,cry etc

- triphthong is any combination of three vowels beginning and ending with unstressed high vowels (as in
"camb ii s" or "b uey").

Consonant II

The production/articulation of Consonants are produced by briefly stopping the airflow.

2- There are 21 consonants in the English alphabet: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y,

3- The place of articulation is where a sound is made while the manner of articulation is how a sound is
made.
Phonetic transcription III

Phonetic transcription is a way to visually represent the sounds of speech. Different systems can be used
for phonetic transcription, with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) being the most widely
recognized.

For example:The phrase "Schools are closed" can be transcribed in IPA as:

/skuːlz ɑːr kloʊzd/

Here’s a breakdown of the transcription:

- "schools" = /skuːlz/

- "are" = /ɑːr/ (Note: In some dialects, it may be pronounced as /ər/)

- "closed" = /kloʊzd/

- The word "cat" would be transcribed as /kæt/ in IPA.

- The phrase "How are you?" would be transcribed as /haʊ ə juː/ in IPA.

Phonology IV

Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages.

2- phoneme is a smallest unit of sound in a word.

3-The phonemic system of a language is a set of linguistic units which forms the basis for higher levels of
language structure

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments.

Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

Minimal pairs are word pairs that differ by only one sound.

Prosodic V

Complementary distribution occurs only at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end.

2- Distinctive feature analysis it seen as composed of a number of contrasting articulatory and acoustic
features.

3-A phonological rule is a method for describing the way in which individual sounds are produced in
spoken languages .
4- Phonotactics is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible
combinations of phonemes.

Syllabic consonant VI

syllable, a segment of speech that consists of a vowel, with or without one or more accompanying
consonant sounds immediately preceding or following.

The nature of the syllable: - from a phonetic point of view, syllables are usually described as consisting of
a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud.

2- A syllable is a group of one or more sounds.

3- Strong syllables are longer lasting in terms of length,while Weak the syllable is weak when it has the
short vowel schwa is a weak sound for weak syllables.

The nature stress VII

The nature of strress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension.

Types of stress

-Acute stress: Acute stress is short-term stress that comes and goes quickly.

-Episodic acute stress: Episodic acute stress is when you experience acute stress on a regular basis.

-Chronic stress: Chronic stress is long-term stress that goes on for weeks or months.

2-When a word has two or more syllables, one of them is pronounced with an additional emphasis, and
this is what is known as word stress while complex word stress is a stress which changes its position
from one place to another because of two reasons.

Speech VIII

Rhythm is the pattern of sounds and silences in music.

2-Assimilation is a sound change in which some phonemes change to become more similar to other
nearby sounds

3-In linguistics, an elision or deletion is the omission of one or more sounds in a word or phrase.

4-linking sentence is a sentence that relates to the main idea of your essay, namely your topic sentence.

Form and Function in Intonation I IX

In intonation, form refers to the actual pitch patterns or melodic shapes used in speech, while function
refers to the communicative purpose or meaning that these pitch patterns convey.

Examples:
- Form: Rising pitch at the end of a sentence.

- Function: It may indicate a yes/no question (e.g., “Are you coming?”)

- Form: Falling pitch at the end of a sentence.

- Function: This often signals completion or finality (e.g., “I’m going home.”).

2. Tone and Tone Languages

In tone languages, pitch (tone) is used to distinguish word meanings.

3. Complex Tones and Pitch Height

Complex tones involve more intricate pitch movements, such as a combination of rising and falling
within a single tone.

Pitch height refers to how high or low the pitch is in a particular tone or intonation contour.

Examples:

- Fall-rise tone: In English, a fall-rise tone might indicate uncertainty or reservation. Example: “I’m not
sure if that’s the best idea.

- Rise-fall tone: This tone can express strong emotion or surprise.

Example: “Wow, that’s amazing!”.

- Pitch height: The actual height of the pitch can indicate different meanings or emotions:

- A high pitch may indicate excitement, politeness, or urgency: “You’re going now?”

- A low pitch may signal authority or finality: “That’s all we need to do.

4. Some Functions of English Tones

English uses tones (intonation patterns) primarily to signal different meanings, emotions, or syntactic
functions.

Here are some key functions of tones in English:

-Distinguishing statements and questions:

- Falling tone: Indicates a declarative statement or finality.

- Rising tone: Signals a yes/no question or doubt. Example: “She’s coming tomorrow?”

-Expressing attitude and emotions:

- Fall-rise tone: Indicates hesitation, reservation, or politeness. Example: “I could help, if you want…”
(↓↑ pitch pattern on “help”).

- Rise-fall tone: Can indicate surprise or excitement. Example: “That’s unbelievable!” (↑↓ on
“unbelievable”).

-Highlighting important information:

- Rising intonation can be used to emphasize key information in the sentence. Example: “We need to
finish the report by Friday.”

- Signaling the end of a thought or turn in conversation:

- Falling tone: When someone’s intonation drops, it usually signals that they have finished their point
and are ready for someone else to speak.

Example: “I think that’s a good plan.” (falling on “plan”).

The Structure of the Tone-Unit

A tone-unit (also known as an intonation unit or prosodic unit) is a segment of speech characterized by a
distinct intonational pattern. A tone-unit can be divided into several key parts:

- Pre-head: The unstressed syllables before the first stressed syllable.

- Head: The part of the tone-unit from the first stressed syllable up to, but not including, the tonic
syllable.

- Tonic syllable (Nucleus)

- Tail: The unstressed syllables that follow the tonic syllable (if any).

Example:

- She walked(head) to the market (tonic syllable) yesterday” (tail).

2. Pitch Possibilities in the Simple Tone-Unit

The pitch or intonation contour of a tone-unit conveys various meanings or emotions. Some common
pitch patterns in a simple tone-unit include:
- Falling tone: Signals finality, certainty, or completeness. Example: “I’m going home.” (

- Rising tone: Often used for questions, uncertainty, or requesting confirmation. Example: “Are you
coming?”

- Fall-rise tone: Indicates reservation, contrast, or hesitation. Example: “I could try”

- Rise-fall tone: Can express surprise, sarcasm, or strong assertion.

Example: “Oh, really?”

3. Functions of Intonation II. X

Intonation serves various linguistic functions beyond just signaling pitch changes.

4. The Attitudinal Function of Intonation

The attitudinal function of intonation refers to how changes in pitch and tone can express the speaker’s
feelings or attitudes toward what is being said.

Example:

- Happy/Excited tone: “That’s amazing!” (rising, lively intonation)

- Bored/Uninterested tone: “Yeah, it’s great...” (flat, falling intonation)

- Sarcastic tone: “Oh, that’s just fantastic!” (exaggerated rise-fall intonation).

5.The Accentual Function of Intonation

The accentual function*of intonation involves using pitch or stress to highlight or emphasize certain
words or syllables within a sentence.

Examples

-Emphasizing new information

- “I bought a new car.” (The word “new” is emphasized, suggesting that the newness of the car is
important information.)

-Contrastive stress

- “I said I wanted a blue car, not a red one!” (Emphasis on “blue” to contrast it with “red.”)

-Clarifying focus

- “She’s borrowing your car.” (Emphasis on “your” to indicate ownership.)

The grammatical function of intonation helps mark the structure of a sentence and can distinguish
between different types of sentences (statements, questions, commands, etc.), or emphasize syntactic
boundaries.

Examples:

- Statement: “She’s leaving tomorrow.” (falling tone to signal completeness)

- Yes/no question: “Is she leaving tomorrow?” (rising tone, signaling a question)

- Wh-question: “When is she leaving?” (falling tone but with stress on the question word)

- Listing: “We need apples, bananas, and oranges.” (rising intonation on items in a list and falling at the
end)

Intonation helps make grammatical distinctions that might not be clear from the words alone.

7. The Discourse Function of Intonation

The discourse function of intonation helps organize information and manage communication flow in
spoken interaction. It indicates how speakers structure their thoughts, whether they are introducing
new topics, continuing a conversation, or signaling that they are finished speaking.

Examples:

- Introducing new information: “Well, I think we should start.” (falling tone indicating a new topic)

- Signaling continuation: “And then we can go to the park.” (rising intonation showing that the speaker
isn’t done)

- Ending a turn: “That’s all I have to say.”

- Checking for agreement or understanding:

“You know what I mean, right?”