1

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE

Department of Physics
Allied course: I B. Sc. (Mathematics) – Syllabus - from June 2023
PHYSICS FOR MATHEMATICS - PRACTICALS

List of experiments:

1. Compound Pendulum – Determination of ‘g’ and ‘k’.

2. Torsion Pendulum – Determination of Rigidity modulus.

3. Young’s Modulus by uniform bending using scale and telescope.

4. Young’s Modulus by Cantilever – Pin and Microscope

5. Determination of Refractive index of a Prism – Spectrometer.

6. Newton’s Rings - Determination of ‘R’ and ‘µ’.

7. Wavelengths of Hg spectrum – Grating – Normal Incidence.

8. Calibration of Ammeter – Potentiometer.

9. Figure of Merit of a Mirror Galvanometer.

10. Carey Foster’s Bridge – Resistance and Specific Resistance.

11. Operational Amplifier IC 741 – Inverter, Non-inverter, Voltage follower, Adder &

Subtractor.

12. Logic gates – Verification of Gate’s, NAND as a universal gate.

13. Verification of Demorgan’s theorem – NOT, AND, OR GATE

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1. COMPOUND PENDULUM

AIM:

To determine the radius of gyration of the compound pendulum about its centre of mass
and the acceleration due to gravity.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Compound pendulum, stop clock and scale.

FORMULA:

 l 
g  4 2  2  m / s 2
T 

Symbol Explanation Unit

g Acceleration due to gravity Nm-1

l Length of equivalent simple pendulum m
T Period sec

TABULAR COLUMN:

To find the Period of Oscillation.

Distance of Time for 20 oscillations

the knife edge Period of
S. No. from the fixed Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean oscillation (T) T2
end A (sec) (sec) (sec) sec (sec2)
(m)
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GRAPH:

From Graph:

To find l/T2

Length of the
Period from P Q equivalent simple
R S PR QS pendulum l/T2
the graph ×10-2m ×10-2m
×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m/s2
T2 (sec2)  PQ  RS 
 
 2 

PROCEDURE:

1. Suspend the bar about the knife edge from the hole nearest to one end.
2. Displace the bar slightly to one side in a vertical plane and release to set it into oscillations.
3. After the first few oscillations, when the pendulum vibrates evenly in one plane, start a
stopwatch just when the pendulum passes the equilibrium position. When the pendulum
passes through the equilibrium position to the same side, it completes one oscillation. Find
the time for 20 oscillations.
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4. Take two trials and find the mean time‘t’ for 20 oscillations and hence the mean time
period T.
5. Repeat the above procedure by suspending the bar from successive holes and tabulate the
observations.
6. Beyond the centre of gravity, turn the bar upside down and continue the observations till
the last hole.
7. Measure the distance from one fixed end to those points in the successive holes where the
knife edge supports the bar.
8. For the first half of reading, the length is measure from 'A’(fixed end) to the nearer end of
the hole which rests on the knife edge.
9. For the second half of the readings the end ‘A’ would have swung down. Hence the length
of the pendulum will be the distance from ‘A’ to the farther end of the hole which rests on
the knife edge.

GRAPH:

1. Plot a graph with distance of knife edge from one end (end A) on ‘x’ axis and
corresponding time period on ‘y’ axis. The nature of the graph is shown in the figure.
2. Draw a horizontal line PQRS parallel to the ‘x’ axis. Here P, Q, R and S represent the
points of interaction of the line with the curves. Note the curves are symmetrical about the
vertical line which meets the ‘x’ axis at the point ‘G’. This gives the position of the C.G. of
the bar. Determine the lengths PR and QS and find the length ‘l’ of equivalent simple
 PR  QS 
pendulum from l   
 2 
3. Find also the time period ‘T’ corresponding to the line PQRS. Then compute the values of
l / T2 .
4. Draw several horizontal lines parallel to ‘x’ axis and using the above procedure find the
values of (l/T2) for each horizontal line, calculate the mean value of (l/T2).
K  K1
5. From the graph calculate ‘K’ the radius of gyration from K  2
2

CALCULATION:

K 2  K1
(l/T2) = , g = 4π2(l/T2) = , K =
2

RESULT:

The radius of gyration of the compound pendulum about its centre of mass = m

The acceleration due to gravity is found to be = m/sec2

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2. RIGIDITY MODULUS BY TORSION PENDULUM

AIM:

To determine the moment of inertia of the given disc and the rigidity modulus of the
material of the suspension wire by torsion oscillations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A circular metal disc, suspension wire, screw gauge, stop clock and scale.

FORMULA:

8Il
  N / m 2
T2r 4

Symbol Explanation Unit

η Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire N/m2

I Moment of Inertia of the metal disc about the axis of
rotation Kgm2
l Length of the torsion pendulum m
T Time period of oscillation sec
r Radius of the wire m

GRAPH:
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TABLE: 1. To find l/T2

Time for 10 oscillations

Length of the Sec
Period of oscillation (T) l/T2
S. NO. pendulum T2
sec m/sec2
(l) ×10-2m Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean sec2

1.
2.
.
.
.

Mean =

To find the diameter of the wire using Screw gauge.

L.C. = 0.01 mm Z.E = Z.C=

PSR HSC HSR = (HSC XLC) TR = (PSR + HSR) CR = TR + (ZC x LC)

S.No
X 10 m
-3 (div) X 10 m
-3 X 10 m
-3 X 10-3m

1.
.
.
.
.
Mean =

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the metal wire disc to the experimental wire which is suspended from a fixed screw.
2. The length of the suspended wire between the point of suspension and the metal disc is
the length of the torsion pendulum.
3. Adjust the length of the pendulum to be approximately 40cm.
4. Torsion oscillations are set by giving a small twist to the disc.
5. Note the time taken for 20 oscillations and hence time period can be calculated.
6. The length of the pendulum is measured in steps of 5cm and find the period of oscillation
for each length.
7. Measure the radius of wire using a screw guage.
8. Measure the circumference of the metal disc by a thread from which calculate the radius of
the disc and its mass by balance.
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CALCULATION:
Mass of the disc M = kg
Circumference of the disc 2πR = m
Radius of the disc R= m
Moment of the inertia of the circular disc (I) MR2/2 = kg m2
Radius of the wire (r) r = m
Mean value of 1/T2 l/T2 = m/sec2

8Il
Rigidity Modulus  2 4
N / m2 = N/m2
T r

RESULT:

The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is found to be  = N / m2

Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire from graph  = N / m2
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3. YOUNG’S MODULUS BY UNIFORM BENDING

USING SCALE AND TELESCOPE

AIM:

To determine the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar by uniform bending using
scale and telescope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

The given bar, two weight hanger with slotted weights, support beam, two knife edges,
scale & telescope arrangement, single optic lever, vernier calipers and screw gauge.

FORMULA:

3Mgal 2 px
q  3
N / m2 : S
2sbd 2D

Symbol Explanation Unit

Q Young’s modulus of the material of the bar Nm-2

g Acceleration due to gravity Ms-2
l Length of the bar between knife edges m
x Depression for M kg load m
b Breadth of the bar m
d Thickness of the bar m
M Load kg
D Distance between mirror and scale m
a Distance between knife edge and weight hanger m
p Distance between front leg and midpoint of two legs if m
the optic lever
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To find the depression

Scale Reading × 10-2 m Mean (s)

Load
S.No.
(M)Kg
Loading Unloading × 10-2 m

To find the thickness of the bar using Screw guage.

L.C. = 0.01 mm Z.E = Z.C=

PSR HSC HSR = (HSC XLC) TR = (PSR + HSR) CR = TR + (ZC x LC)

S.No
X 10-3m (div) X 10-3m X 10-3m X 10-3m

1.
.
.
.
.

Mean =

To find the breadth of the bar using Vernier calipers.

L.C = 0.01 cm

MSR VSC TR = MSR + [VSC x LC]

S.No
X 10 m
-2 Div X 10-2m

1.
.
.

Mean =
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GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the bar horizontally on the knife edge. Adjust the bar so that equal lengths of it are
projecting beyond the knife edges and the knife edges are exactly 60cms apart.
2. Suspend the weight hangers on the bar one at each end of it. Keep theses equidistant from
the ends of the bar and from the knife edges.
3. Place the retort stand clamp to the beam but without touching it.
4. Place the single optic lever so that its central leg rests exactly at the centre of the beam and
its rear-legs on the supporting stand.
5. Place the stand carrying the telescope and scale at a distance of about 1m approximately
or more in front of the mirror in the optic lever.
6. Adjust the scale to be vertical and the telescope so that its axis passes through the centre of
the mirror.
7. Add weights one at a time to both hangers simultaneously, until the maximum safe load is
reached. Remove the weights one by one, till the dead load ‘W’ alone remains. Repeat the
loading and unloading process 10 or 15 times.
8. Focus the telescope first on the mirror, then move the eye-piece towards the objective and
you will get the image of the scale focused in the telescope. Make the horizontal cross wire
to coincide a definite coincidence of the scale and adjust. Check that the scale readings are
visible when the maximum safe load is reached.
9. Now you are ready to take the readings. With the weight hangers alone on the two sides
of the bar note the reading which coincides with the horizontal cross wire of the telescope.
10. Add a slotted weight to each hanger simultaneously and not the reading in the telescope.
Repeat this process till the maximum sage load is reached. Take even number of readings,
say 6 or 8, including the reading of the dead load.
11. Remove the weights one by one from both hangers simultaneously and each time note the
telescope reading.
12. Note the distance between the knife edges and the distance from each knife edge to the
hanger nearest to it. Note the distance from the optic lever to the scale.
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13. Remove the bar and measure the breadth of the bar. Using vernier calipers and a screw
guage to measure its thickness. Tabulate at least six measurements of both at different
points on the bar or scale.
14. Measure the perpendicular distance between the front leg and the line joining the rear legs
of the optic lever by taking the impression of the legs on your observation note.

CALCULATION:

Length of the bar in meter between the two knife-edges l = m

Distance between anyone weight hander and the adjacent knife edge a = m
Perpendicular distance of the front leg from the two hind legs p = m
Distance between the mirror and scale D = m
Breadth of the bar b = m
Thickness of the bar d = m
From Graph M/S = kg/m

3Mgal 2
Youngs Modulus q  = N/m2
2sbd 3

RESULT:

The Young’s modulus of the material of the bar is found to be = N/m2.

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4. YOUNG’S MODULUS OF A CANTILEVER -

USING PIN AND MICROSCOPE

AIM:

To determine the Young’s modulus a cantilever using pin and microscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A wooden beam, weight hanger with slotted weights, a clamp, travelling microscope,
vernier caliper, screw gauge and reading lens.

FORMULA:

4 gl 3  m 
Y    N / m 2

bd 3  y 

Symbol Explanation Unit

Y Young’s modulus of the cantilever Nm-2

g Acceleration due to gravity ms-2

l Length of the cantilever from its fixed end to the point m

at which load is applied

b Breadth of the cantilever m

d Thickness of the cantilever m

m Mass of the load applied kg

y Shift in position of the pin when load is changed m

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Procedure:

1. Refer to figure 3.2 which shows the experimental setup to determine the Young’s modulus of a
cantilever beam. 2. Beam is clamped at one of its end using a C-clamp and the other end is left
free. Measure the length (l), breadth (b), and thickness (d) of the cantilever. Make sure that the
cantilever makes zero angle with horizontal when there is no external load acting on the beam. 3.
Weight-hanger is suspended at the free end for adding and removing external loads. 4. Attach a
vertical pin of negligible weight at the free-end for measuring deflection of the beam. Note that
the pin is linked to a travelling microscope. 5. Set crosswire of the microscope to coincide with the
tip of the pin. 6. Load the free end of the beam gradually in a step of 50 grams to the total
maximum load and note down the deflection readings from the microscope. 7. Unload the
weights gradually in a step of 50 grams until all the weights are removed and note down the
deflection readings from the microscope. 8. Calculate the mean deflection of the cantilever for
loading and unloading conditions for a constant mass m (= 200 gram). 9. Determine the Young’s
modulus of the beam by knowing [M/y], l, b, d and g. Graphical method: 1. Calculate the shift in
level (deflection of the cantilever) for different load values (m = 50 g, 100 g, 150 g, 200 g, 250 g, 300
g and 350 g) and tabulate them in the table 3.2. 2. Draw a graph between M and y (Refer the
model graph shown in figure 3.3). 3. From the graph, the slop of the curve dy/dM can be
calculated. 4. Find the inverse of the slope and use it in the formula to find the Young’s modulus
Y.
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5. SPECTROMETER REFRACTIVE INDEX.

AIM:
To determine the refractive index of the given prism and spectrometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Spectrometer, prism, sodium lamp, spirit level and reading lens.

FORMULA:

A  D
sin 
 2 
  ( No units)
A
sin  
2

Symbol Explanation Unit

A Angle of the prism degree
D Angle of minimum deviation degree
µ Refractive index of the material of the prism no unit

DIAGRAM:

Angle of Prism.
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Angle of Prism.

Least count = 1 minute *1‘+

T.R. = MSR + [VC x LC]

Reading corresponding to the reflected image

Face Difference Angle of Prism
2A A Mean
Vernier A (VA) Vernier B (VB)
A
M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R VA VB VA VB

Left

Right
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Angle of minimum deviation.

Least count = 1 minute *1‘+

T.R. = MSR + [VC x LC]

Reading corresponding to the maximum

Direct Reading Angle of
deviation position
minimum
deviation Mean
Vernier A (VA) Vernier B (VB) Vernier A (VA) Vernier B (VB)
Deviation.
D
M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R VA VB
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Angle of minimum deviation.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Determination of the Angle of Prism.
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The given prism is mounted
vertically at the centre of the prism table with its refracting edge facing the collimator, so that the
parallel rays of light from the collimator fall almost equally on the two faces of the prism ‘ABC’.
As a result of reflection, an image of the slit is formed by each face of the prism. The image on the
side is located through the eye-piece. The telescope is then moved to that position to view this
image. The telescope is then fixed in the position by the radial screw. The tangential screw is
adjusted until the vertical cross wire coincides with the centre of the image of the slit. The
readings of the circular scale and vernier are noted. The telescope is moved to the other side. The
reading to the position of the image on the otherside is similarly taken. The difference between
these two readings gives twice the angle of the prism. The readings are entered in the tabular
column.
(ii) Determination of the angle of minimum deviation.
The prism is placed as shown in the figure. On looking through the prism different colors
of the spectrum are seen. The telescope is adjusted to obtain the spectral lines in its field of view.
The prism table is slightly rotated in either direction with a view to find out the direction in which
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the prism should be rotated inorder to decrease the angle of deviation. The prism table is slowly
rotated in the direction following the spectral line with the telescope. In a particular position the
spectral line is found to remain stationary for a moment and on rotating the prism in the same
direction as before, the image moves in the opposite direction. The prism table and the telescope
are fixed in the position where the spectral line begins to retrace and final adjustments are made
with the tangential screws as before. This is the minimum deviation position. After fixing the
prism in the minimum deviation position, the telescope is moved and the reading for spectral line
in minimum deviation is recorded in the tabular column. The differences between the readings
for minimum deviated ray and direct ray gives the angle of minimum deviation for that spectral
line. Hence the angle of minimum deviation is determined. The refractive index of the material of
the prism for sodium vapor lamp wavelength is calculated using the formula.

CALCULATION:

Angle of Prism in degree A =

Angle of minimum deviation in degree D =

A  D
sin 
 2 
 
A
sin  
2

Refractive index µ =

RESULT:

The refractive index of the given liquid using Spectrometer and hollow prism is found to be =
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6. NEWTON’S RINGS
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE LENS

AIM:
To determine the radius of curvature of the given long focus plane convex lens by forming
Newton’s rings and hence to calculate the refractive index of its material.

APPARATUSREQUIED:

Plane convex lens, condensing lens, microscope, sodium lamp, reading lens, scale and
telescope.

FORMULA:

D 2n  m  D 2n 1
   1 
1
R  &
4m f R 

Symbol Expalnation Unit

R Radius of curvature m
Dn+m Diameter of the [n+m]th dark ring m
Dn Diameter of the nth dark ring m
λ Wavelength of sodium source m
f Focal length of the lens m
µ Refractive index of the material of the bi convex lens No unit

DIAGRAM:
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GRAPH:

TABULATION:

LC = 0.001 cm T.R. = M.S.R + [V.C. x LC]

Microscope reading 10−2 m

Diameter
Order of Left Right
D D2 D2n+m − D2n
the ring
M.S.R. V.C. T.R. M.S.R. V.C. T.R. 10−2 m 10−4 m 10−4 m

n+
n+
n+
.
.
.

Mean =

PROCEDURE:

A. To determine the radius of curvature of the given bi-convex lens.

1. The gadget to view the Newton’s rings contain a frame which holds a glass plate inclined
at 45 deg., below which is kept another glass plate in the horizontal position.
2. The glass plates and the lens are wiped with a soft cloth to remove the dust particles and
the lens is placed over the horizontal glass plate and the gadget is kept on the base of the
microscope ‘M’.
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3. The condensing lens ‘C’ is kept in between the sodium source and the microscope so that
the light falling on the inclined glass plate turns through 90 deg., to illuminate the lens as
shown in the diagram.
4. The objective is adjusted to be just over the lens and viewing through the eyepiece of the
microscope, the frame is lowered or raised to view the Newton’s rings.
5. The focusing screw is adjusted to get the clear image of the Newton’s rings.
6. With the help of the screw, the vertical line of the cross wire is made to coincide with the
left end of the central dark circular ring. This is nth ring.
7. When the screw is rotated, the rings move. Rotating the screw, the rings are counted till
the cross wire is made to coincide on the 25th ring on the left. This is the position (n+25)th
ring.
8. For this position, the reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope is recorded.
9. The cross wire is made to coincide with the position of (n+20)th ring, (n+15)th ring… and
the nth ring on the left and the corresponding readings are recorded.
10. The screw is moved in the same direction to make the cross wire coincide with the n th ring
on the right and the corresponding reading is noted.
11. Similar observations are made to record the position of (n+5)th , (n+10)th …..(n+25)th ring on
the right.
12. From the beginning of the observation till the end, the screw is made to rotate in the same
direction to avoid parallax error.
13. The difference in the left and right positions of a particular ring measures the diameter of
that ring from which the radius of curvature ‘R’ of the lens is determined.

B. To determine the focal length of the lens.

1. The telescope is focused for a distant object and the plano convex lens is fixed on the
objective of the telescope.
2. The telescope is held in straight line with a vertical scale. Without touching the focusing
screw of the telescope, the telescope is moved to view a clear focused image of the scale.
The distance measured between the scale and the telescope is recorded as the focal length
‘f’ of the plano convex lens. The wavelength of the sodium source ‘λ’ is 5893Å. Knowing
the values of ‘R’ and ‘f’, the refractive index ‘µ’ of the material of the lens is calculated
using the formula.

CALCULATIONS:

Wavelength of the light used - 5893 x 10-10m

Focal length of the lens ‘f’ =

D 2n  m  D 2n
R 
4m =
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1
   1 
1
=
f R 

From Graph:

R = Slope / 4λ =

R
 1 =
f

RESULT:

The radius of curvature of the given lens = m

The refractive index of the given material by forming Newton’s rings is found to be
(i) By experiment =
(ii) By graph =
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7. SPECTROMETER
Wavelength determination using Grating.

AIM:
To determine the wavelength of the prominent spectral lines of the mercury spectrum.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, sodium vapor lamp, mercury vapor lamp and
spirit level.

FORMULA:

Sin   mN

Symbol Explanation Unit

m is the order of diffraction -
N the number of lines per unit length of the grating lines/m
λ wavelength of light m

DIAGRAM:

Position of collimator, telescope and mounted grating corresponding.

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First order diffraction when monochromatic source of light is used as source.

PROCEDURE:
First of all, one must receive parallel beam of light from the collimator. Then this must be
made to fall normally on the grating. For this the following preliminary adjustments of the
spectrometer are made.
1. The telescope is turned to a distant object and focused. Once a clear image of distant object
is obtained one can conclude that the telescope has been adjusted for parallel rays since
the rays from the distant object are parallel.
2. To take the readings without any parallax error, the eye piece in the telescope is slightly
pulled out or pushed in such that the cross wire is clearly seen as well as when made to
coincide with a distant object, it could be seen without parallax. From now onwards the
focusing of the telescope should not be changed.
3. Telescope is brought in line with collimator which is in front of either sodium vapor lamp
or mercury vapor lamp and the slit of the collimator is viewed through the telescope. If
the slit is seen sharply focused it means that the rays leaving the collimator are parallel.
Otherwise viewing through the telescope focusing of the collimator is adjusted to get well
defined sharp image of the slit of the collimator. Now slit width is made as narrow as
possible.
4. Once the focusing of the telescope and collimator are over, set the cross wire of the eye
piece in the telescope to coincide with the image of the slit and the telescope is fixed.
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Vernier table is released and rotated to get vernier ‘A’ and vernier ‘B’ coinciding with 0 o
and 1800 of the main scale and vernier table is fixed. Now the direct reading it 0o - 1800.
5. Telescope is released and rotated through 900 exactly and fixed so that collimator and
telescope are normal to each other.
6. Now the grating is mounted on the platform and grating platform alone is rotated without
disturbing vernier table such that the reflected image of the slit coincides with the cross
wire of the telescope. This happes when the grating is exactly 450 inclination with respect
to the collimator. Grating platform is fixed.
7. The vernier table is released and rotated through 450 in such a direction that grating
becomes normal to collimator. Vernier table is fixed. Now the grating is normal to the
collimator.
8. Now the telescope is released and brought in line with collimator. On either side of the
collimator a few orders of diffraction bands are seen
Once these initial adjustments are over, the experiment is to be done in two parts.
1. Determination of number of lines per unit length of the grating, called calibration of the
grating for which standard source of known wavelength is required.
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Determination of number of lines per meter length of the grating.

Source used : Sodium Vapor lamp

Wavelength of the standard line used : 589.3 nm

Least count = 1 minute *1‘+

T.R. = MSR + [VC x LC]
Reading of the diffracted image Difference
between the sin 
Left Right Mean N
Trail readings. (2θ) m
angle of
No.
diffraction
Vernier A (A1) Vernier B (B1) Vernier A (A2) Vernier B (B2) Left Right lines/m
θ

M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R A1~A2 B1~B2
 29

Determination of Wavelengths of different Spectral lines of mercury

Number of lines per unit length of the gratin = lines/m

Least count = 1 minute *1‘+

T.R. = MSR + [VC x LC]
Reading of the diffracted image Difference
between the
Left Right Mean
readings. (2θ) sin 
angle of 
Colors diffraction
N
Vernier A (A1) Vernier B (B1) Vernier A (A2) Vernier B (B2) Left Right
Θ
nm
M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R M.S.R V.C T.R A1~A2 B1~B2
Red

Yellow – I

Yellow – II

Green

Greenish-
Blue
Blue

Violet – I

Violet – II
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CALCULATIONS:

sin 
N 
Number of lines per unit length of the grating
m =

sin
For each color.
 
N

RESULT:

The number of lines per unit length of the given grating N =

The wavelength of the prominent colors in the mercury spectrum are calculated and
tabulated by normal incidence method.

Colours Wavelength
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8. POTENTIOMETER
CALIBRATION OF AMMETER.
AIM:
To calibrate the given ammeter using potentiometer and to find the correction to be
applied to the different readings of the given ammeter using potentiometer and to draw
the calibration curve.

APPARATUS:
Potentiometer, accumulator, key, rheostat, standard cell, resistance box, high resistance,
galvanometer, ammeter, jokey.

FORMULA:

E0  l
Iact  amps
l0  R

CIRCUITS:-

To find the balancing length.

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To calibrate the given ammeter.

GRAPH:
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TABULATION:

Ammeter reading Balancing length Actual current Correction

Sl.No.
Iobs (amp) l (cm) Iact (amp) Iact -Iobs (amp)
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 .
4 .
5 .
6 .
7 .
8 .
9

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connection as shown in the figure.
2. Close the key k1, keep the resistance at minimum. With the high resistance included in the
circuit, press the jockey at ‘A’ and ‘B’. The deflection in the galvanometer must be in the
opposite directions.
3. If not check, whether key k1 is closed and whether the positive of both ‘E’ and ‘E 0’ are
connected to end ‘A’.
4. Press the jockey on the different wires and locate the wire in which the deflection is nearly
zero. Gradually increase the resistance in Rh1, so that the balance points shifts towards ‘B’
and is got in the last wire, around 900 to 950 cms.
 34

5. Now insert the plug in the high resistance. The deflection will increase, reduce it to zero
by adjusting the position of the jockey and note the exact balancing length from end ‘A’.
6. Make the connection as in the second circuit. Remove the plug in the high resistance close
key k2, adjust Rh2 so that the ammeter reads 0.1 amps exactly. Press the jockey on the
different wires and find the approximate location of the balance points. Reinsert the high
resistance plug and obtain the exact balance length l1.
7. Repeat the experiment for readings of ammeter at 0.3,0.4..upto 1 amps.
8. Calculate the actual current corresponding to each reading from the given equation.
9. The correction to be applied to the ammeter reading is given by I act – Iobs.
10. Draw a graph with ammeter reading the x-axis and actual current on y-axis. Connect the
successive points by straight line.
11. Draw a graph with ammeter reading on the x-axis and the correction on the y-axis,
connect the successive points by straight line.

CALCULATION:

E.M.F. of the standard cell E0 = Volt.

Balancing length for the standard cell l0 = cm

Standard resistance = ohm

RESULT:-

The ammeter was calibrated and the corresponding correction graph was drawn.
 35

9. FIGURE OF MERIT
MIRROR GALVANOMETER

AIM:
(i) To find the resistance of the Mirror Galvanometer by half deflection method.
(ii) To determine the figure of merit of the Mirror Galvanometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Accumulator, resistance boxes, galvanometer, commutator and connecting wires.

FORMULA:

E  1  p
Cs    amp / div
P  Q  R1  G  d

Vs  Cs  G Volts / div

Symbol Explanation Unit

E E.M.F of the accumulator Volts
Vs Voltage sensitiveness of the galvanometer Volts/div
Cs Current sensitiveness or Figure of merit of the
galvanometer amp/div
P,Q,R1 Resistance ohms

CIRCUIT:
 36

TABULATION:

R1 = 0 Ohms

Resistance ‘R2’ for half

Deflection (d)
P Q deflection G = R2
div P/d
Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms
Left Right Mean Left Right Mean

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Keep ‘P’ = 1ohms and ‘Q’ = 9999ohms, so that P+Q =10,000ohms. Adjust ‘R’ so that the
deflection is not very high. Let it be ‘R1’, note the deflection ‘d’.
3. Increase R1 and R2 so that the deflection is reduced to half.
4. (R2-R1) gives the resistance of the galvanometer ‘G’.
5. Reverse the commutator and repeat steps 2,3,4.
6. Increase ‘P’ to 2,3,4…..10ohms, keeping P+Q=10,000ohms and find ‘d’ and ‘G’ in each case.

CALCULATION:

E.M.F. of the accumulator = Volts

Current Sensitiveness of the Galvanometer = amp/div
Voltage sensitiveness of the Galvanometer = Volt/div

RESULT:-

The Current Sensitiveness of the Galvanometer = amp/div

Voltage sensitiveness of the Galvanometer = Volt/div

 37

10. CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE

RESISTANCE AND SPECIFIC RESISTANCE

AIM:
To find the resistance of the given coil using Carey-Foster’s bridge and hence calculate the
specific resistance of the material of the coil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
The given coil, Carey-Foster’s bridge, a fractional resistance box, a two dial resistance box,
two standard resistance of equal value, Lechlanche cell, plug key, table galvanometer, high
resistance and a jockey.

FORMULA:

The resistance per meter length of the wire

R
  ohm / m
l1  l2

The value of unknown resistance

X  R  l1  l2  ohm

Specific resistance

r 2 X
Specific resistnace  ohm  m
l

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Resistance per meter length of the wire ohm/m
R Resistance ohm
l1 Balancing length when R is in the left gap and X in the m
right gap
l2 Balancing length when R is in the right gap and X in the m
left gap
 38

CIRCUIT:

TABULATION:

To find the resistance per meter length of the bridge wire.

R l1 l2   R / l1 ~ l 2 
Sl.No. ohm / m
Ohm m m

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean =
To find the resistance of the coil (X)

R l1 l2 X [R  l1  l2 ]

Sl.No.
Ohm m m ohm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean =
 39

To find the radius of the coil using Screw gauge.

L.C = 0.01 mm Z.E = Z.C=

PSR HSC HSR = (HSC XLC) TR = (PSR + HSR) CR = TR + (ZC x LC)

S.No
X 10-3m (div) X 10-3m X 10-3m X 10-3m

1.
.
.
.
.

Diameter = Mean =
Radius = diameter/2 =

PROCEDURE:
A. To find the resistance per meter length of the bridge wire.
1. In the left gap of the bridge is connected a fractional resistance box R1 and in the right gap
a copper strip. Include a resistance say 0.1 ohms in R1. Find the balancing length l1 metre
on the bridge.
2. Interchange R1 and then find the balancing length l2 metre. The resistance per unit length
of the bridge wire is found by formula given. The experiment is repeated for different
values of R1.
B. To find the resistance of the coil.
1. Keep the coil at room temperature. Coil is connected to the right extreme gap and the
resistance box to the left gap.
2. Press the jockey near the middle of the wire, the value of R for which the galvanometer
deflection is nearly zero is determined.
3. Choose six different values of R around this. The exact balancing length l1 metre for each
resistance is found.
4. R and X(coil) are now interchanged and the balancing length l2 for all values of R are
found. The unknown resistance is calculated using formula.
C. To find the specific resistance.
1. Calculate the diameter of the coil by using Screw guage.
2. Find out the length of coil by a metre scale and using the formula calculate the value of
specific resistance.
 40

CALCULATION:

X =

 =

Length of the coil =

RESULT:

The resistance of the coil is found to be =

The specific resistance of the coil is found to be =
 41

11. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

INVERTING, NON-INVERTING AND VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

AIM:
To construct (a) Voltage follower (b) Inverting amplifier (c) Non-inverting amplifier using
the given Op-Amp.

APPARATUS REQUIRE:
Op-Amp IC-741, Resistors, device work bench.

(A) Voltage follower.

Principle: The output voltage follows the input voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Keep the power supplies connected.
3. Give the input voltage Vin and measure the output voltage Vout.
4. Record the readings.

Voltage Follower, Vout  Vin

Input Voltage Output Voltage (V0) Output Voltage (V0)

Vi Experimental Theoretical
 42

(B) Inverting amplifier.

Principle: The output voltage Vin is applied to the inverting terminal. The non inverting terminal
is grounded. Part of the output voltage is fed into the input through the feedback resistance R f. If
the input is +ve, then the output will be –ve. A small part of this –ve voltage is feedback into the
input. The feedback is negative since the input and feedback voltages are in opposite phase.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as in figure.
2. Keep the power supplies connected.
3. Give the input voltage Vi and measure the values of the output voltage.
4. Record the readings in the table.

 Rf 
V
Inverting Amplifier, out     Vin
 R1 

Ri =

Input Voltage Resistance Output Voltage (V0) Output Voltage (V0)

Vi Rf Experimental Theoretical
 43

(C) Non-Inverting amplifier

Principle: The input voltage Vi is applied to the non-inverting terminal. The inverting
terminal is earthed via as input resistance R1. A part of the output voltage is fed back into the
input through the feedback resistance Rf thus providing the –ve feedback and stability for the
amplifier. Since the signal is given at the non-inverting input terminal, if the input is +ve, the
output will also be +ve. Thus the output is in phase with the input voltage.

PRODECURE:
1. Connect the circuit.
2. Keep the power supplies connect.
3. Give the input voltage Vi and measure the values of the output voltage.
4. Record the reading in the table.

 Rf 
Non-Inverting Amplifier, Vout  1   Vi
 R 1 
Ri =

Input Voltage Resistance Output Voltage (V0) Output Voltage (V0)

Vi Rf Experimental Theoretical

RESULT:
The voltage follower, inverting amplifier and non-inverting amplifier are constructed using
operational amplifier and their behavior was studied.
 44

12. STUDY OF LOGIC GATES

AIM:
1. To verify the truth tables of the follow IC gates 7400, 7402, 7404, 7408, 7432 and 7486.
2. To realize NOT, AND, OR, EX-FOR using NAND.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Device work bench, IC Chips.

(a) IC-7400 (NAND)

(b) IC-7402 (NOR)

 45

(c) IC – 7404 (NOT)

(a) IC – 7400 (NAND)

A B
 46

(b) IC – 7402 (NOR)

A B

(c) IC – 7404 (NOT)

A
 47

(d) IC – 7408 (AND)

A B Y=A▪ B

(e) IC – 7432 (OR)

A B Y=A+ B
 48

(f) IC – 7486 (EX-OR)

A B

1. NAND Gate as a Universal Gate:

2. NAND as AND:
 49

3. NAND as OR:

PROCEDURE:

(i) AND GATE:

The connections are made as shown in figure. A voltmeter is connected across the output. For one
level the point is connected to the +5 volt supply (high or low switch) and for 0 level, the point is
connected to earth. Both the points A and B are kept at the 0 level and output is measured. The
experiment is repeated keeping A and B at 0 and 1 level, 1 and 0 level, 1 and 1 level, respectively
and in each case the output is measured.

(ii) OR GATE:

The connections are made as shown. A voltmeter is connected across the output. The output is
measured for various input pin combinations as in the previous case. It is found that the output is
high whether A or B is at 1 level. The experiment is repeated using a diode of a transistor.

(iii) NOT GATE:

The connections are made as shown. A voltmeter is connected across the output. The output is
measured when A is at 0 and 1 level and truth table is prepared. Since when the input is at 0 level
the output is at 1 level. Hence the logic gate is known as an inverter.

(iv) NAND GATE:

The connections are made as given, which forms a DTL and NAND gate. A voltmeter is
connected across the output pin. The output is measured for various input combinations. It is
found that the output is at zero level when A and B at 1 level. The NAND gate can also be
constructed with 2 transistors.
 50

(v) NOR GATE:

The connections are made as given. A voltmeter is connected across the output terminal. The
output is measure for various input combinations. It is found that the output is at 1 level only
when A and B both are at 0 level.

RESULT:

The truth table of the following gates is verified,

AND, OR, NOT, NOR, EX-OR

NAND is proved as an Universal gate.

 51

13. Verification of Demorgan’s theorem – NOT, AND, OR GATE’S