PRACTICAL
ASSIGNMENT ON
INDEX
- WHAT IS COMPUTER?
- FEATURES OF COMPUTER
- LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER
- TYPES OF COMPUTER
- GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
- COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
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🧠 **Introduction to Computing Intelligence** 🧠
From the depths of human innovation, the computer emerged as
humanity's greatest tool to decode the mysteries of data and
computation. Today, these machines have evolved into entities capable
of simulating worlds and pushing the boundaries of what is known,
transforming imagination into reality.
A computer is a machine that can store, process, and retrieve data. Computers can perform a
variety of tasks, such as calculating algorithms, displaying information, and solving
equations.
Computers are made up of two main parts: hardware and software. Hardware includes the
physical parts of the computer, such as the processor chip, input and output devices, and
storage. Software is the part of the computer that runs on hardware and allows humans to
interact with the computer.
Computers use programs to perform tasks. A program is a set of instructions written in the
computer's language that tells the computer what to do.
Computers come in many different shapes and sizes, from handheld smartphones to
supercomputers. The first widely sold personal computer with a graphical user interface was
the Macintosh, introduced in 1984.
According to Charles Babbage
Babbage defined a computer as a machine that can calculate and think on its own.
According to Samuel
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Samuel defined a computer as a device that processes data by accepting it in one form and
delivering it in a different form.
✨ **Stellar Attributes of Computing Machines** ✨
In their relentless pursuit of perfection, computers have honed the following
abilities that surpass natural cognition:
Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple
machines. Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce
and store all types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the
day-to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very
short time.
They can perform a much-complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error
occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic
components that can detect & correct such errors.
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Usually, errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the
saying Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the
numbers supplied.
Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect data;
let say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97
instead of 52. However, note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used &
the data supplied.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Storage:
A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.
A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use of
passwords
6. Diligence:
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Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or
bored. Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed
and accuracy as the first one.
7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided
by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
🔒 **Boundaries of Machine Intelligence** 🔒
While computers have revolutionized many domains, their artificial cognition remains limited
by human-crafted algorithms. Despite mimicking intelligence, these silicon-based entities lack
the essence of creativity and autonomy.
Computer cannot operate without the instructions given by humans. It is programmed to work
effectively, fast and accurately. Computer cannot think by itself and does not have common
sense. It is totally dependent on humans. Computer’s main limitation is its programming
which is limited by the capabilities the hardware possesses. Physical limitations of a
computer are of RAM and storage it can access, the type and speed of the CPU and other low
level system devices. No computer possesses intelligence. It may mimic or simulate
intelligence (the quality of this mimicry/simulation is a result of the quality of the
programming used to create the illusion of intelligence) but a computer is literally as dumb as
the silicon in the rocks its microchips are made from. Although a computer is far better in
performance than a human being, it fails in some ways as follows:
(i) Computers can’t Think:
Computers cannot think and they can’t do any job unless they are first programmed with
specific instructions for same. They work as per stored instructions. Algorithms are designed
by humans to make a computer perform a s task. This is also called artificial intelligence.
(ii) Computers can’t Decide:
Computers are incapable of decision making as they do not possess the essential elements
necessary to take a decision i.e. knowledge, information, wisdom, intelligence and the ability
to judge.
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(iii) Computers can’t Express their Ideas:
In any type of research ideas plays a vital role. In this context, computers can’t express their
ideas.
(iv) Computers can’t Implement:
Though computers are helpful in storage of data and can contain the contents of
encyclopaedias even, but only humans can decide and implement the policies
Types of computers:
Mainframe: are designed in such a way that they can support hundreds or
thousands of users at the same time. It also supports multiple programs
simultaneously. So, they can execute different processes simultaneously. All these
features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like banking,
telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general
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Personal computer: Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is
basically a general-purpose computer designed for individual use. It consists of a
microprocessor as a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input unit, and output
unit. This kind of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an
assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example,
Laptops and desktop computers.
Workstation: A workstation computer is designed for technical or scientific
applications. It consists of a fast microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and a
high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user computer. It is generally used to
perform a specific task with great accuracy.
Minicomputer: is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of
computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at one time.
Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller. Minicomputers are used in places like
institutes or departments for different work like billing, accounting, inventory
management, etc. It is smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in comparison to
the microcomputer.
Analog computer: Analog Computers are particularly designed to process analog
data. Continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values are
called analog data. So, an analog computer is used where we don’t need exact values
or need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure, etc. It can directly
accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and
codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical quantity. It gives output as a
reading on a dial or scale. For example, speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.
Supercomputer: When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to
mind when thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest
computers (in terms of speed of processing data). Supercomputers are designed such
that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing trillions of instructions or
data just in a second. This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in
supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as
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weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
🌌 **Generational Evolution of Computing Systems** 🌌
Tracing the epochs of computational progress, from the archaic vacuum tube era to the dawn of
artificial intelligence, reveals an extraordinary trajectory of technological mastery.
The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your time. It had been around the
16th century when the evolution of the computer started. The initial computer faced many
changes, obviously for the betterment. It continuously improved itself in terms of speed,
accuracy, size, and price to urge the form of the fashionable day computer.
First Generation Computers
The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device, which
was called a vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and really large. These weren’t
very reliable and programming on them was a tedious task as they used low-level
programming language and used no OS. First-generation computers were used for
calculation, storage, and control purpose. They were too bulky and large that they needed a
full room and consume a lot of electricity. Punch cards were used for improving the
information for external storage. Magnetic card used. Machine and assembly language is
developed.
Examples of some main first-generation computers are ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC
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Vacuum Tube
Second Generation Computers
Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum
tubes. Another feature was the core storage. A transistor may be a device composed of
semiconductor material that amplifies a sign or opens or closes a circuit.
Transistors were invented in Bell Labs. The use of transistors made it possible to perform
powerfully and with due speed. It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the
warmth too, which was generated by vacuum tubes. Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language, and input, and output units also came into the force within the second
generation.
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Transistors
Third Generation Computers
During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated
circuits, also referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors. The most feature of this era’s computer was speed and reliability. IC
was made from silicon and also called silicon chips. The computer programs was designed to
make the machine work. Operating system was a program designed to handle a machine
completely.
A single IC has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon.
The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during
this generation. Programming was now wiped-out Higher-level languages like BASIC
(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). Minicomputers find their shape during
this era.
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Integrated Circuit
Fourth Generation Computers
In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on
one chip called microprocessors. The advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor
can contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one
chip. LSI placed thousands of transistors onto a single chip.
The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation provided even
smaller size of computers, with larger capacities. That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
located all the components of the pc from the central processing unit and memory to input/
output controls on one chip and allowed the dimensions to reduce drastically. VLSI placed
several hundred thousand transistors on a single silicon chip. This silicon chip is known as
the micro-processor.
Fifth Generation Computers
The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to behave
like humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicine, and
entertainment. Within the field of game playing also it’s shown remarkable performance
where computers are capable of beating human competitors. The speed is the highest, size is the
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smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within the fifth-generation computers. Though not a
hundred percent AI has been achieved to date but keeping in sight the present developments, it is
often said that this dream also will become a reality very soon.
To summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big
improvement has been seen so far because of the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but
if we mention the dimensions, it’s been small over the years. The value is additionally
diminishing and reliability is increasing.
Generations of
Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware
First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based
Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based
Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based
Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based
Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based
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Components Of Computer System
Input Output
Devices Devices
Memory Software
What is an Input Device?
The electromagnetic devices that accept data or a set of instructions from the outside world
and then translate that data into machine-readable and understandable form are known as
input devices. Computer input devices serve as an interface between the outside world and
the computer for proper communication. When the users enter data using various input
devices, the data can be saved in computer memory for further processing and preparation.
Using the output devices, the intended and calculated results can be acquired when the
processing and handling are completed. An input device transmits data to a computer and
allows you to communicate with it and control it.
Different Types of Input Devices
Various types of Input Devices are,
Keyboard
For entering data into a computer, the keyboard is the most common and commonly used
input device. It contains various keys for entering letters, numbers, and characters. Although
there are some additional keys for completing various activities, the keyboard layout is
identical to that of a standard typewriter.
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Mouse
The mouse is the most used pointing device. While clicking and dragging, the mouse moves a
little cursor across the screen. If you let off of the mouse, the cursor will come to a halt. You
must move the mouse for the computer to move; it will not move on its own. As a result, it’s
a device that accepts input. Or we can say that a mouse is an input device that allows you to
control the coordinates and movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer by moving the mouse
on a flat surface.
Joystick
A pointing device used to move the cursor around the screen is the joystick. Both the bottom
and top ends of the stick have a spherical ball affixed to them. A socket contains the lower
spherical ball. You can adjust the joystick in all directions. Trackballs became quite popular
in laptops and PCs since they fit neatly inside the case and take up less room when in use.
Scanner
A scanner is a type of input device that works in the same way as a photocopier. It’s used
when there’s data on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for further
processing. The scanner collects images from the source and translates them to a digital
version that can be saved on the hard disks
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What is an output Device?
Output devices play an important role in our everyday lives by making computer interactions
easier. Even if you don't work with computers directly, you likely rely on several output
devices for different things. By understanding the role of output devices, you can better
choose the correct devices for different professional situations
Types Of Output Devices:
Monitor
Monitor is the most important output device of a computer as it is the visual output device.
Without it, the computer is incomplete. The monitor is a basic device of the computer for the
visual display of all types of information or data in any form. The monitor is designed to
display information in symbolic and graphical types. It shows all the data and information as
a Soft Copy of that data on its screen. Anyone can view Files, photos, videos, texts, graphics,
and tables in real-time through the monitor.
Headphone:
The audio or sound produced by the computer is in the form of electric signals. These are
perceived by us in the form of sound using the output device, headphones. The headphones
are transducers that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and thus help us listen
to songs and recordings on the computer. The best thing is that they are light and thus
portable, unlike heavy computer speakers.
Projector:
The projector is an output device, that is used to project the image displayed on the computer
monitor on a large wall or screen. This is a good option when the output is to be shown to a
large number of people. It can be used to watch movies with friends, or show a presentation
in a group meeting the projector is connected to the computer using HDMI cables or VGA
cables.
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What is Memory?
Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer needs to
reach quickly. It's where information is stored for immediate use. Memory is one of the basic
functions of a computer, because without it, a computer would not be able to function
properly. Memory is also used by a computer's operating system, hardware and software.
Types Of Memory:
Read-only memory:
ROM is a type of computer storage containing non-volatile, permanent data that, normally,
can only be read and not written to. ROM contains the programming that enables a computer
to start up or regenerate each time it is turned on.
• Programmable ROM: PROM is ROM that can be modified once by a user. It
enables a user to tailor a microcode program using a special machine called a PROM
programmer.
• Erasable PROM: EPROM is programmable read-only memory PROM that can
be erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet light through
a window designed into the memory chip.
Random Access Memory :
The term is based on the fact that any storage location can be accessed directly by the
processor.
• Dynamic RAM: DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used
by the data or program code needed by a computer processor to function.
• Static RAM: SRAM retains data bits in its memory for as long as power is
supplied to it. Unlike DRAM, which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a
transistor, SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed.
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What is software?
Software is a set of instructions that tells a computer what to do, and how to do it. It's
the opposite of hardware, which is the physical components of a computer. Software
allows users to interact with a device in ways that wouldn't be possible without it. For
example, software allows users to create graphics, edit videos, and play games
without needing to know how the hardware works.
Types of software:
Application software
Software that performs a specific task or fulfils a need, such as word processors,
spreadsheets, and database management programs
System software
Software that controls the internal functioning of a computer, such as the operating
system, and also controls peripherals like printers, monitors, and storage devices
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Software that coordinates communication between computers linked in a network
Driver software
Software that helps a computer manage external devices, such as translating the
commands of the device's operating system
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J A S K IR A T K A U R
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DATE-: 10-11-2024
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