Physics Lab Manuals I Year
Physics Lab Manuals I Year
Physics Lab Manuals I Year
diode.
Apparatus: The experiment is set up in an assembled training board consisting of
i) dc power supply (0-1V)
ii) heating arrangement to heat the diode
iii) thermometer (00 C to 1000 C)
iv) micro ammeter (0-1000µA)
v) p-n junction diode
Circuit:
The circuit diagram for conducting the experiment is shown in Fig.1. The diode is
reverse biased with the help of a d.c. power supply and the current that flows through the
reverse biased diode is measured with micro ammeter. The heating coil helps to raise the
temperature of the diode. The circuit is available in an assembled training board.
Thermometer
Oven
Theory:
The band gap Eg is an important physical property of a semiconductor material. It
specifies the energy required to break the covalent bonds to make electrons (holes) free in a
semiconductor. It determines the number of free electron (and holes) available for
participation in electrical conduction at a given temperature. This in turn determines the
electrical behavior of the device. For example, the band gap of silicon is 1.12 eV and that of
germanium is 0.72 eV at room temperature. Obviously at a given temperature germanium
will have more free charge carriers than silicon. Secondly, the temperature range of a device
is determined by the band gap of the material from which it is made. It is seen that silicon
device will have wider temperature range. A pn-junction diode can be used to determine the
band gap.
p n
A p-n junction diode consists of a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor. The band
gap in these extrinsic semiconductors will be the same as that in a pure semiconductor. Holes
are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in p-type material. Similarly,
electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in n-type material. When these
semiconductors form a junction, a space charge region called a depletion layer is formed at
their junction region. The electric field in this space charge region prevents majority carriers
from crossing the junction while it favors the movement of the minority carriers across the
junction. The majority carriers arise due to the impurity introduced in each region while the
minority carriers are generated only due to the temperature effect. In other words minority
carriers are generated through the breaking of the covalent bonds which require supply of
energy equal to Eg. Therefore by studying the temperature variation of the minority carriers it
is possible to evaluate Eg.
The diode equation expresses the current I through a p-n junction for the both sign of
the applied voltage is given by
keVT
I I 0 e B 1 (1)
where ,e is the fundamental electronic charge , T is absolute temperature of diode, V is
applied voltage , kB is Boltzman constant, and I 0 is reverse saturation current . The variation
of minority carriers can be carried out through temperature variation of reveres saturation
current, which is the current in the diode under reverse bias condition. Thus dependence on
the energy gap Eg occurs through the factor I0. It is given by,
I 0 C exp E g / k BT (2)
where Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor, kB is Boltzmann constant and C is constant
depending upon the semiconductor doping and other parameter and it is represented with
usual meaning of parameters as
Dp
C Ae pn
Dn
n p N C NV exp E g / k BT ……………….(3)
L p N D Ln N A
ln I0 = lnC – E g
1
kB T
or log10 I0 = log10 C − Eg /2.3026 kBT …………………(4)
Equation (4) implies that the reverse saturation current I0 in a given semiconductor diode is
dependent only on the temperature T. It varies inversely with temperature. A plot of log10 I0
3
vs 10 /T gives a straight line having a slope = 5.04 Eg . Hence band gap
Diode reverse 3
S.No Saturation
Temperature Temperature 1 × 10
Calculations:
Log10 I0
103/ T
Fig.3 Graph for band gap determination
Result
The width of the forbidden gap in germanium semiconductor is found to be ……eV
Precautions
1. The thermometer should be properly placed .
2. The maximum temperature of the diode is not allowed to go beyond 700C
Objective: To plot the charging and discharging curves of any three
combinations of resistance and capacitors.
Apparatus required: - Electronic training board for study of charging & discharging of
capacitor, stop watch, connecting wires.
R C X
V
Y
^ Z
+ -
Battery
Connect Y and Z – for charging
Connect Y and X - for Discharging
Procedure:-
1. Select any one resistance and one capacitor (For better results connect high
resistance and low capacitance and then make such combinations.)
2. Note down the reading of voltage every after five seconds. The time should be
adjusted by stop watch.
3. The time constant of a RC circuit is RC. The time constant is a time in which it
takes the capacitor to lose 63% of its initial charge.
4. Record the observations in the observation table shown below.
R 1 = ………………..Ohm, C 1 =………….. Micro Farad.
5. Plot the curve for charging and discharging of capacitor & determine the time
constant of RC circuit.
6. Measure the time constant by using a stop watch to record the time it takes for the
voltage to drop from maximum Vmax to a target voltage of 0.63 Vmax.
Results:
Tabulate the result as below:
S.No. Resistance Capacitor Time constant Time constant Error
(theoretical) RC (Practical) RC
1
3
Graph:-
Scale:- X axis 10 divisions = ……..sec.
Y axis 10 divisions = ……. V
Charging Curve
Charging
or
Discharging
Voltage (V)
(in voltage) Discharging Curve
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time(in sec.)
Precautions:
1. The connections wire should be straight and not coiled in order to eliminate to
effect due to self induction.
3. Wires connected to the power should be well insulated and so placed that they are
not likely to be touched accidentally.
Questions:
QαV
or Q/V = constant = C
This constant C is called the capacity of the conductor and is defined as the ratio of the
charge on the conductor to its potential.
Q.3 What is the SI unit of capacity?
Ans. The SI unit of capacity is Farad.
Q.6 On what factors does the rate of charging and discharging of a capacitor depends?
Ans. The rate of charging and discharge and discharging of a capacitor depends on its
capacity C and effective resistance R in the circuit.
Plane waves incident on a diffraction grating at an angle θi, a is the grating constant.
Fig.2
The diffraction pattern due to a grating is essentially the same as the diffraction pattern due
to M slits, where M is a large number (~10-100) and is obtained by the superposition of waves
emanating form all the slits on the observation plane. The resulting intensity distribution is given by
2
sin sin M
2
I I 0 , (1)
sin
ka sin kb sin
where and , (2)
2 2
2
with k , λ being the wavelength of light.
The grating equation:
Consider the incidence of plane waves making an angle θi with the plane of the grating as
shown in Fig.2. The net path difference for waves from successive slits is given by
1 2 a sin i a sin , (3)
where θ is the angle of corresponding to any arbitrary direction of the diffracted light. For normal
incidence ( i 0 ) , and therefore
a sin . (4)
When n , where n is an integer, all diffracted waves in the corresponding direction θn are in
phase, and their amplitudes add up to give maximum intensity. Thus, we have the grating equation,
which gives the positions of the intensity maxima as
a sin n n (5)
n=0,±1,±2, ±3, ±4,………… refers to the order of the spectrum.
The zeroth order (n= 0 occurs for θn=0, i.e., along the direction of the incident light, for all λ. Thus,
light of all wavelengths appears in the zeroth order peak of the diffraction pattern. For orders n≠0,
the grating leads to angular separation of the wavelengths present in the incident beam (see Eq.5).
In other words in each order, different colours would appear at different angles with reference to
the direction of the incident beam. This feature of the grating makes it extremely useful in
wavelength measurement and spectral analysis. Note that for every θn satisfying the grating
equation, the angle – θn also satisfies the grating equation with n replaced by –n. Thus, for normal
incidence the +ve and –ve orders appear symmetrically on either side of the zeroth order (see
Fig.3).
+2
+1
2θ1 0 (θ=0)
Incident
rays -1
Diffracted -2
Grating rays
Diffract
ed rays
Diffracted orders at a particular wavelength
Fig.3
Source of light:
Mercury vapour lamp is used as the source of light. This source gives a well defined line
spectrum arising from interstate transitions taking place in the excited mercury atoms.
Spectrometer:
The spectrometer consists of a collimator which is mounted on the rigid arm, and a
telescope mounted on the rotatable arm which can rotate in a horizontal plane about the axis of the
instrument. A prism table of adjustable height is mounted along the axis of rotation on the
telescope. A circular scale-and-vernier arrangement is provided to enable measurement of the angle
through which the telescope arm or the prism table is rotated.
Experiment:
1. Setting the prism table:
The prism table is made horizontal first with the help of a spirit level by adjusting the
leveling screws D, E and F (see Fig.4). To start with, the prism table is rotated about its axis and
adjusted in such a way that the parallel straight lines along with the two screws E and F are
perpendicular to the axis joining the collimator and the telescope when they are aligned. A three
way spirit level is kept on the prism table with its edge along the parallel lines. The screws E and F
are adjusted to achieve the centering of the air bubble in spirit level ‘1’ and the screw D is adjusted
to achieve the centering of the air bubble in spirit level’2’. Finer adjustments of D, E & F are done
to center spirit ‘3’ along with the spirit levels 1 & 2, which are perpendicular to each other.
Further adjustments of the prism table are done using the method of optical alignment.
Fig.4
2. Setting up the diffraction grating for normal incidence:
The diffraction grating is positioned securely in the grating stand with the help of two
clamps, and is fitted on the prism table with the help of two screws into the threaded holes B and C
(Fig.4).
The position of the telescope is carefully adjusted such that the direct image of the slit
coincides with the vertical crosswire on the telescope. Readings of the two circular scales I and II
are recorded. The telescope arm is rotated through 90o, and is locked in this new position. The
prism table is rotated so as to coincide image of the slit reflected from the grating with the vertical
crosswire in the telescope (see Fig.5). Readings of scales I and II are recorded again. The prism
table is now rotated away from this position by an angle of 45o so as to make the grating face
perpendicular to the incident light coming from the collimator. The prism table is locked in this
position. The telescope arm is now released so that it can be moved freely on both sides of the
incident light position.
Fig.5
3. Determination of angle of diffraction:
Experiment is performed with a grating having 20000lines/inch or 15000lines/inch. The
diffraction spectrum contains a white line in the center (zero order spectrum) with dispersed set of
coloured lines (blue, blue green, green, yellow I, yellow II, red I, red II etc.) appearing repetitively
on both sides of the zeroth order representing the higher orders of diffraction spectra (see Fig.3).
Readings of the telescope positions are taken while coinciding its crosswire with the various
coloured lines of the left side spectra. Note down the readings of both the verniers for each spectral
line in the first order and in the second order. Then take the telescope to the right side of the direct
image and repeat the above procedure. Tabulate all the readings systematically as per the given
format (see Table 1). Find out the differences in angles corresponding to the same kind of vernier
for ach spectral line in both the orders. Determine from this the wavelength of the light of a
particular colour by using the grating formula
a sinθ = nλ
Order of Colour Type LHS reading for RHS reading for p~q θ = (p
spectrum of light of telescope position telescope position (deg.) ~ q)/2
vernier (deg.)
V1 or M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
V2 (p) (q)
Yellow V1
V2
2nd Green V1
V2
Violet V1
V2
Yellow V1
V2
1st Green V1
V2
Violet V1
V2
* The direction of the arrow indicates the sequence of recording the readings.
Precautions:
(i) Care should be taken to ensure proper setting of the spectrometer, and these settings of the
telescope and the collimator are not touched during the course of taking the various readings.
(ii) The position of the grating, adjusted to be normal to the incoming light from the collimator,
should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Ensure that the prism table locking screw is
tightened properly.
(iii) It is necessary to pint the slit towards the brightest part of the source, in order to obtain
reasonable intensity of the lines of different colours especially in the higher order spectra. It is
known that the intensity of lines in the higher order spectra reduces sharply with increase in
order.
Some questions:
(Please do not write in your practical file for submission)
1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?
A. When light falls on obstacle or small aperture whose size is comparable with the wavelength of
light, there is a departure from straight line propagation, the light bends round the corners of
obstacles or apertures. The bending of light is called diffraction.
7. What is the main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?
A. In grating spectrum red colour is deviated most and violet least while this order is reversed is
prism spectrum.
8. Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?
A. In case of a prism, the light is concentrated in one spectrum while in case of grating, the incident
light is diffracted into spectra of various orders moreover most of the light is concentrated in
direct image where no spectrum is formed.
9. What is dispersive power of grating?
A. The rate of change of angle of diffraction with wavelength is defined as the dispersive power of
grating. This is expressed as
d n
, where a is the grating element.
d a cos
Dispersive power is more for higher orders.
11. What will happen if the width of clear space and ruled space is made equal?
A. Even order spectra (2,4,6-------) will be absent.
Diffracting
Plane(single Slit) Focal plane(Screen)
Lens
He-Ne
LASER
Theory :
He-Ne laser: The word LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation. A laser provides an output which is coherent and of high
irradiance. It has a good directionality and monochromaticity. In He-Ne laser
Population inversions is produced through inelastic collisions between excited He
atoms and the Ne atoms. This is possible because the levels E4 E6 of neon atoms
have almost the same energy as the levels F2 and F3 of helium atoms as shown in
every level diagram below. The most prominent laser line is 6328Ǻ emitted by
transition from E6 to E3.
Helium
19 - Through atomic collisions
- Neon
17 - F3 E6 3..39 m
- E5
15 - F2 E4 1.15 m 6328 Ǻ
Energy - E3
eV 13 - Excitation by Spontaneous
E
- collision with 2 emission (6000 Ǻ)
11 - electrons
- De-excitation by
0 collision.
E
F1 1
When an single slit is placed in the path of a laser beam a well-defined diffraction pattern is
obtained. The width of the slit b is obtained from the formula
m
b
sin n
sin 1 2 / b .Since sinθ cannot exceed unity, the maximum value at m is integer
which is less than b/.
Procedure:-
(i)The diffraction pattern is obtained at the focal plain of the lens. The single slit is put in
front of the He-Ne laser source normal to the incident beam
(ii) The scale is adjusted to be obtain the symmetrical diffraction pattern about the central
maximum
(iii)The distances between the central maximum and the first, second, third minima are
measured accurately on either side of it with the help of the transparent side.
(iv) The distance D between the slit and the screen is noted.
Observations:-
Calculations:
Results:-The width of the single slit using the He-Ne laser source = ………..cm
Precautions:
ii)The mm scale on the screen should be kept normal to the incident beam.
OBJECT:- To estimate the absorption co-efficient of a semitransparent glass plate
by Lummer Brodhum photometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
Lummer Brodhum photometer, optical bench, two sources of light and auto
transformer.
Candle power
Intensity of illumination =
(Distance) 2
P1 = P2
r12 r22
PRINCIPLE:-
To compare the illuminating power of any two sources of light we make them
illuminate powers of any two sources of light we make then illuminate two neighboring
surface. The distance of one or the other of the sources is adjusted until the two portions
appear equally bright. In this way the intensity of illumination due to both the sources is
same. Now if P1 and P2 are the illuminating powers of the sources, and d1 and d2 their
respective distances from the surface they illuminate, the intensity of illumination due to
each respectively, is
P1 and P2
r12 r22
When these two are equal
P1 = P2 or P1 = r12
r12 r22 P2 r22
Hence the illuminating powers of the two sources are directly proportional to the
square of the distances at which they respectively produce equal intensity of illumination.
Note if P2 and r1 are fixed then P1 ά 1/r22.
FORMULA USED:-
If the illumination power of two lamps P1 and P2 with distance r1 and r2 from
photometer are at equal intensity then
P1 = r12
P2 r22
The distance r1 and r2 are such that they produce equal illumination.
If a screen with absorption coefficient k is put, near the photometer against source
P1 and the lamp P2 is balancing the intensity at distance r1’ and r2’ respectively with (1-
k) being the transmission coefficient at the screen as shown in Fig 2
Glass plate
Source Source
P2 P1
← r2’ → ← r1’ →
(1-k) P1 = r1’2
P2 r2’2
PROCEDURE:-
(i) The photometer upright is mounted nearly in the middle of an optical bench
and adjusted in such a way that photometer head becomes normal to the line joining the
two sources as shown in figure (2).
(ii) Remove the shutters from both sides of photometer and allow the light to fall
on each face of the head.
(iii) The positions of one lamp and photometer head are noted. For one set of
observation, position of the photometer head should not be disturbed
(iv) Move the other lamp from one end of the bench towards photometer till the
field of view in photometer is equally illuminated. Note down the position of the lamp.
(v) Now interpose the transmitting plate between photometer and source S2.
Move S2 till the field of view in photometer is equally illuminated. Note the distance d
of source from photometer.
(vi) Respect above procedure by changing the distance d1 of source S1 from
photometer.
OBSERVATIONS:-
Position of
S.No. Position Position of source r2 = r’ 2= t= Mean
of the LB S2 (b-a) (c-a) r12/r22 k=1-t
source Photometer Without With x
S1 a Plate b plate cm cm r’12/r’22
r 1 cm cm cm c
cm
1
2
3
4
Calculation :
VIVA-VOCE:-
Q. (1) What do you mean by photometer?
. The branch of the optics which deals with the comparison and
measurement of the quantity of radiant energy emitted or received or
absorbed .
Q. (2) Define illuminating power.
The illuminating power of a source is the quantity of light falling per
second on he unit area placed a unit distance form the source in a direction
normal to the rays .Ti is measured on candle power.
Apparatus required: Stewart & Gee (S&G) type tangent galvanometer, rheostat,
cummutator, key, connecting wires, spirit level
2nir 2
F ,
10( x 2 r 2 ) 3 / 2
Where n is the number of turns in the coil, and r is the radius of coil.
If F is perpendicular to earth’s magnetic field H, the deflection θ is related to F as
F=H tanθ i.e.
2nir 2
H tan .
10( x 2 r 2 ) 3 / 2
Procedure:
(1). First through natural observations locate geographical east and west directions
and then place the S&G galvanometer along with magnetic needle on the table such that the
long arms of the magnetometer are in the east west directions. This enables us to place our
apparatus in a magnetic meridian (i.e. along earth’s magnetic field i.e. north – south
direction). In the magnetic compass you will see two long needles and a small black magnet.
When freely suspended this magnet rests in north south direction. Place the magnetic
compass at the centre of the coil and look from top of the circular coil and rotate the
apparatus such that the magnet and coil lies in the same plane. Now our apparatus is in
magnetic meridian. Now rotate the magnetic compass slowly such that the two long needles
(pointers) are at zero- zero (see Fig.1). If there is slight error in any of the needles reading
level the apparatus with the help of leveling screws and the spirit level provided. Once the
pointers are at zero – zero and the apparatus is in magnetic meridian we can connect the
circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Care should be taken that the magnetic coil shouldn’t
be disturbed.
(2) With the help of the circuit diagram (see Fig.2) connect the circuit and adjust the current
in the circuit (by varying the sliding port of rheostat ) such that the pointers deflection reads
around 70-75 degrees.
(3) Now take the compass to the extreme right of the apparatus (say around 40-45cm mark).
The deflection in the compass will decrease and will be around (4-6 degrees). Note down the
deflection in the compass (forward current). Now reverse the current direction by changing
the positions of the keys in the commutator and again note down the reading of the compass
(reverse current). Put the value of distance x = 0cm in the observations.
(4) Now move the compass slightly by 2 cm or 4cm towards left and note down the reading
of the compass in forward direction and reverse direction (by changing the position of the
keys) in the observation table. In this way note down the reading after every two / four
centimeters and reach the extreme left of the apparatus. Here it must be noted that all the
values of deflection (θ) will be almost similar and if it is not so it is an indication that the
apparatus is not perfectly placed in magnetic meridian or not properly leveled.
Observation Table
S.No. Distance of the Deflection in the magnetic needle (on moving tan θ
needle from the towards left end)
center of the Current one way Current in reverse Mean θ = (θ1
apparatus direction +θ2 +θ3 +θ4 )/4
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
S.No. Distance of the Deflection in the magnetic needle (on moving towards tan θ
needle from the right end)
center of the Current one way Current in reverse Mean θ = (θ1
apparatus direction +θ2 +θ3 +θ4 )/4
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
(5) Now plot a graph between the distance (on x axis) and tanθ on the y axis by taking
suitable scale (see Fig.3)
(6) The graph will be like as shown in the figure 3.
(7) Now mark the points of inflexion (points where the graph changes its concavity / slope)
say P and Q. Measure the distance between P and Q. This is roughly twice the radius of the
coil. Half of this distance gives us the estimated radius of the coil.
Results:
(1) A study of the variation of magnetic field along the axis of the circular coil was done. The
graph showing this variation of magnetic field is plotted and it was concluded that the
magnetic field is maximum at the center of the coil and the field decreases as we move away
from the center of the coil on either side.
(2) The radius of the coil was estimated from the graph drawn and it comes out to be
________ cm. which is in good agreement to the directly measured value of the radius of the
coil i.e. 10.5cm.
Precautions:
1.The coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian.
2.All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a considerable
distance from the apparatus.
3.Parallax should be removed while reading the position of the pointer.
4.The curve should be drawn smoothly and points of inflexion should be determined very
carefully.
Some questions:
(Please do not write in your practical file for submission)
1. Does earth have any magnetic field of its own?
Ans. Yes the earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographical pole is close to a magnetic south
pole which is why the north pole of a compass needle points north. The earth’s magnetic axis
is not quite parallel to its geographic axis ( the axis of rotation), so a compass reading
deviates somewhat from geographic north. This deviation which varies with location is called
magnetic declination or magnetic variation.
6.What will happen if we increase / decrease the number of turns or current in the coil?
Ans. The magnetic field will increase / decrease.
Things reuired:
Newton’s rings apparatus, glass plate, plano-convex lens, reading lens, sodium light
source.
Theory:
If we place a plano convex lens L on a flat glass plate G as shown in the
figure 1, an air film of varying thickness is formed between the curved surface of the
lens and the flat surface of the plate. Light from a sodium lamp S falls on a flat glass
plate P placed at 45o with respect to the incident beam. Some of this light is reflected
at the plate and directed towards the lens and glass plate placed below. This light in
turn is partially reflected upwards at all the four surfaces. Light reflected from the
curved surface of the lens ACB and light reflected from the adjacent surface of the
glass plate ADE will then interfere to from a pattern of interference fringes (see
Fig.2).
Figure 1
Figure 2
Consider points lying close to the point of contact between the lens and the
glass plate. We note that the path difference between the interfering beams is
approximately 2t where t is the thickness of the air gap. Since the light reflected
from the glass plate G undergoes a further phase shift of π the condition for an
interference maximum is,
2t (n 1 / 2) , n= 0,1,2,3----------- (1)
While the condition for a minimum is
2t n , n= 0,1,2,3-----------. (2)
As the system is axially symmetric the resulting fringes are cocentric circles with the
center at the point of contact. If R is the radius of curvature of the curved of the lens,
it can be shown from geometry that the diameter o the nth dark ring is given by,
Dn2 4 . t .(2R) 4nR . (3)
Similarly of the (n+m)th ring,
Dn2m 4(n m)R . (4)
Subtracting Eq.(3) form Eq.(4) we get,
Dn2 m Dn2 4mR i.e.
Dn2 m Dn2
R . (5)
4m
Thus measuring the diameter of the rings and the knowing the wavelength of the
given source of light (here in this case it is sodium light with wavelength λ~5896Ǻ)
we can find the radius of curvature of the given lens.
Procedure:
1. Clean both surfaces of the lens and glass plate with a tissue paper and ensure that
there is no fingerprint or grease on either. Place the curved surface of the lens on
the glass plate. Check that this is correct by gently pressing on one edge of the
lens, it should rock because of the curved surface being in contact. Place this
assembly in the frame supplied and slightly tighten the screws to ensure that the
lens will not fall but can move slightly if needed.
2. Hold the lens-plate assembly horizontal while standing below any light on the
ceiling of the laboratory. A circular pattern of interference fringes (~1-2mm dia)
should be visible in the light reflected from the assembly. If no fringes are
visible then the glass surface has not been cleaned properly. If the fringes are
very irregular in shape then the flat and not the convex surface of the lens is in
contact with the plate.
3. The frame containing the lens and plate is then placed in the Newton’s rings
apparatus so that the fringes are directly below the microscope. The microscope
is then moved vertically until the fringes are in focus. Move the lens and plate
inside the apparatus until the central portion of the fringes can be seen. If
necessary, one of the three screws on the frame can also be tightened slightly to
tilt the lens and ensure that the fringes are centered.
4. At this stage the central fringe should be dark if this is not so, then the plate and
lens are not clean, take them out, clean them and perform the same procedure as
above. To ensure maximum contrast, move the Newton’s ring apparatus or the
lens in front of the lamp till the other dark fringes are also as black as possible.
5. Find the vernier constant of the traveling microscope. Then using the
micrometer, move the microscope in the horizontal direction and check that it
can be moved more than 25 dark and bright fringes on either side of the center
for taking readings.
6. Counting carefully from the center move out till the cross wire is on the 21 st
fringe or 22nd bright fringe. Now rotate the micrometer in the opposite direction
till the 20th fringe of the same type is tangential to the crosswire. Note the
position of the traveling microscope from the micrometer. The 21st fringe must
not be used as reversing the direction of the screw there gives a large backlash
error.
7. Move the microscope using the micrometer to align the crosswire tangential to
the 18th fringe and note the micrometer reading. Repeat this on the 16th, 14th,
12th,----------- fringes, continue in the same fashion on the other side of the
center till the 20th fringe on the other side of the center.
Observations:
Value of one division of the main scale =---------- cm
Number of divisions on the vernier scale =
Least count of micrometer on microscope =
Observation table for measurement of the diameter of the fringes
Number Microscope reading Diameter Dn2 cm2
of rings Left hand side Right hand side Dn= |a – b| cm
n M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
(a cm) (b cm)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
* The direction of the arrow indicates the sequence of recording the readings.
Calculations:
S.No. Ring Dn210 Dn2 cm2 Dn210 - Dn2 Dn2 m Dn2 Mean R cm
R cm
number 4m
m=10 cm2 cm2
1 10
2 8
3 6
4 4
5 2
Result: (i) The radius of curvature of given plano-convex lens is ____________ cm.
(ii) The graph between rings number n and Dn2 is plotted and is a straight line.
Precautions:
(i) The glass plate and plano-convex lens should be cleaned properly and be made free
from dust and grease.
(ii) The microscope should be moved carefully without disturbing the setup.
(iii) Rings of good contrast should be formed.
(iv) Cross wire should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
(v) The lens used should be of large radius of curvature.
Questions:
(Please do not write in your practical file for submission)
5. What will happen if water or some transparent liquid is filled in between glass plate and
plano-convex lens?
A. We might get the pattern with reduced diameter by a factor of .
11. Why do you make the light fall on the convex lens normally> What will happen if the light
is incident obliquely?
A. The light is allowed to fall normally so the angles of incidence and reflection may be zero so
that cosθ may be taken as unity. In case of oblique incidence, the diameter of rings will
increase.
Objective: To determine Frequency of A.C. mains with a Sonometer using
non-magnetic wire
Apparatus required : - Sonometer, Bar magnets, a step-down transformer, one meter
long brass wire, a balance, weight box etc.
Description of Apparatus:-
If now the distance between the two bridges of the sonometer is so adjusted that
the natural frequency of vibration f of the wire equals that of current, there will be
resonance and wire will vibrate with large amplitude. At this stage
1 T
f
2 m
Where l is the resonant length of the wire between the bridges, m is mass per unit
length of the wire. T(=Mg) is the tension in the wire, M is mass placed on the hanger and
g is acceleration due to gravity.
Procedure:-
Calculations:
Calculate the frequency using following formula.
1 T
f
2 m
Result :
Mean frequency of A.C. mains = say x Hz (By experiment)
Frequency of A.C. Mains in India (Standard value) = 50 Hz
x 50
% error 100
50
Precautions:
(a) The wire must be uniform without kinks or unevenness.
(b) The knife edges should be shifted slowly so that correct resonance length is
found.
(c) The length of wire should be noted at full vibrations of the wire.
(d) Magnets with opposite poles facing each other should be placed.
(e) All observations must be taken either in c.g.s. or m.k.s. system.
Questions:
Apparatus required:-
Telescope, Adjustable rectangular slit, with micrometer screw, Strips with
equidistant lines.
Procedure:-
Several black strips of equal width “a” and equal spacing “b” are drawn on a
white paper. This design / paper is placed a few meters away from the telescope, with its
plane perpendicular to the axis of the telescope. The design is focused in the telescope,
now a variable graduated slit is mounted on the telescope objective, with its length
parallel to the strips. The slit is fully closed and now it is opened gradually. A condition
will come when the white and black strips will appear to overlap each other (not clearly
visible or in other words the paper will appear to be equally illuminated. The slit width
(A) is noted from the main scale and a the circular scale. Now the slit is opened and we
will be able to see both black and white strips clearly. Now again the slit is closed
gradually till the design shows uniform shade, not black and white strips i.e the black and
white stripes overlap each other. The slit width (B) ia again noted. Let this critical width
of the slit be “W=A+B/2”. Let “d” be the total diameter of the telescope objective and D
be the distance from the objective of the telescope to drawing..
Diagram:-
Telescope
Eye piece ▐ Slit
-----------------
▌ --- d ---
Rectangular
Screw DRAWING OF
STRIPS.
Formula: -
ab
For aperture W smallest angle resolved =
D
abW
For aperture d, smallest angle resolved. min .
D d
is the angle when the two images are just resolved.
The factor 1.22 is introduced because the aperture d is circular, while W is for a
rectangular slit.
The value of a = 0.2cm
The value of b = 0.2cm mm
The value of d = 2.45 cm
is the angle when the two images are just resolved.
Plot a graph between slit width W and distance D by taking suitable scale. A straight
line may appear.
Calculate min by substituting a, b, & d
ab W
min 1.22
D 2.45
W
min K [i.e. : θminimum D = KW ]
D
W min D or slope of this line will give minimum
and resolving power is the reciprocal of minimum.
Total reading should be written using the formula:
Total = Main Scale (in cm) + Least count Vernier Divisions
Observation Table:-
For critical width (W)
Least count of micrometer screw = …… cm.
Precautions:-
(1) Adjustment of the slit and the lines on the strip should be parallel.
(2) The distance D should be used carefully from the objective of the
telescope.
(3) The micrometer screw of the slit should be used carefully for reading
the position of just telescope.
Questions:
(Please do not write in your practical file for submission)
1 T
f
2 m
Description of Apparatus:-
The electrical vibrator consists of a solenoid through which passes a thin rod of
steel, which can be clamped at one end. At its free end of steel rod carries a hook to
which a string under tension can be connected. The solenoid in connected with a 25 watt
lamp and is used directly with A.C. mains. A permanent horse shoe magnet in also
mounted on the base board. The steel rod passing through the pole pieces .When AC is
fed through solenoid, the rod is magnetized longitudinally with the polarity reversing
with change in signs of the current. Owing to the interaction of this with the field due to
the permanent magnet, the rod vibrates with the frequency of A.C. The length of the steel
rod can be adjusted so as to get resonance, indicated by large amplitude of vibration of
its free end .A continuous vibration is then maintained.
Fig (1) Experimental setup for determining frequency of AC mains by electrical
vibrator in transverse arrangement. (On left page)
Procedure:-
(a) A rod AB is kept in a solenoid along the axis with clamping screws X, Y. The end B
is free to vibrate. N-S are the pole pieces of a permanent magnet. The thread is tied at
B. The other end is passed over pulley and fastened with pan. On switching
alternating current from a.c. mains passes through the solenoid. The rod gets
magnetized with polarity changing with a.c. frequency (50 Hz.).
(b) Tie the uniform thread at B and pass it over pulley to fasten it with pan.
(c) Switch on the vibrator by connecting plug to a.c. mains carefully and put some weight
on pan to get loops.
(d) Adjust the length of the thread to get loops say 4 to 8 of maximum amplitude. Note
down the number of loops, weight placed on pan, weight of pan and length of the
thread.
(e) Repeat the same adjustment for different weights and No. of loops have at least 6 sets
of observations.
(f) Calculate the frequency of a.c.. Mains (η) with the help of the formula.
Observations:-
Mass/Unit length of the thread (m) = (please see at the bottom of the pan)
Acceleration due to gravity (g) =
Length of
Applied Mass of Total Tension No. of Weight of
S.No. Mass (gm) pan (gm) A+B applied loops thread one loop
ℓ=L
(A) (B) =M T=Mg (p) (L) /P
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. ƒ1 =
2. ƒ2 =
3. ƒ3 =
4. ƒ4 =
5. ƒ5 =
6. ƒ6 =
Result:-
The mean frequency of A.C. Mains = ----------------------------- Hz.
= ---------------------------------------
Precautions:-