Variation Of Pressure Vertically In A Fluid Under

Gravity

Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid

In the above figure we can see an element of fluid which is a vertical column of constant cross
sectional area, A, surrounded by the same fluid of mass density . The pressure at the bottom of the
cylinder is at level , and at the top is at level . The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all
the forces in the vertical direction sum to zero. i.e. we have

Taking upward as positive, in equilibrium we have

Thus in a fluid under gravity, pressure decreases with increase in height .

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Equality Of Pressure At The Same Level In AStatic
Fluid
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below, with cross-sectional area A, in
a fluid of density , pressure at the left hand end and pressure at the right hand end.

Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid

The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x direction is zero.

Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.

This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two connected tanks which appear not
to have any direct connection, for example consider the tank in the figure below.

Two tanks of different cross-section connected by a pipe

We have shown above that and from the equation for a vertical pressure change we have

and

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so

This shows that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the same.

General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A

Static Fluid
Here we show how the above observations for vertical and horizontal elements of fluids can be
generalised for an element of any orientation.

A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation.

Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the figure above, inclined at an angle to the vertical,
length , cross-sectional area A in a static fluid of mass density . The pressure at the end with
height is and at the end of height is .

The forces acting on the element are

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There are also forces from the surrounding fluid acting normal to these sides of the element.

For equilibrium of the element the resultant of forces in any direction is zero.

Resolving the forces in the direction along the central axis gives

Or in the differential form

If then s is in the x or y directions, (i.e. horizontal),so

Confirming that pressure on any horizontal plane is zero.

If then s is in the z direction (vertical) so

Confirming the result

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Pressure And Head

In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship , as shown above. This can be
integrated to give

In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface so that z = -h
(see the figure below)

Fluid head measurement in a tank.

This gives the pressure

At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the atmospheric pressure,

. So

As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else exists under this
pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take atmospheric pressure as the datum. So we quote
pressure as above or below atmospheric.

Pressure quoted in this way is known as gauge pressure i.e.

Gauge pressure is

The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure measured
above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.

Absolute pressure is

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As g is (approximately) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical height of any
fluid of density which is equal to this pressure.

This vertical height is known as head of fluid.

Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.

Example:

We can quote a pressure of in terms of the height of a column of water of density,

. Using ,

And in terms of Mercury with density, .

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Pressure Measurement By Manometer
The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure pressure with a manometer (also know
as a liquid gauge).

Objective:

 To demonstrate the analysis and use of various types of manometers for pressure
measurement.

The Piezometer Tube Manometer

The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the top of a vessel containing
liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below. This simple device is known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the
pressure measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

A simple piezometer tube manometer

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid height is
convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.

The "U"-Tube Manometer

Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same
instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric
fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the

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manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be
immiscible.

A "U"-Tube manometer

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,

For the left hand arm

For the right hand arm

As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract giving

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in comparison to the density
of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case the term can be neglected, and the gauge
pressure give by

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Measurement Of Pressure Difference Using a "U"-
Tube Manometer.
If the "U"-tube manometer is connected to a pressurised vessel at two points the pressure difference
between these two points can be measured.

Pressure difference measurement by the "U"-Tube manometer

If the manometer is arranged as in the figure above, then

Giving the pressure difference

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Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and , then the
terms involving can be neglected, so

Advances to the "U" tube manometer.

The "U"-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of the liquid in both sides must
be read. This can be avoided by making the diameter of one side very large compared to the other. In
this case the side with the large area moves very little when the small area side move considerably
more.

Assume the manometer is arranged as above to measure the pressure difference of a gas of (negligible
density) and that pressure difference is . If the datum line indicates the level of the
manometric fluid when the pressure difference is zero and the height differences when pressure is

applied is as shown, the volume of liquid transferred from the left side to the right

And the fall in level of the left side is

We know from the theory of the "U" tube manometer that the height different in the two columns gives
the pressure difference so

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Clearly if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small so

So only one reading need be taken to measure the pressure difference.

If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm provides a convenient way of obtaining
a larger (more easily read) movement of the manometer. The above arrangement with a tilted arm is
shown in the figure below.

Tilted manometer.

The pressure difference is still given by the height change of the manometric fluid but by placing the
scale along the line of the tilted arm and taking this reading large movements will be observed. The
pressure difference is then given by

The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a greater inclination of the manometer
arm, alternatively the density of the manometric fluid may be changed.

Choice Of Manometer
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must be present around this joint.
Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure variations to affect the measurement.

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Some disadvantages of manometers:

 Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no use at all for
fluctuating pressures;
 For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken simultaneously to get the h
value. This may be avoided by using a tube with a much larger cross-sectional area on one
side of the manometer than the other;
 It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different manometric fluid may
be required - alternatively a sloping manometer may be employed; It cannot be used for very
large pressures unless several manometers are connected in series;
 For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between temperature and  must be
known;

Some advantages of manometers:

 They are very simple.

 No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first principles.

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