RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture Number 41
Widening of Gauge & Vertical Curves

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Transition curve
– Numerical
– Laying a Transition curve
– Compound curve
– Reverse curve
• Extra clearances

2
Today’s Discussion

• Widening of Gauge
• Gradients
• Vertical Curves
– Types
– Length
– Setting in Field

3
Widening of Gauge

• Under normal track conditions, the wheels and

flanges stay clear of the rail head section
• On a curved section the condition is different. The
outer wheel flange of the leading axle moves in a
straight line and rubs against the rail head.
• Though the outer wheel travels a longer distance on
leading axle the situation is opposite on the trailing
axle
• This causes the slipping of inside wheel backward and
outer wheel forward

4
Widening of Gauge

• This will cause wear of flanges and rails around

curves, and eases the condition
• The widening of the gauge helps in the same
manner and tends to reduce the wear and tear
of the wheel flanges and rails
• Extra width required on curves
– w = 13(B+L)2/R
– B = wheelbase (6m for BG track)
– L = lap of flange = 0.02(h2+Dh) (m)

5
Widening of Gauge

• Extra width required on curves

– w = 13(B+L)2 / R
– h = depth of flange below top of rail (cm)
– D = diameter of wheel (cm)
– R = Radius of curve (m)

6
Widening of Gauge

• Reasons summarized:
– Centrifugal force
– Rigidity of vehicle base
– Relative distance traveled by wheels
• Loss of contact between wheel and rail in trailing
position
– Slip of inner wheels backward/ Skid of outer
wheels forward

7
Widening of Gauge – Numerical 1

• Consider the data: BG track, wheelbase 6 m

long, diameter of wheel 1524mm, flange
projects 32mm below the top of the rail,
radius of curve 168 m. Calculate extra width
of the gauge.
• Solution:
– Lap of flange: L = 0.02(h2+Dh)
– L = 0.02* (3.22 + 152.4*3.2) = 0.446 m

8
Widening of Gauge – Numerical 1

• Solution:
– Extra width of gauge = w = 13(B+L)2 / R
– w = 13*(6 + 0.446)2/168 = 3.21 cm or 32.1mm
• Gauge Tolerances as per IR
– Straight track including curves of radius 350 m for
BG: - 5mm to +3mm (tight to slack)
– For curves of radius less than 350 m for BG: up to
+10mm (slack)

9
Gradients

• Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or

fall in the level of the railway track.
• Rising gradient rises the track in the direction of
movement, whereas, falling gradient cause the
track to go down in the direction of movement
• A gradient is represented by the distance
traveled for a rise or fall of one unit and is given
as:
– 1 in ‘x’ or 1 in ‘n’ or Percent

10
Gradients
• These need to be provided to:
– Connect various stations located at different
elevations
– Follow the natural contours on the ground to the
extent possible
– Reduce the cost of earthwork required
• Types:
– Ruling
– Pusher or Helper
– Momentum
– Gradient in station yards

11
Gradients

• Ruling Gradient
– Determined by maximum load that a locomotive
can haul with maximum permissible speed.
– Extra Pull required by a locomotive on a gradient
with  degree inclination can be given as:
– P = W sin  = W x gradient
– Ruling gradient with one locomotive in Plain area:
1 in 150 to 1 in 250
– Ruling gradient with one locomotive in Hilly area:
1 in 100 to 1 in 150

12
Gradients

• Ruling Gradient
– Once a ruling gradient is specified for a section,
then all other gradients provided in that section
should be flatter than the ruling gradient (after
making due compensation for curvature)
• Momentum Gradient
– Gradient steeper than ruling gradient that is
overcome by momentum gathered while having a
run in plain or on falling gradient in valleys

13
Gradients
• Momentum Gradient
– Uses additional kinetic energy received during run
on a section
– No obstruction like signals are provided on sections
with these gradients (which otherwise may bring the
train to a critical juncture)
• Pusher or Helper Gradient
– Gradient steeper than ruling gradient requiring extra
locomotive
• It reduces the length of a section
• It also reduces the overall cost
– E.g. Darjeeling Railway section

14
Gradients

• Gradient in Station Yards, provided to:

– Prevent standing vehicle from rolling and moving
away from the yard (due to combined effect of
gravity and strong winds)
– Reduce additional resistive forces required to start a
locomotive to the extent possible
– Desirable maximum 1 in 400
– Minimum gradient from drainage consideration
– Movement under gravity 1 in 1000 (recommended)

15
Gradients - Compensation

• Grade Compensation (on curves)

– This is done to ease out the resistance offered
combinedly due to curvature and gradient at the
section
– The gradient on a curved section shall be flatter
than the ruling gradient
– Minimum of the two values, as:
– 0.04% per degree of curve or 70/R for BG

16
Vertical Curves

• Problems with the meeting of two gradients:

– Angular formation i.e. kinks, causing abrupt
change in forces
– Rough run of the vehicles on track
– Bunching of vehicles while traversing a sag
(down-gradient)
– Variation in the tension of couplings on the
summits may get induced which may result in
train parting and an uncomfortable ride

17
Vertical Curves

• Solution:
– Connecting the two gradients by a smooth
vertical curve at the location of kink, eliminating
the rough run and providing a smooth
comfortable movement
– Based on the orientation of the two meeting
gradients, the vertical curve can take a shape of
summit (hog) curve or a valley (sag) curve
– Raising gradient is considered as positive and
falling gradient as negative
18
Vertical Curves

• Vertical curves are usually provided as circular

curve. This allows a uniform rate of change of
gradient controlling the rotational acceleration
• Vertical curves are provided only at the junction
of the grade when the algebraic difference
between the grades is equal to or more than
4mm per meter or 0.40%
• Minimum radii of the vertical curve, BG:
– Group-A: 4000 m; Group-B: 3000 m; Group-C, D and E:
2500 m

19
Vertical Curves

SUMMIT CURVES

20
Vertical Curves

VALLEY CURVES

21
Vertical Curves

• In case of summit curve, when the train passes

over it, it experiences an acceleration in the
upward direction making the train to move
faster. At the same time, a variation in the
tension in the couplings is also caused.
• In case of valley curve, the position of train with
half on up-grade and other half on down-grade
compresses couplings and buffers. Once it has
crossed the sag it again experiences tension in
the couplings.

22
Vertical Curves

• Type of curve set

– Parabolic Curve
• Apex of the curve lies at halfway between the points
of intersection on the grade line
• Therefore, its RL will be the average elevation of the
two tangent points
• The rate of change in gradient is restricted as:
– It should not exceed 0.1% per 30.5m chord for
summit curve
– It should not exceed 0.05% per 30.5m chord for
valley curve

23
Vertical Curves

• Length of vertical curve

– Required length of a vertical curve for achieving
maximum permissible speed is given by:
– L = (gi – gj) x 30.5 / r
– where, gi, gj are successive % grades
– ‘r’ is the rate of change of grade

24
Vertical Curves

• Length of vertical curve: New method

– L = R . (gi – gj) / 100
• Where, R = radius of vertical curve as per the
existing provisions
• (gi – gj) = The difference in the percentage of
gradients (expressed in radians)
• When difference is +ve it forms a summit curve
and when it is -ve it forms a sag curve

25
Vertical Curves – Setting in Field

• Two methods:
– Tangent Correction method
– Chord Deflection method
– Tangent correction method is simpler and easy to
implement in the field
– Process:
• Calculate length of vertical curve
• Calculate RL of tangent point and apex
• Compute tangent correction

26
Vertical Curves – Setting in Field

• Two methods:
– Tangent Correction method
• Tangent correction: y = cx2
• Where, c = (g1 – g2)/4n
• y = vertical ordinate from chord
• g = gradient, positive or negative as per rise or fall
• n = number of chords up to half the length of the
curve
• Elevation of the stations on the curve are calculated
by algebraically adding the tangent corrections on
tangent

27
Vertical Curves – Setting in Field

• Chainages of Points
– Chainage of point ‘A’ = chainage of intersection
point (O) – L/2
– Chainage of point ‘B’ = chainage of intersection
point (O) + L/2
• Reduced Levels
– RL of point ‘A’ = RL of intersection point (O) –
L/2*(gi/100)
– RL of point ‘B’ = RL of intersection point (O) –
L/2*(- gj/100)

28
Vertical Curves – Setting in Field

• Increase in RL for length of curve ‘L’ = RL of ‘B’ -

RL of ‘A’
• Increase in RL for distance ‘c’ (fraction of L) =
increase in RL for ‘L’*c/L
• 1st offset on vertical curve = c*(L - c)/2R
– Where, c = 0.2L, 0.4L, …, L
• RL of point on curve = RL of point on grade line +
offset
• Where, RL of a point = RL of previous point (say
A) + increase in RL for ‘c’
29
Vertical Curves – Numerical 2

• Consider data: gradients rising 1 in 100 and

falling 1 in 200, Calculate the length of the
vertical curve.
• Solution:
– Gradient of the rising track = I in 100 = +1%
– Gradient of the falling track = 1 in 200 = -0.50%
– Change in gradient = g1 – g2 = 1 –(-0.5) = +1.5%
– Rate of change of summit curve = 0.1%
– Length of vertical curve = 1.5*30.5/0.1 = 457.5 m

30
Today we have discussed widening of gauge,
gradients used on tracks, vertical curves, their
types, calculation of length, setting in the field.
Thank You

31
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 42
Realignment of Curves

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Widening of Gauge
• Gradients
• Vertical Curves
– Types
– Length
– Setting in Field

2
Today’s Discussion

• Realignment of Curves
– Reasons
– Permissible limits
– String line operation
– Double and multiple tracks
– Rail cutting
– Check rails

3
Realignment of Curves

• The running over a curve depends not only on

the difference between the actual versine and
the designed versine but also on the station-to-
station variation of the actual versine values.
• It determines the rate of change of lateral
acceleration, on which depends the riding
comfort
• The limits of station-to-station variation of
versine depends upon the speed on curve

4
Realignment of Curves
Speed on curve Limits of station-to-station variation in
Versine, mm
160 kmph and up 10mm (15mm for speed of 110 kmph) OR
to 110 kmph 20% of average versine on circular
portion; whichever is more
Below 110 kmph 20mm OR 20% of average versine on
and up to 50 kmph circular portion; whichever is more IRPWM 2020

Below 50 kmph 40mm OR 20% of average versine on

circular portion; whichever is more
• Station-to-station distance is taken as 10m

5
Realignment of Curves

• In case exceedances of the above Limit is

observed during inspection, local adjustment
may be resorted to in cases where the variation
of versine between adjacent stations is only at a
few locations, at the earliest possible.
• If more than 20% stations are having versine
variations above the limits prescribed, complete
realignment of curve should be planned within a
month.

6
Realignment of Curves

• Versine variation is measured on a 20 m straight

chord
• It shall be limited to 4mm on a Group-A route
and 5mm on a Group-B route per station
location
• The distortion in the curve alignment may get
caused due to:
– Unbalanced loading on both the inner and outer rail
due to cant excess at slower speeds or cant
deficiency at higher speeds

7
Realignment of Curves

• Reason of distortion:
– Large horizontal forces exerted on the rails by
passing trains tend to make the curve flatter at some
locations and sharper at other locations, thus
causing a change in the radius of the curve
• String Line Operation
– Survey of existing curve by measuring Versines
– Determining revised alignment and computing
slews, including correct superelevation
– Slewing of the curve to the revised alignment

8
Realignment of Curves

• Basic Principles of String Line Operation

– The chord length being identical, the sum-total of
the existing versines should be equal to the sum-
total of the proposed versines.
– The slew in any direction at a station affects the
versine values at the adjacent stations by half the
amount in the opposite direction, when the track
is not disturbed at the adjacent stations.
– The second summation of versine difference
between proposed versine and existing versine
represents half the slew at any station.

9
Realignment of Curves

• Basic Principles of String Line Operation

– At the first and at the last station, the slews should
be zero.
• Versine Survey of curve
– Versine readings are taken along the gauge face of
the outer rail
– It starts at 30 m (~ 3 stations distance) behind the
beginning of curve and end of curve
– It follows station markings on the rail. In case no
marking is available, tangent point to be considered

10
Realignment of Curves

• Versine Survey of curve

IRPWM 2020
– Station markings at 10 m interval are then made on
the rail and marked and numbered with white paint
– A fishing cord or wire is stretched out over the full
length of the chord
– The versines are measured to 1 mm accuracy serially
at each station from one end of the curve to the
other with the ruler held normal to the line and
recorded
– Obstructions restricting slewing of the track, inwards
or outwards are recorded

11
Realignment of Curves

• Versine Survey of curve

IRPWM 2020
– Superelevation at each station is measured and
recorded
– In case of a reverse curve, the continuous recording
is done considering that with change in curvature
the outer rail and gauge face will change
– The fishing cord or wire is held 20mm clear of the
rail edge at each end by using special gadget and
subtracting 20mm from the reading at the center
– After versine survey, the curve alignment shall not
be disturbed until the realignment is commenced

12
Realignment of Curves

• Determination of revised alignment

– Select proposed versines in such a way that the rate
of change of versines over the transition and the
circular curve is uniform
– Calculate the difference between proposed and
existing versines, positive if the proposed versine is
more than existing versine and negative if otherwise
– Calculate first and second summation of the
differences between proposed and existing versines

13
Realignment of Curves
Determination of
revised alignment

IRPWM 2020

14
Realignment of Curves

• Determination of revised alignment

– The first summation at any station gives the
cumulative versine difference at each station.
– The second summation at any station gives the
cumulative effect of first summations upto the
previous station. This represents half the slew
required at each station to obtain the proposed IRPWM 2020

versine.
– The slew at the last station should be zero,
otherwise track beyond this point will be affected by
slew. To make it zero, correcting couples are applied

15
Realignment of Curves

• Computation of slews
– Calculate length of transition and determine the
versine gradient on the transition
– Calculate versine difference (as discussed before) for
first and second summations
– Review the proposed versines if necessary and IRPWM 2020

continue the process. The difference of versines

should sum up to zero.
– Apply correcting couples to control the slew at
obligatory points and to close it to zero at end

16
Realignment of Curves

• Computation of slews
– Maximum slew: At a station it is limited by
practical considerations
– At bridges, it may not be possible to slew the
curve at all
IRPWM 2020
– If stations on a long curve are more than 50, then
10 stations shall be considered at one time and
check be made that the sum of proposed versines
is approximately the same as that of the
corresponding old versines
17
Realignment of Curves

• Slewing curve to new alignment

– The revised alignment of the curve should be
staked out with a steel tape by using the pegs
(metal or wooden) with tack marks.
– Pegs are fixed on the cess on the inner side of the
curve square to the track, the distance being
equal to the slews (the final alignment of the
track will be at one gauge distance from the face
of the pegs to the outer edges of the inner rail
– In no case pegs be fixed on yielding formation or
at locations where they get disturbed / tampered

18
Realignment of Curves

• Slewing curve to new alignment

– In narrow cuttings with sharp curves or in tunnels it
may not be possible to measure versines on the
pegs driven on the inner cess of the curve due to the
face of the cutting fouling the fishing cord. In such
cases, the pegs may be driven on the outer cess
– The curve should be correctly slewed with reference
to the pegs
– Superelevation should be provided at each station
according to the curvature, while paying attention to
the run-off on the transition

19
Realignment of Curves

• Double or Multiple Lines

– On double or multiple tracks, each curve should
be string-lined independently
– No attempt should be made to realign any curve
by slewing it to a uniform center to center
distance from the realigned curve because –
• The existing track centers may not be uniform and
relatively small slew on one track may induce a
much larger (even prohibitively large) slew on the
adjacent track

20
Realignment of Curves

• Double or Multiple Lines

– Contd. –
• The transitions at the entry and exit may be of
different lengths, which make it impracticable to
maintain uniform track centers on them even
though the degree of the circular curves may be
nearly the same
• It is nearly impossible to measure the center-to-
center distance of curved track along the true
radial line. A small error in angular measurement
may cause appreciable error in true radial distance

21
Realignment of Curves

• Cutting Rails on Curves

– Rails are usually laid with square fish plated joints on
curve.
– On curved track the inner rail fish plated joints
gradually lead over the outer rail joints.
– When the inner rail of the curve is ahead of the outer
rail by an amount equal to half the pitch of bolt-holes,
cut rails should be provided to obtain square joints.
– Cut rail is a rail, which is shorter than the standard
length of rail by an amount equal to the pitch of the
bolt-holes.

22
Realignment of Curves

• Cutting Rails on Curves

– The difference in the circumference of the outer rail
and inner rail would be = 2πR – 2π(R – G)
– Excess length ‘d’ = 2πG
– Where, R = radius of outer rail on circular curve
– G = gauge of the track + width of rail head (mm)
– This excess length is observed over a length of 2πR
– Considering the length of the outer rail along the
circular curve as ‘L’

23
Realignment of Curves

• Cutting Rails on Curves

– The length (in mm) by which the inner rail joint is
ahead of the outer rail joint over a length ‘L’ of
the curve = (2πG/2πR)*L = G*L/R
– ‘L’ and ‘R’ are in meters
– The number of cut rails for a particular curve is
calculated based upon the degree and length of
the curve, and the pitch of the bolt-holes.

24
Check Rails on Curves

• These are provided parallel to the inner rail on

sharper curves (sharper than 8o on BG tracks)
• The minimum clearance for check rails is 44mm
on BG track
• These help in reducing the wear on the outer rail
• These also help in decreasing the chance of Prime ispat Limited

derailment which may happen due to mounting

of wheel flange on the outer rail
• Check rails wear out fast, but as these are
already worn-out rails it is not of much concern
25
Today we have discussed realignment of curves. It
included the reasoning why realignment is
needed, permissible values, String Line operation,
working with slews, realignment on double or
multiple tracks, cutting of rail and check rails
provided on inner side of the curved track .
Thank You

26
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 43
Turnouts, Points & Crossings - I

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Realignment of Curves
– Reasons
– Permissible limits
– String line operation
– Double and multiple tracks
– Rail cutting
– Check rails

2
Today’s Discussion

• Turnouts
– Components
– Terminologies
• Points & Crossings
– Tongue rail
– Switch rail

3
Turnout

• It is a simple arrangement of points and

crossings, which enable the movement of
train from one track / route to another.
• The combination of lead rails with curved
rails (and fastenings) helps in diverting the
rolling stock from one track to another track.
• These are also provided in yards, sidings, etc.

4
Turnout

• These have some pertinent problems like:

– These are the weakest points on the track due to
joints and movable fastenings.
– Safety is one of the key consideration at these
locations.
– Their presence retard the movement of the train
in terms of reduction in speed.

5
Turnout - Components

6
Turnout - Components
crossing
• Switches
– Pair of stock rails, a pair of tongue rails, a pair of
heel blocks, slide chairs, stretcher bars, gauge tie
plate
• Crossing Lead Rail
– Nose consisting of a point rail and splice rail, two
wing rails and two check rails
• Lead rails
– Provided in four sets, two pairs of lead rails, one
each of straight and curved rail

7
Turnout – Components Tongue Rail
Stock Rail

• Tongue rail
– This is a tapered movable rail made of high
carbon or manganese steel to withstand wear.
– Its movement with respect to the stock rail
defines the direction of movement of the rolling
stock.
• Stock rail
– It is a running rail against which tongue rail
operates

8
Turnout – Components

Tongue Rail

9
Turnout – Components

• Distance Block Splice Rail

– This is a block which is used to fix the check rail or

wing rail from lead rail at a specified distance for
smooth movement of a train. Point Rail

• Point Rail
– This is a rail which ends at Actual Nose of a
Crossing (ANC). It has a blunt end.
• Splice Rail
– This is a cut (spliced) rail which buts against the
point rail

10
Turnout – Components

• Wing Rail Wing Rail

– Flared rails connected to the lead rails at the

crossing facilitating the entry and exit of flange
wheels into the gap. Check Rail

• Check Rail
– Flared rails provided opposite to crossing and
running parallel to the lead rails with a purpose of:
• Guiding the wheel flange
• Preventing wear and rocking of wheels
• Preventing derailment at level crossing

11
Turnout – Components

• Flat Bearing Plates

– These are provided under the sleepers as
turnouts do not have a cant
• Spherical Washers
– These washers are used to connect two surfaces
that are not parallel to one another. These can
adjust to the uneven bearings of the head or nut
of a bolt in the heel and in distance block behind
the heel on the left-hand side of the track.

12
Turnout – Components

• Slide chairs
– These are provided under tongue rails to allow them
to move laterally. These are different for ordinary Tongue Rail

switches and overriding switches.

• Grade off chairs
– These are special chairs provided behind the heel of
the switch to give suitable ramp to the tongue rail
which is raised by 6mm at the heel
• Stretcher Bars
– These are provided to maintain the two tongue rails
at a specified distance
13
Turnout – Components

• Gauge tie plates

– These are provided over the sleepers and directly
under the toe of the switches, and under the
nose of the crossing to ensure proper gauge at
these locations

14
Turnout – Terminologies

• Points
– A pair of tongue rails with stock rails. Train diverting
from the main track will negotiate the points first.

Trains magazine

15
Turnout – Terminologies

• Crossing Throw of
Switch

– Device at the junction of two rails allowing the

movement of wheel flange from one track to
another track
• Nose
– A point at which two rails, point rail and splice rail
meets.
– Known as Theoretical Nose of crossing (TNC) if
the two rails meet at a point.
– If the toe of the nose is blunt (6mm wide), then it
is called Actual Nose of crossing (ANC)

16
Turnout – Terminologies

• Throat
Throw of
Switch

– Min distance between the right hand and left

hand wing rails, converging and diverging at nose
• Crossing angle
– Angle between point rail and splice rail
• Flare
– Gradual tapering of the flangeway by bending the
ends of check rail or wing rail at the heel of
crossing away from gauge rail.

17
Turnout – Terminologies
crossing
• Curve Lead (CL)
– This is the distance from tangent point to the
theoretical nose of crossing (TNC) measured
along the length of the main track
• Switch Lead (SL) Lead Rail

– This is the distance from tangent point to the heel

of the switch measured along the length of the
main track
• Lead of crossing (L)
– Lead of crossing L = CL – SL

18
Turnout – Terminologies

• Facing points
Throw of
Switch

– Those where train passes over the switches first

and then pass over the crossing.
• Trailing points
– Those on the opposite side of the facing points in
which train pass over the crossing first and pass
over the switches
• Right Hand / Left hand switches
– If seen on right / left from the facing direction.

19
Turnout – Terminologies

• Right Hand / Left Hand Turnout

Throw of
Switch

– While crossing in the facing direction, if the train

diverts to the right / left of the main track then the
turnout is known as right hand / left hand turnout.
• Facing direction
– Standing at switch and looking towards the crossing
• Trailing direction
– Standing at crossing and looking towards the
switches.

20
Turnout – Terminologies

Right hand Turnout

Left hand Turnout

21
Turnout – Terminologies Points &
Switches

• Switch angle
– Angle between gauge face of the stock rail and
tongue rail at the theoretical toe of the switch in
its closed position
– It is the function of heel divergence and the
length of the tongue rail
– It also depends upon whether the thickness of
tongue rail is considered or not
– If thickness of tongue rail is not considered:
• β = Sin-1(Heel divergence/Length of tongue rail)

22
Turnout – Terminologies Points &
Switches

• Switch angle
– If thickness is considered:
• β = Sin-1(Thickness/Difference in theoretical and
actual length of tongue rail)
• Throw of the switch
– Distance through which tongue rail moves
laterally at the toe of the switch to allow the
movement of train
– Limiting values for BG track: 95 – 115mm

23
Turnout – Terminologies

• Heel Divergence
– Distance between the gauge face of stock rail and Tongue Rail

tongue rail at the heel of the switch

– Heel clearance is another term for this
– HD = Flangeway clearance + width of tongue rail
head at the heel of switch
– It varies between 13.7 cm and 13.3 cm for BG
– This includes wear at the side of rail head as 3mm
for 1 in 12 crossing and 6mm for 1 in 8.5 crossing

24
Turnout – Terminologies

• Flange way distance /clearance Throw of

Switch

– Distance between the adjoining faces of running

rail and check / wing rail at the node of the
crossing
– It allows free passage to the wheel flanges
– For BG track, minimum flangeway clearance is
44mm and maximum is 48mm
• Flange way depth
– Vertical distance between top of running rail and
block

25
Turnout – Terminologies

26
Points and Crossings - Arrangement

Throw of Switch

27
Today we have discussed the turnouts, their
components and important terminologies
related to the turnouts. We also discussed the
points and crossings, especially the tongue rail
and arrangement of the points and crossings.
Thank You

28
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 44
Turnouts, Points & Crossings - II

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Turnouts
– Components
– Terminologies
• Points & Crossings
– Tongue rail
– Switch rail

2
Today’s Discussion

• Points & Crossings

– Tongue rails
– Switches
– Crossings

3
Points & Crossings

Crossing

Points & Switches

4
Points & Crossings

• Tongue rail
– Tapered section having thickness at the top same
as lead rail at the heel of switch and 0.64 cm to
0.95 cm at the toe of the switch
– Does not bear any load
– Half thickness of the rail should closely fit within
the stock rail at the toe
– Tongue rail should be about 6mm higher than
stock rail at the center
– It can be straight or curved

5
Points & Crossings

• Tongue rail
– Straight tongue rail can be used for right-hand as
well as left-hand turnout
– Straight tongue rails are usually used on a 1 in 8.5 or
1 in 12 turnouts on IR
– Curved tongue rails are shaped as per the curvature
of the track
– Curved tongue rails are usually used on 1 in 16 and 1
in 20 turnouts on IR. These are also used for 1 in 8.5
and 1 in 12 turnouts on important routes

6
Points & Crossings

• Length of Tongue rail

– Length of tongue rail varies with the gauge and
angle of the switch
– Longer tongue rails will facilitate smooth entry of
the train to the switch due to smaller switch angle
– The length is usually restricted in the station yards
due to space it occupies, and the number of
turnouts being laid
– Length should be more than the rigid wheelbase of a
four-wheeled bogie to reduce the possibility of
derailment due to movement of a points

7
Points & Crossings

• Length of Tongue rail

– Theoretical length of a tongue rail:
– L = R*tan(β/2)
– Where, R = radius of the curve
– β = switch angle
– Length on BG track, in mm:
1 in 8.5 1 in 12 1 in 12 1 in 16 1 in 20
straight straight curved curved curved
4725 6400 7730 9750 11150
8
Points & Crossings

• Length of Switch Rail

– Length of switch rail shall be longer than the
length of tongue rail by a minimum 1.63 m to
1.68 m
– This takes care of the abrupt change in the
alignment and discomfort it may cause while
traversing it

9
Switches

• It consists of a set of points or switches

– A pair of stock rail, made of medium-manganese
steel (AB and CD)
– A pair of tongue rails (also known as switch rails)
made of medium-manganese steel (PQ and RS)
– Tongue rails are machined to a very thin section.
– Tapered end of the tongue rail is called the toe,
and the ticker end is called the heel
– A pair of heel blocks to hold the tongue rail at a
standard clearance from the stock rails

10
Switches

• It consists of a set of points or switches

– Slide chairs which help in the movement of
tongue rail towards or away the stock rail
– Stretcher bars (two or more) connecting both the
tongue rails close to the toe, keeps the tongue
rails at a fixed distance from each other
– Gauge tie plate to fix gauge and ensure correct
gauge at the point

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Switches – Types

• Two type of switches are used:

– Stud switch
• No separate tongue rail is provided Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

• Portion of the track moves from one side to other

• No more in use on IR
– Split switch
• These consist of a pair of stock rails and tongue
rails
• These are of two types: Loose Heel type, and Fixed
Heel type

12
Switches – Split Type at Heel

• Loose Heel type

– Tongue rail finishes at the heel of the switch to
enable movement of the free end of the tongue rail
– Tongue rail is fastened to the stock rail using fishing
fit block and four bolts
– Fish bolts in the lead rail are tightened and those in Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

tongue rail are kept loose for free movement of the

tongue rail
– This is not used due to weakness caused in the track

13
Switches – Split Type at Heel

• Fixed Heel type

– Fixed at the heel, tightened fish plate and bolts
– Used for long tongue rail, the tongue rail does not
end at the heel of the switch
– Movement of the toe of the switch is made Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal
possible on count of the flexibility of the tongue
rail

14
Switches – Types at Toe

• Overriding Switch
– Stock rail section at the toe remains full
– Tongue rail in planed to 6mm thickness at toe and
overrides the foot of the stock rail
– Tongue rail is kept 6mm higher than the stock rail
from the heel to the point where planning starts Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– This arrangement is economical and good due to:

• It is stronger as stock rail is not cut
• Only tongue rail is to be manufactured
• Thin portion of tongue rail is supported by the stock
rail

15
Switches – Overriding

• Overriding Switch

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Switches – Types at Toe

• Undercut Switch
– In this arrangement the foot of the stock rail is cut
to accommodate the tongue rail (switch rail)
– Tongue rail is planed to the thickness of 6mm at
the toe
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal
– As both the rail sections are cut, it becomes a
weak section
– Both the rails need to be manufactured to size
which increases the cost

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Crossings

• Crossings (also known as Frog) is a location on

two crossing tracks where two gauge faces cross
each other and permit the wheel flanges to
move from one track to another
• A gap is provided between the throat and the
nose of crossing over which the wheel flange
guides or jump
• To ensure that the wheel flange does not strike
the nose, a check rail is provided on the gauge
face of another parallel rail

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Crossings

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

19
Crossings – Components

• Point rail:
– Machined manufactured, used to form the nose of
the crossing
– It ends at the nose, as a thinner section, but so thin
only that it may not break off under the movement
of vehicles
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal
– Therefore, its end is made blunt by cutting the rail to
the thickness of 6mm
– Toe of the blunt edge is called Actual Nose of The
Crossing (ANC) and pointed toe is called Theoretical
Nose of the Crossing (TNC)

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Crossings – Components

• Splice rail:
– Splice rail buts against the point rail at a distance
behind the nose
– It is also cut at the end to fit with the point rail
• ‘V’ rail section so formed has a depth of 6mm at
the nose and runs out in 89mm in the facing Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

direction
• Wing rail:
– These are two in numbers, right-hand and left-hand
wing rail

21
Crossings – Components

• Wing rail
– These form the throat at the crossing
– After that they diverge along the point rail and splice
rail and get flared at the ends
– This facilitates the entry and exit of the wheels with
flange in a smooth and protected manner Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

• Check rails
– These are also two in numbers, and guide the wheel
flanges without moving sideways
– This also protects the nose from hitting by the wheel

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Crossings – Types
• Based on shape of crossing
– Acute angle crossing / ‘V’ crossing / Frog
– Obtuse angle crossing (Diamond crossing)
– Square crossing
• Based on manufacturing process
– Built-up crossing
– Cast Steel crossing
– Combined rail and cast crossing
– CMS crossing
• Based on assembly of crossing
– Spring or movable wing crossing

23
Crossings – Types

• Acute angle crossing / ‘V’ crossing / Frog

– In this crossing, the intersecting gauge faces form
an acute angle
– It is formed due to crossing of a right-hand rail of
one track with the left-hand rail of another track
– This is also known as ‘V’ crossing or a Frog

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

24
Crossings – Types

• Obtuse angle crossing

– In this crossing, the intersecting gauge faces form
an obtuse angle
– It is formed due to crossing of a right-hand or left-
hand rail a similar rail between two tracks
– This is also known as Diamond crossing Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

• Square crossing
– In this case the two tracks crosses each other at
right angle

25
Crossings – Types

• Built-up crossing
– In this crossing, two wing rails and ‘V’ section
consisting of a point and splice rail are assembled
using bolts and distance blocks
– It is economical, easy to repair or replace
– This becomes unserviceable if wear becomes
more than 10mm
– It lacks rigidity and bolts need to be checked
periodically

26
Crossings – Types

• Cast Steel crossing

– This is a one-piece crossing without use of bolts.
– It needs less maintenance.
– It has rigidity
– Initial cost is high
– Not easy to repair or replace
• Combined rail and cast crossing
– Combination of built-up and cast steel crossing
– Two legs of crossing at nose are made of cast steel
– The nose can fracture all of sudden in this crossing

27
Crossings – Types
• CMS crossing
– This type of crossing is suitable for heavy traffic
tracks or tracks bearing heavy axle loads, suburban
sections with electric tractions, high speed tracks
– It has longer life, usually four times of built-up
crossing
– Maintenance is economical as it is free of bolts and
other components which tend to loose, and need to
be checked periodically
– It has higher strength, higher resistance to wear
– Mainly provided on Group-A tracks and tracks with
traffic density over 20 GMT

28
Crossings – Types

• Spring or movable crossing

– In this type of crossing one wing rail is movable
and is held against the ‘V’ of the crossing with a
strong helical spring
– Another wing rail is kept fixed
– Useful for high-speed traffic on main track and
slow traffic on turnout track
– With passage of the train, the movable wing rail
snug with the crossing thus wheel does not
require to negotiate the gap at the crossing

29
Crossings – Types

• Spring or movable crossing

– When bogie passes on turnout track the movable
wing is forced out by the wheel flanges and a gap
is formed over which the wheel passes

30
Today we have discussed the tongue rails as a part
of points and switches, determination of its
length, switches and their types, crossings, its
components and its types.
Thank You

31
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 45
Crossings and Turnout Design

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Points & Crossings

– Tongue rails
– Switches
– Crossings

2
Today’s Discussion

• Number of Crossings
• Turnout Design
– Coles method
– Method 2
– IRS method

3
Number of Crossing

• A crossing is designated by the angle the

gauge face makes with each other
• Can also be defined as a ratio of spread at
the leg of crossing and the length of crossing
from TNC
• Another method is to designate it as the
number of crossing, represented by ‘N’
• There are three methods of measuring the
number of crossing
4
Number of Crossing

• Center line method

– Mainly used in UK and USA α 1
– ‘N’ is measured along the center line of the
crossing N
– Cot(α/2) = N/0.5
– N = 0.5*Cot(α/2)
– Here, ‘α’ is the angle of crossing

5
Number of Crossing

• Right angle method

– Mainly used in IR α 1
– ‘N’ is measured along the base of the right-angled N
triangle
– This method is also known as Coles method
– Cot α = N/1.0
– N = Cot α
– Here, ‘α’ is the angle of crossing
– This method gives the smallest angle for the given
‘N’

6
Number of Crossing

• Isosceles Triangle method N

– ‘N’ is measured along the sides of an isosceles α 1
triangle
N
– Sin α/2 = ½ /N = 1/2N
– Cosec α/2 = 2N
– N = ½ Cosec α/2
– Here, ‘α’ is the angle of crossing
– This is mostly used for laying tramways

7
Number of Crossing – Numerical 1

• Consider the data: Angle of crossing is

4o45’49’’. Calculate the number of crossing.
• Solution:
– Angle α = 4.7636 degree
– Center line method: N1 = 0.5*Cot(α/2)
– Right angle method: N2 = Cot α
– Isosceles triangle method: N3 = ½ Cosec α/2
– N1 = 12.02; N2 = 12.00; N3 = 12.03
– Number of crossing is 12 i.e. 1 in 12

8
Number of Crossing – Numerical 2

• Consider the data: The number of crossing is

given as 1 in 20. Calculate the angle of crossing.
• Solution:
– N = 20
– Center line method: Cot(α1/2) = 2N
– Right angle method: Cot α2 = N
– Isosceles triangle method: Cosec (α3/2) = 2N
– α1 = 2.8636 or 2o51’49”; α2 = 2.8624 or 2o51’45” ;
α3 = 2.86509 or 2o51’54”
– Angle of crossing is 2o51’45”

9
Number of Crossing

• Use of crossings
– 1 in 8.5 Station yards, sharp turnouts
– 1 in 12 station yards of main lines, flat
turnouts
– 1 in 16 High-speed turnouts
– 1 in 20 very high-speed turnouts

10
Number of Crossing – Standard Details
Turnout Crossing Crossing Switch Permissible speed
No angle angle
1 in 8.5 8.5 6o42’35’ 1o34’37’’ 10 for straight switch
15 for curved switch
0o27’35’’ 30 for straight switch
30 for curved switch
1 in 12 12 4o45’49’’ 1008’00’’ 15 for straight switch
0o27’35’’ 40 for curved switch
1 in 16 16 3034’35’’ 0o24’27’’ 50 or 60+
1 in 20 20 2o51’45’’ 0o24’27’’ 50 or 60+
1 in 24 24 2o23’09’’ 0o10’00’’ 100

11
Turnout Design – Coles method

• This method is used for designing a turnout

which takes off from a straight track
• Curvature starts at a point on a straight track
ahead of the toe of the switch and ends at the
theoretical nose of the crossing
• Heel of the switch is located at the point where Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

offset of the curve is equal to the heel

divergence
• Theoretically there shall not be any kink if the
tongue rail is curved

12
Turnout Design – Coles method

• However, practically there are three kinks

– One at the actual toe of the switch
– Second at the heel of the switch
– Third at the first distance block of the crossing
• Design Details - Computations
– Curve Lead (CL)
– Radius of Curve (Ro)
– Switch Lead (SL)
– Lead of crossing (L)
– Heel Divergence (d)

13
Turnout Design – Coles method
Curve Lead (CL) = AE = TE’
Radius of Curve (R) = OE = OT
Switch Lead (SL) = TL
Lead of crossing (L) = LE’
Heel Divergence (d) = LM
Angle of crossing (α) = CEA
Gauge (G) = AT = EE’
N = cot α

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

14
Turnout Design – Coles method

• Curve Lead (CL)

– Consider triangle ATE, Angle AET = α/2
– CL = AE = AT*Cot α/2
– CL = G* Cot α/2
– Alternate: CL = TE’ = TC + CE’ Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– TC = CE (tangent from common point)

– TC = EE’/Sin α (from triangle CEE’)
– TC = G/Sin α = G*Cosec α
– CE’ = EE’ Cot α = G*Cot α
15
Turnout Design – Coles method

• Curve Lead (CL)

– CL = TE’ = TC + CE’
– CL = G*Cosec α + G*Cot α
– As N = Cot α; CL = G*(1 + N2) + G*N
– CL = 2GN (approximately)
• Switch Lead (SL) Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– SL = TL; Now considering triangle TLM and

properties of the triangle
– SL*SL = d*(2R – d)
– SL = (2Rd – d2)

16
Turnout Design – Coles method

• Lead of Crossing (L)

– L = CL – SL
– L = G*Cot α/2 – (2Rd – d2)
• Radius of Curve (R)
– In triangle AOE, R = OE = OT = OA + AT = OA + G
– OA = R – G Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– OE2 = OA2 + AE2 = (R – G)2 + CL2

– R2 = (R – G)2 + G*(1 + N2) + G*N
– R = G*(1 + N2) + GN*(1 + N2)
– R = 1.5G + 2GN2

17
Turnout Design – Coles method

• Heel Divergence (d)

– d = LM; considering the property of triangle TLM
– d = (SL)2/2(R + G/2)

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

18
Turnout Design – Coles method: Numerical 3

• Using Coles method calculate the leads, and

radius for a BG track laid with a 1 in 8.5
turnout and 90R rail section. Take heel
divergence as 120mm
• Solution: Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– G = 1.676 m, N = 8.5, α = 6o42’35”, d = 120mm

– Curve Lead = CL = G*(1 + N2) + G*N
– CL = 1.676*(1 + 8.52) + 1.676*8.5 = 28.6 m

19
Turnout Design – Coles method: Numerical 3

• Solution:
– Radius = R = 1.5G + 2GN2
– R = 1.5*1.676 + 2*1.676*8.52 = 245 m
– Switch Lead = SL = (2Rd – d2)
– SL = (2*245*0.12 – (0.12)2) = 7.67 m Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Lead = L = CL – SL
– L = 28.6 – 7.67 = 20.93 m

20
Turnout Design – Alternate method

• Assumption is that the curve is tangential to the

tongue rail
• It springs from heel of switch and ends at TNC
• Only two kinks are left, one at the toe of the
switch and other at TNC
• Only crossing lead is calculated
• Considering triangle TCD
• Angle TCD = (α+β)/2
21
Turnout Design – Alternate method

• Lead = L = CD = TD*Cot (TCD)

• TD at heal of the switch = G – d
• L = (G – d)*Cot (α+β)/2
• Here, G = Gauge of the track
• d = heel divergence
• α = angle of crossing
• β = angle of switch
• Radius of central curve R = Ro – G/2

22
Turnout Design – Alternate method
• Radius Ro = OC = OT
• At heel, TD = G – d
• Considering the symmetry of triangles
• Radius Ro = (G – d)/[Cos β – Cos α]

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

23
Turnout Design – Alternate method: Numerical 4

• Consider the data: BG track, heel divergence

120mm, angle of crossing 3034’35’’, switch
angle 0o24’27’’. Calculate the Lead of the
turnout as well as radius.
• Solution
– G = 1.676 m, d = 120mm, α = 3034’35’’, β =
0o24’27’’
– Lead = L = (G – d)*Cot (α+β)/2
– L = (1.676 – 0.12)*Cot (3034’35’’ + 0o24’27’’)/2

24
Turnout Design – Alternate method: Numerical 4

• Solution
– L = 1.556*Cot (3.5764 + 0.4075)/2
– L = 1.556*Cot 1.99195 = 1.556*28.752
– L = 44.74 m
– Radius Ro = (G – d)/[Cos β – Cos α]
– Ro = (1.676 – 0.12)/[Cos 0.4075 – Cos 3.5764]
– Ro = 1.556/[0.9999 – 0.9980] = 818.95 m
– Radius Rc = Ro – G/2 = 818.95 – 1.676/2
– R = 818.112 m
25
Turnout Design – IRS method
• This is the standard layout used on IR
• Curvature starts from the heel of the switch and
ends at a distance ahead of the toe of the
crossing
• Crossing is straight and hence no kink is
experienced at this point
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal
• Only kink in the layout is at toe of the switch
• Calculations are a bit complicated
• In this method the lead of the crossing and the
radius of the turnout curve are calculated

26
Turnout Design – IRS method
• AD = G = gauge of the track
• AB = d = heel divergence
• HE = h = distance ahead of
TNC at which curve ends
• BC = BD – CD = BD – PH
• BD = G – d and PH = h*Sinα

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

27
Turnout Design – IRS method

• Design:
– Lead of crossing = L = DP = CH
– From triangle BCH, angle CHB = (α+β)/2
– CH = BC*Cot (α+β)/2
– BC = BD – CD = BD – PH = (G – d) – h*Sinα Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– L = (G – d – h*Sinα)* Cot (α+β)/2

– Total lead from TNC = L + h*Cos α
– TL = (G – d – h*Sinα)* Cot (α+β)/2 + h*Cos α

28
Turnout Design – IRS method

• Design:
– Radius of curve = R = OB = OH
– From triangle OBH, angle BOH = (α - β)
– BH = 2R*Sin (α - β)/2
– From triangle BHC, BC = BH*Sin (α+β)/2 Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– BH = (G – d – h*Sinα) / Sin (α+β)/2

– Equalizing both equations:
– R = (G – d – h*Sinα) / [Cos β – Cos α]

29
Today we have discussed the Number of crossings,
three methods to find the number, the turnout
design, three methods namely Coles method,
an alternate method and IRS method.
Thank You

30