Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Quantum Mechanics
Lecture I,II Some Physics Backgrounds

Hossein Yavartanoo

September 9, 2024

Hossein Yavartanoo
Quantum Mechanics 1 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Contents

Introduction Physics Background (a little history), Mathematics Background

(Operators on Hilbert Space , Probability Theory and Distributions, etc.)

Two Pictures of Motion The Schr odinger equation, Heisenberg Picture, The
Interaction Picture, Definition of the interaction picture , Quantisation and
Deformation Quantisation, etc.

Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics Symmetry and Group, Representations of

groups, Irreducible representations, Wigner s theorem, Example:Angular Momentum
and SU(2), Symmetry breaking, Gauge theories, Topological quantum numbers, etc.

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Contents

Angular Momentum and Spin Angular Momentum from the Lie Algebra Point of
View, Spin, Quantum System, Modified Axioms for Quantum Mechanics, Multiple
Particles: Bosons and Fermions, Statistics and the Pauli Exclusion Principle etc.

Functional Methods Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, Formal

Derivation of the Feynman Path Integral, The Wiener Measure, etc.

Geometric Quantisation Symplectic Geometry, Manifolds and symplectic forms,

Classical Mechanics on Symplectic Manifolds, Prequantisation, Polarisation and
Quantisation, Geometric Quantisation and Representation Theory etc.

Advanced Topics Geometric quantisation of integrable systems, Deformation

quantisation, Index theorems and quantisation, Quantisation and mirror symmetry, etc.

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

Black-body Radiation

Photoelectric Effect

Atomic Spectra

Specific Heat of Solids

3 Theoretical Challenges

Hossein Yavartanoo
4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea
Quantum Mechanics 6 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Experimental Puzzles

By the end of the 19th century, Classical Mechanics, Electromagnetism and Statistical
Mechanics had reached a high level of sophistication and mathematical rigor.

These theories appeared capable of explaining all phenomena related to the motion of
objects and the interaction of matter with electromagnetic fields.

However, the emergence of new experimental tools for probing the atomic realm
yielded a wealth of data that could not be reconciled with classical physics.

The development of Quantum Mechanics was a complex interplay of experimental

observations and theoretical challenges. Here are some of the key milestones:

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

Black-body Radiation

Photoelectric Effect

Atomic Spectra

Specific Heat of Solids

3 Theoretical Challenges

Hossein Yavartanoo
4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea
Quantum Mechanics 8 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Black-body Radiation

The inability of classical physics to explain the spectral distribution of energy radiated
by a black body.

In December 1900, Max Planck’s introduction of quantised energy solved this problem,
marking the birth of quantum theory.

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

Black-body Radiation

Photoelectric Effect

Atomic Spectra

Specific Heat of Solids

3 Theoretical Challenges

Hossein Yavartanoo
4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea
Quantum Mechanics 10 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Photoelectric Effect

The emission of electrons from a metal surface when exposed to light.

In March 1905, Einstein’s explanation using the concept of light quanta (photons)
provided further evidence for quantisation.

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

Black-body Radiation

Photoelectric Effect

Atomic Spectra

Specific Heat of Solids

3 Theoretical Challenges

Hossein Yavartanoo
4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea
Quantum Mechanics 12 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Atomic Spectra

The discrete nature of spectral lines emitted by atoms, which could not be explained
by classical models.

In July 1913, Niels Bohr’s model of the atom, incorporating quantization, provided a
partial explanation.

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Quantum Mechanics 13 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

Black-body Radiation

Photoelectric Effect

Atomic Spectra

Specific Heat of Solids

3 Theoretical Challenges

Hossein Yavartanoo
4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea
Quantum Mechanics 14 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Specific Heat of Solids

The disagreement between the classical prediction and experimental data for the
specific heat of solids at low temperatures.

In 1907, Einstein and Debye independently applied quantum concepts to solve this
puzzle.
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Quantum Mechanics 15 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

Stability of the Atom

Wave-particle Duality

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

Stability of the Atom

Wave-particle Duality

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Quantum Mechanics 17 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

A prediction of classical physics that an ideal black body, at any non-zero temperature,
should emit infinite energy at short wavelengths.

Planck’s quantisation resolved this issue.

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Quantum Mechanics 18 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

Stability of the Atom

Wave-particle Duality

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Quantum Mechanics 19 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Stability of the Atom

Classical electromagnetism predicted that an electron orbiting a nucleus would radiate

energy and spiral into the nucleus.

This instability problem was addressed by Bohr’s model and later by quantum
mechanics.
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Quantum Mechanics 20 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

Ultraviolet Catastrophe

Stability of the Atom

Wave-particle Duality

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Quantum Mechanics 21 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Wave-particle Duality
The realisation that light and matter exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties.
This concept was central to the development of quantum mechanics.

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Quantum Mechanics 22 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

1 Contents

2 Experimental Puzzles

3 Theoretical Challenges

4 Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

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Quantum Mechanics 23 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

A Saucerful of History

Generally, Planck’s distribution function for black-body radiation is understood as a

modification of the Rayleigh-Jeans law using the canonical ensemble of quantised
energy.

However, as the foundational theory of quantum mechanics, it is important to

appreciate the actual development of these ideas, beginning with the pioneering work
of Gustav Kirchhoff in this field.

Kirchhoff’s theoretical analysis provided scientists with a method to characterise the

black-body spectrum.

Josef Stefan’s empirical derivation of the T 4 law spurred further theoretical

investigations.

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Quantum Mechanics 24 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

A Saucerful of History

Ludwig Boltzmann’s thermodynamic derivation of Stefan s law validated the concept

of radiation pressure.

We then explore Wilhelm Wien’s fascinating but lesser-known derivation of the scaling
law, which led Max Planck to conclude that the entropy of an oscillator is a function of
the ratio of its average energy to its frequency.

Following this, we discuss the classical distribution function developed by Lord Rayleigh
and James Jeans.

Finally, we review Planck’s original derivation of his distribution function, highlighting

the historical significance of Kirchhoff’s law, the Stefan-Boltzmann T 4 law, and Wien’s
scaling law.

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Quantum Mechanics 25 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

The theory of Radiative Heat

The theory of radiative heat exchange was first initiated by the Genevan physicist
Pierre Prevost in 1791.

He defined thermal equilibrium in the context of radiative heat transfer, explaining that
each body radiates and absorbs heat independently of the presence of other bodies.

Thermal radiation is primarily in the infrared frequency range when a body is at room
temperature, making it invisible to the human eye.

As the temperature increases, the body begins to glow, transitioning from red to white
in colour.

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Quantum Mechanics 26 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

The theory of Radiative Heat

In 1830, Leopoldo Nobili and Macedonio Melloni invented a thermopile device that
converts thermal energy into electrical current.

In 1831, they used a thermopile and a galvanometer to create the first radiometer,
which demonstrated that the amount of radiation emitted from different surfaces at
the same temperature varies.

In 1847, John William Draper observed that 525◦ C is the approximate temperature at
which emitted radiation becomes visible, a phenomenon now known as the Draper
point.

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Quantum Mechanics 27 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

The theory of Radiative Heat

In 1858, the Scottish physicist Balfour Stewart measured thermal radiation using a
thermopile, comparing the emissive and absorptive powers of different materials to that
of lamp-black. Stewart wrote:

"Lamp-black, which absorbs all the rays that fall upon it, therefore possesses the
greatest possible absorbing power and the greatest possible radiating power."

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Quantum Mechanics 28 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Black Body

The concept of a black body was first clearly defined by Gustav Kirchhoff as a body
that reflects no light and allows no light to pass through.

Although no ideal black body exists in nature, lamp-black and platinum-black are good
approximations.

Kirchhoff theoretically demonstrated that the emission spectrum (energy density) is

independent of the shape, size, and material of the black body and depends only on
the radiation s wavelength and temperature.

Thus, if two different black bodies are in equilibrium, their radiation fields are identical.

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Quantum Mechanics 29 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Black Body Radation

John Draper, John Tyndall, and other physicists studied the temperature dependence
of thermal radiation’s energy density.

Draper also plotted data on total energy emission versus temperature in 1847.

Josef Stefan empirically described the relationship between temperature and the total
energy emitted by a black body, and five years later, Ludwig Boltzmann theoretically
proved Stefan’s law using purely thermodynamic arguments. This law is now known as
the Stefan-Boltzmann T 4 law.

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Quantum Mechanics 30 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Black Body Radation

Wilhelm Wien is renowned for discovering the relationship between temperature and
the wavelength at which the energy density is maximal, known as Wien s
displacement law.

In addition to this, he was the first to simplify Kirchhoff’s universal function using
rigorous thermodynamic arguments in 1893.

Wien also proposed an empirical energy distribution for black-body radiation in 1896,
although it was later found to be only an approximation.

In June 1900, Lord Rayleigh considered black-body radiation as electromagnetic

standing wave vibrations within a cavity and applied the equipartition theorem of
statistical mechanics.

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Quantum Mechanics 31 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Black Body Radiation

Rayleigh and the English physicist James Jeans derived a more complete form of the
energy distribution function five years later, but it failed to match experimental
observations.

German physicist Max Planck had been working on the black-body problem for more
than five years.

He proposed that the cavity walls consisted of a collection of oscillating electric dipoles.

In two papers published in October and December 1900, he introduced the concept of
Energy Quantisation and provided an exact solution to the black-body problem.

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Quantum Mechanics 32 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Kirchhoff

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Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

He concluded that:

For any thermally radiating body, the ratio of emissive power e to absorptive
power a is a universal function that depends only on the wavelength and
temperature.

Kirchhoff illustrated this by considering two thin plates, C and c, with emissive powers
E and e, and absorptive powers A and a, respectively.

One surface of each plate was a perfectly reflecting mirror, and the plates were
arranged parallel to each other. Plate c was made of a special material that only
absorbs and emits radiation at a specific wavelength Λ, allowing all other wavelengths
to pass through.

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Quantum Mechanics 34 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

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Quantum Mechanics 35 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

aE
.
1 − (1 − A)(1 − a)

Similarly, if plate c emits radiation e at wavelength Λ,

a(1 − A)e
,
1 − (1 − A)(1 − a)

so the total absorption by plate c at thermal equilibrium must equal e.

aE a(1 − A)e
e= + .
1 − (1 − A)(1 − a) 1 − (1 − A)(1 − a)
By rearranging the terms we get,
e E
=
a A
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Quantum Mechanics 36 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

This must be true for any plate C " with emissive power E " and absorptive power A" ,

e E"
= ".
a A

This implies that the ratio e/a is a universal function e/a = f (λ, T ), independent of
the material of the body.

In January 1860, Kirchhoff published a second paper in which he generalised this

theorem.

In this paper, he introduced the concept of a black body (a theoretical object that
absorbs all radiation falling upon it) meaning its absorptive power is one.

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Quantum Mechanics 37 / 38
Contents Experimental Puzzles Theoretical Challenges Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Planck’s Idea

Gustav Robert Kirchhoffe

Kirchhoff showed that the emissive power of a black body is a universal function of
wavelength and temperature.

By integrating over all wavelengths, it follows that the total energy emitted per unit
volume by a black body depends solely on its temperature, a result later formalised as
the Stefan-Boltzmann T 4 law.

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Quantum Mechanics 38 / 38
Josef Stefan

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Quantum Mechanics 39 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

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Quantum Mechanics 40 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

ρT cdt L2

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Quantum Mechanics 41 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

The energy per unit area on the wall is then given by:

ρT cdt L2
= ρT cdt θ
L× Lθ

Thus, the momentum per unit area along the incident direction is:

ρT dt θ

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Quantum Mechanics 42 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann
However, only the θ component of this momentum contributes to the radiation
pressure. Since the wall is perfectly reflecting, the net momentum transfer is given by:

2ρT dt 2
θ

Dividing by dt gives the force per unit area, i.e., the pressure on the wall:
2
2ρT θ

To find the total pressure exerted, we calculate the angular average:

! π/2 ! 2π
1
P= 2ρT 2
θ θdθ dφ
4π 0 0

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Quantum Mechanics 43 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann
The integration over θ introduces a factor of 1/3, resulting in the radiation pressure:
ρT
P= .
3
Substituting the total internal energy U = ρT V and the radiation pressure into the
first law of thermodynamics, dU = TdS − PdV , we obtain:
4 dρT
TdS = ρT dV + V dT
3 dT

Since entropy S is a function of temperature and volume, S = S(T , V ), we can write:

∂S ∂S
dS = dT + dV
∂T ∂V
.
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Quantum Mechanics 44 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

By comparing these equations, we derive:

∂S V dρT ∂S 4 ρT
= , =
∂T T dT ∂V 3 T

Thus, we have:

∂2S 1 dρT ∂2S 4 ρT 4 1 dρT

= , =− +
∂V ∂T T dT ∂T ∂V 3T 2 3 T dT

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Quantum Mechanics 45 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

Using the symmetry of partial derivatives and equating the terms, we arrive at:
dρT ρT
=4
dT T

Integrating this equation gives us:

ρT = aT 4

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Quantum Mechanics 46 / 62
Ludwig Boltzmann

Using the relation between the total emissive power E over the hemisphere and ρT
(Lambert’s relation), we obtain the well-known Stefan-Boltzmann law:
ac 4
E= T = σT 4
4

The constant σ is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. However, the exact value
of the constant σ cannot be determined from classical arguments alone.

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Quantum Mechanics 47 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

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Quantum Mechanics 48 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

2u
ν! = ν − ν θ
c
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Quantum Mechanics 49 / 62
Wilhelm Wien
Let us denote the I(ν)dν as intensity of radiation whose frequency is in range ν and
ν + dν.

Then the energy in the range ν and ν + dν falling on the patch of area dA on the
piston mirror in time dt is
I(ν)dνdAn dt = I(ν)dν θdAdt

then loss of the radiation energy will be

" #
− I(ν)dν − I(ν ! )dν ! dAdt

This loss appears in the form of work done on the piston by radiation. The pressure
exerted by radiation on the piston is
dP = 2ρ(ν) 2
θdν
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Quantum Mechanics 50 / 62
Wilhelm Wien
So, the work done will be
2
2ρ(ν) θdνdAudt

Using above equations and the fact that I(ν) = ρ(ν)c we get
$ %
2u θ
I (ν )dν = I(ν) 1 +
! ! !
dν
c

By integrating both side, we get

$ %
! 2u θ
ρ =ρ· 1+
c
where ρ! and ρ denote the integrated
" energy# density. So, after reflection, energy
density is increased by a factor 1 + c
2u θ
.
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Quantum Mechanics 51 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

To calculate the total energy change in time dt of radiation whose frequency is in the
range ν to ν + dν, we need to take an angular average of the difference in final and
initial state energy, which means

! 2π ! π/2
1 & " #'
dE = dφ θdθ cdt θ dA ρ! (ν ! )dν ! − ρ(ν)dν
4π 0 0

All the radiation whose frequency is in the range ν to ν + dν, after reflection that will
be in range ν ! to ν ! + dν ! , where ν ! is defined above.

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Quantum Mechanics 52 / 62
Wilhelm Wien
So the term ρ(ν ! )dν ! is replaced by
$ % $ % $ %
2u θ 2u θ 2u θ
1+ ρ 1− ν 1− dν
c c c

Writing Taylor expansion,

$ %
2u θ 2u θ dρ
ρ 1− ν = ρ(ν) − ν + ···
c c dν

we get $ %
!
cdtdA π/2
u θ dρ
dE ≈ θ θ −2 ν
2 0 c dν
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Quantum Mechanics 53 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

Writing udtdA = dV , we get

ν dρ
dE = − dνdV
3 dν

The negative sign shows that there is a net reduction in energy which appears as work
done by the piston. The reduction of the energy for the frequency range ν to ν + dν
can be written as −d(V ρ)dν.

So we have

ν dρ
d(V ρ)dν = dν dV
3 dν

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Quantum Mechanics 54 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

since the process of moving the piston out by a very small amount Vdt is adiabatic, we
can take ρ(ν) as the only function of volume since the energy density reduces with an
increase in volume.

dρ ν dρ
ρ(ν) + V =
dV 3 dν

It easy to check that function ρ(ν) = ν 3 h(ν 3 V ) is a solution of this equation.

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Quantum Mechanics 55 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

Now, using the first law of thermodynamics for adiabatic process (ds = 0) we get

V dρ 4ρ
+ dV
T dT 3T

Now, using the Stefan-Boltzmann law, we get

V 4 aT 4
(4aT 4 )dT + dV = 0
T 3 T

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Quantum Mechanics 56 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

dT
So T = − 13 dV
V which gives the solution VT =const. So, we have
3

$ %
ν3 ν
ρ = ν h (const.) × 3
3
= ν 3f ( )
T T

Using ρ(ν)dν = ρ(λ)dλ and λ = c/ν, we get

c4 c
ρ(λ, T ) = 5
f( )
λ λT
Thus Wien’s scaling law simplifies Kirchhoff’s universal function.

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Quantum Mechanics 57 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

This suggests that a plot of λ5 ρ vs λT gives a single curve regardless of the

wavelength of radiation and temperature of the black-body.

In other words, knowing a spectrum for a single temperature, a spectrum can be found
for any other temperature.

Later, other equivalent forms were given by Lord Rayleigh, and Max Ferdinand Thiesen.

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Quantum Mechanics 58 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

Let ρ(λ) is maximum at λ. So

$ % $ %
c c c
5f + f !
=0
λm T λm T λm T

By studying the solution to this differential equation, one can argue that only
acceptable solution is λm T = const.

This is known as Wien’s displacement law or generally known as the Wien’s law
(1889). Any function which satisfies Wien’s scaling law will obey Wien’s displacement
law. The first experimental verification of Wien’s law was given by German physicists
Otto Lummer, and Ernst Pringsheim in 1895.

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Quantum Mechanics 59 / 62
Wilhelm Wien
In 1896, Wien published a second paper on black-body radiation . In this work, he
described the black-body spectrum using the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution for
atoms, assuming that the wavelength of the radiation is solely a function of the square
a
of its velocity. He expressed the energy density as: ρ(λ, T ) = F (λ)e − λT , so using the
Stefan-Boltzmann law, we get:
! ∞ ! ∞
a
T4 ∝ ρ dλ = F (λ)e − λT dλ
0 0

a
By defining a new variable y ≡ λT , we can expand the function F as follows:

a an a yT y nT n
F( ) = · · · + c−n n n + · · · + c−1 + c0 + c1 + · · · + cn n + · · ·
yT y T yT a a
.
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Quantum Mechanics 60 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

Integrating this we get:

! ∞ ( T n−1 ! ∞ ( Γ(n − 1)
a
T ∝
4
F (λ)e − λT
dλ = cn n−1 e −y y n−2 dy = cn T n−1
0 n
a 0 n
a n−1

C
which gives F (λ) = λ5
, so the energy density has form

C − a
ρ(λ, T ) = e λT .
λ5

This is known as Wien’s distribution law or Wien’s approximation. It closely matches

experimental results.

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Quantum Mechanics 61 / 62
Wilhelm Wien

In the same month, German physicist Friedrich Paschen found that his experimental
data was best fitted to this function:
CP − aP
ρ(λ, T ) = e λT .
λ5.56

Wien did not provide a rigorous physical argument for the empirical exponential factor.
Although many other attempts were made to determine Kirchhoff’s universal function,
Wien’s was the first to closely approximate it.

However, in 1899, Lummer and Pringsheim observed that while Wien’s distribution
agreed with experimental data for short wavelengths, it showed systematic
discrepancies at longer wavelengths and higher temperatures.

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