A Project Report On

“DC TO DC BOOST CONVERTER USING SOLAR”

DIPLOMA IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

SHINGRAKHIYA NAYAN D. (22171321153)

SHINGRAKHIYA ARUN H. (22171321152)

PARMAR DEVENDRA J. (22171321090)

Guided By

Prof. K. M. PATEL

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ISTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GANPAT UNIVERSITY

KHERVA, MEHSANA – 384012

A.Y. 2024-25

Institute of Technology, Ganpat University

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 CERTIFICATE

Of Diploma semester 5th (ELECTRICAL.) have completed their one full

semester on project work tiled “DC TO DC BOOST CONVERTER USING
SOLAR” satisfactorily in partial fulfilment of requirement of Diploma of
Engineering In ELECTRICAL Engineering, Ganpat University, kherva in the
year 2024-2025.

Sign of Teacher HOD

Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As we are in 5th semester Diploma (electrical.) of INSTITUTE OF TECNOLOGY

KHERVA We have good opportunity to do the project of special subject from this project

work we can prove our ability and also improve practical knowledge.

In competitions of our project we wish to express our sence of gratitude and sincere

thanks to Mr. K.M. PATEL of ELECTRICAL Department INSTITUTE OF

TECNOLOGY KHERVA and our guide Mr. K.M. PATEL Lecturer of ELECTRICAL

Department he has given guidance and encouragement during the coerce of this project work.

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 ABSTRACT:

This letter addresses the various issues concerning the implementation of a pulse-width
modulation (PWM) based sliding mode (SM) controller for boost converters.The methods of
modelling the system and translation of the SM control equations for the PWM
implementation are illustrated.Experimental results show that the proposed control scheme
provides good voltage regulation and is suitable for common DC-DC conversion purposes.
The derived controller/converter system is suitable for any changes on line voltage and
parameters at input keeping load as a constant.

KEYWORDS:, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), Sliding mode control, DC-DC boost
converter,

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 INDEX

CHAPTER1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 LITEARTURE SURVEY

CHAPTER 2
2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 3
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

CHAPTER4
4 .1 DC/DC BOOST CONVERTER USING PWM:

CHAPTER 5
5.1 HARDWARE WORK

5.1.1 SOLAR PANEL

5.1.2 7805 IC

5.1.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

5.1.4 NE555

5.1.5 RESISTOR

CHAPTER6
6.1 FUTURE WORK

6.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

6.2.1 ADVANTAGES

6.2.2 DISADVANTAGES

6.2.3 APPLICATIONS:

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CHAPTER 7
7.1 CONCLUSION

7.2 REFERENCES

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 CHAPTER1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The switch mode DC-DC converters are some of the simplest circuit which converts power
level of DC power effectively. It has wide application in modern computer, DC motor drive,
power system, automotive, aircrafts etc. the commonly used control methods are pulse width
modulation (PWM), voltage mode control, PWM current mode control with proportional (P),
proportional integral (PI), and proportional integral derivative controller. But this control
method cannot perform satisfactory under large load variation so non liner control technique
is in picture. The dc-dc converters, which are non-linear and time variant system, and do not
lend themselves to the application of linear control theory, can be controlled by means of
slidingmode (SM) control, Which is derived from the variable structure control system
theory (VSCS). Variable structure systems are systems the physical structures of which are
changed during time with respect to the structure control law. The instances at which the
changing of the structure occurs are determined by the current state of the system. Due to the
presence of switching action, switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) are generally variable
structured systems. Therefore, SM controllers are used for controlling dc-dc converters.
Though SM control compiles of various advantages, SM controlled converters suffers from
switching frequency variation when the input voltage and output load are varied. Hence there
are many control methods which have been developed for fixed switching frequency SM
control such as fixed frequency PWM based sliding mode controllers, adaptive SM controller,
digital fuzzy logic SM controller, etc. In case of adaptive control, adaptive hysteresis band is
varied with parameter changes to control and fixate the switching frequency. But, these
methods require more components and are unattractive for low cost voltage conversion
applications.

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1.2 LITEARTURE SURVEY

The dc-dc switching converters are the widely used circuits in electronics systems. They are
usually used to obtain a stabilized output voltage from a given input DC voltage which is
higher (buck) from that input voltage, or higher (boost) or generic (buck–boost) [1]. Most
used technique to control switching power supplies is Pulse-width Modulation (PWM) [2].
The conventional PWM controlled power electronics circuits are 9odeled based on averaging
technique and the system being controlled operates optimally only for a specific condition [3]
[4]. The linear controllers like P, PI, and PID do not offer a good large-signal transient (i.e.
large-signal operating conditions) [4]-[5]. Therefore, research has been performed for
investigating non-linear controllers. The main advantages of these controllers are their ability
to react immediately to a transient condition. The different types of non-linear analog
controllers are: (a) hysteretic current-mode controllers, (b) hysteretic voltage-mode/V2
controllers, (c) slidingmode/ boundary controllers. Advantages of hysteretic control approach
include simplicity in design and do not require feedback loop compensation circuit. M.
Castilla [6]-[7] proposed voltage-mode hysteretic controllers for synchronous buck converter
used for many applications. The analysis and design of a hysteretic PWM controller with
improved transient response have been proposed for buck converter in 2004.

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 CHAPTER 2
2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES
In a boost regulator the output voltage is greater than the input voltage- the name
“boost”. A boost regulator using power MOSFET, the circuit operation can be divided into
two modes. Mode 1 beings when transistor M1 switched on at t=0. The input current, which
rises, flow through inductor L and transistor Q1.

Figure 1: Dc-Dc Boost Converter Topology

Figure 2: Mode 1 operation when M1 is turn

Figure 3: Circuit during t off

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Mode2 beings when transistor M1 is switched off at t=t1. The current that was flowing
through the transistor would now flow through L, C, load, and diode Dm. The inductor
current falls until transistor M1 is turned on again in next cycle. The energy stored in inductor
L is transferred to the load. The equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in
Fig:3 The waveforms for voltage and currents are shown in fig:5 For load current, assuming
that the current rises or falls linearly.

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 CHAPTER 3
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

SOLAR
PANEL

LIGHT Power circuit

Volt Bust Volt

meter converter meter

output

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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12
 CHAPTER4
4 .1 DC/DC BOOST CONVERTER USING PWM:

Control circuit regulates output by varying on time of switch and fixing switching frequency, in pulse width
modulation (PWM) Technique. Control circuit regulates output by varying switching frequency and fixing on or
off time of switch, in resonant switch mode power supplies. Control circuit in switch mode power supplies has
several main functions. Control circuit maintains output voltage constant even if there is any change in input
voltage or load, during steady state operation. Control circuit protects all components, during transient operation
by limiting external stress on them. The main function of DC-DC converter is power conversion and appropriate
operation of semiconductor switches. DCDC converters are generally designed for input voltage and load
conditions, that is they must operate in steady state conditions only. But, practically it may not be possible due to
possibility of some disturbances which causes system to deviate from nominal values. These disturbances may

be due to changes in circuit parameters, source, load, disturbances in switching such as shut down and start up.

Control Principle:

Fig 4: power supply components

The fig.4 describes control principle of pulse width modulation. Power stage has two inputs:
input voltage and duty cycle. Duty cycle is control input i.e. it controls the switching action of

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power stage and hence output. Error amplifier amplifies error and regulates output voltage. In
pulse width modulation rectangular pulse wave is used which results in the variation of the
average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform f(t) with its minimum value
ymin , a maximum value ymax and a duty cycle D, then the average value of the waveform
can be given by the expression,

Where, ymax is 0 < t < D.T and ymin is D.T < t < T.
Therefore,

It can be simplified by putting ymin = 0 so, y =D.ymax.

Therefore, average value of signal is directly dependant on duty cycle D.

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 CHAPTER 5

5.1 HARDWARE WORK

• Solar panel
• Digital volt meter
• Power supply
• Mosfet

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5.1.1 SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel is a device that collects photons of sunlight, which are very small packets of
electromagnetic radiation energy, and converts them into electrical current that can be used to
power electrical loads.

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications. The
obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is not
serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar
power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility
poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is
potentially less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly
maintained.

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Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit
that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable
source of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important
that we do whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of
greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are
ruggedly built and last for decades when properly maintained. Last, but not least, of the
benefits of solar panels and solar power is that, once a system has paid for its initial
installation costs, the electricity it produces for the remainder of the system’s lifespan, which
could be as much as 15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is absolutely free!
For grid-tie solar power system owners, the benefits begin from the moment the system
comes online, potentially eliminating monthly electric bills or, and this is the best part,
actually earning the system’s owner additional income from the electric company.

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The solar cells you would have seen on satellites, calculators etc are photovoltaic cells or
modules (modules are a collection of solar cells electrically connected and joined together in
one frame). Photovoltaic’s, (photo = light, voltaic = electricity), convert the energy of
sunlight directly into electricity. Originally expensive and only used in space, photovoltaic’s
are now finding many applications on countless devices, buildings etc were ever remote or
free and environmentally sustainable produced electricity is required.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors like silicon,
which is currently the most commonly used. Basically, when light shines on the solar cell a
percentage of this solar energy is absorbed into the semiconductor material. This energy now
inside the semiconductor knocks electrons loose allowing them to flow freely. PV cells also
all have one or more electric fields that force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a
certain direction. This flow of electrons is an electrical current. Metal contacts on the top and
bottom of the PV cell draw that current off to use to power external electrical products such
as lights, calculators etc. This current, combined with the cell’s voltage (which is a result of
its built-in electric field or fields), determines the power (or wattage) that the solar cell can
produce.

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 Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that
light into electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels
are comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of
silicon, phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the
positive charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current.
The resulting energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows
electrons to be knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated
by the solar cells.

An average home has more than enough roof area for the necessary number of solar
panels to produce enough solar electricity to supply all of its power needs. Assisted by an
inverter, a device that converts the direct current (or DC current), generated by a solar panel
into alternating current (or AC current), solar panel arrays can be sized to meet the most
demanding electrical load requirements. The AC current can be used to power loads in your
home or commercial building, your recreational vehicle or your boat (RV/Marine Solar
Panels), your remote cabin or home, and remote traffic controls, telecommunications
equipment, oil and gas flow monitoring, RTU, SCADA, and much more.

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5.1.2 7805 IC

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed

linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would
not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at
input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels. Pin Diagram:

Pin No Function Name

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 1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
2 Ground (0V) Ground
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

5.1.3 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

It is often necessary to understand the capabilities of a digital multimeter. It is obvious when

buying one, where as new test equipment or used test equipment, or for test equipment rental,
that its performance will be of great importance. So too, its specification or spec is important
when choosing a particular instrument to be included in a test specification or test schedule
for an electronics test of a particular unit under test. It is important to know a variety of
aspects of the performance of the digital multimeter, the exact parameters required depending
upon the need for the data.

Manufacturers issue specifications for their products and these give all the important
parameters relating to the performance of the digital multimeter, DMM. This can be used
where buying the equipment as new, or as used test equipment, or even for test equipment
rental. The supplier will be able to provide the specification, or often it can be viewed on the
Internet.

For many different types of product, the different manufacturers will specify their products in
different ways, making it difficult to compare like for like. Fortunately in the case of digital
multimeters, the specifications are normally defined in a way that enables different DMMs
from different manufacturers to be compared easily.

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Basic digital multimeter features
One of the key parameters of any digital multimeter, DMM is the types of measurement that
can be made by the particular digital multimeter and the ranges over which it will operate.
Most DMMs will offer a variety of measurements. The basic measurements will include:

• Current (DC)

• Current (AC)

• Voltage (DC)

• Voltage (AC)

• Resistance

However, using integrated circuit technology, most digital multimeters are able to offer
additional test capabilities. These may include some of the following:

• Capacitance

• Temperature

• Frequency

• Transistor test – hfe, etc

• Continuity (buzzer)

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It is worth bearing in mind that these additional test capabilities may not offer the same levels
of accuracy that a 23pecialized meter for the particular measurement may be able to offer .

When choosing a particular digital multimeter it is necessary to look at not only the
maximum, but also the minimum readings that can be taken.

True RMS vs average

One important element of a digital multimeter specification is whether the DMM is able to
measure true RMS values. Today many high end digital multimeters include this facility,
although the lower end instruments will typically not incorporate it. True RMS measurements
provide a measure of the actual heating effect of the waveform. The reading will therefore
take account of the AC waveform, although with any harmonics and distortion, as well as any
DC components. It is worth looking carefully at the DMM spec to ascertain whether it does
provide a true RMS measurement, and if so whether it is able to incorporate any DC
components that may be present.

Those digital multimeters that do not provide a true RMS measurement measure the average
of the absolute value of AC voltage and are calibrated so that the readings are corrected to
that of the RMS value for a sine wave. This normally works well but errors occur if
harmonics are present with the effect becoming progressively worse as the harmonic content
increases. For example, if a triangular waveform is measured this will give an error of nearly
-4%, while for a square wave signal the error is just over +11%. The presence of any DC will
then introduce further errors. Pulse waveforms will also be difficult to measure and the error
will depend upon the duty cycle of the signal.

In many instances an average reading calibrated for RMS values is quite satisfactory.
However it is necessary to choose the correct DMM to buy new or as used test equipment, or
when choosing test equipment rental. It also helps when interpreting the results that are
obtained if the limitations of the digital multimeter are fully understood.

Environmental and other external specifications

A digital multimeter will only be able to meet its specifications when it is within a certain
environment. Conditions such as temperature, humidity and the like will have impact on the
performance. Also conditions such as line voltage can affect the performance. In order to
ensure that the digital multimeter is able to operate within its uncertainty specification, it is

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necessary to ensure that the external conditions are met. Outside this range the errors will
increase and the readings can no longer be guaranteed.

A further element to be considered is the calibration period of the digital multimeter. As all
circuits will drift with time, the DMM will need to be periodically re-calibrated to ensure that
it is operating within its specification. The calibration period will form part of the
specification for the DMM. The most usual calibration period is a year, but some digital
multimeter specifications may state a 90 day calibration period. The 90 day period will enable
a tighter specification to be applied to the digital multimeter, allowing it to be used in more
demanding applications.

When looking at the calibration period of the digital multimeter, it should be remembered that
calibration will form a significant element of the cost of ownership and after some years will
be significantly above that of any depreciation. A long calibration period for the digital
multimeter is normally to be advised, except when particularly demanding testing is required.

Additional DMM features

In addition to the basic measurement features that the digital multimeter, DMM may offer,
there are a number of other facilities that enable measurements to be made more easily. With
digital multimeters making good use of integrated circuit technology, a variety of features can
be included that would not have been possible when using analogue multimeters.

One of the features present on many high end DMMs is auto-ranging. As the name implies,
this allows the DMM to choose the correct range for the value appearing at its input. Manual
selection of the particular type of measurement to be made is still required.

A further feature that most digital multimeters incorporate is auto-polarity. This enables the
DMM to indicate the polarity of the reading with respect to its input connections without the
need for the meter leads to be connected the correct way round.

The digital multimeter specification is an important item associated with the DMM. Whether
the DMM is to be bought as new or used test equipment, or whether it is to be obtained
through a test equipment rental agreement, the DMM specification is a vital element in
ensuring that the right digital multimeter is obtained.

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 5.1.4 NE555

Pin No Function Name

1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Voltage below 1/3 Vcc to trigger the pulse Trigger
3 Pulsating output Output
4 Active low; interrupts the timing interval at Output Reset
5 Provides access to the internal voltage divider; default 2/3 Vcc Control Voltage
6 The pulse ends when the voltage is greater than Control Threshold
7 Open collector output; to discharge the capacitor Discharge
8 Supply voltage; 5V (4.5V - 16 V) Vcc

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555 is a very commonly used IC for generating accurate timing pulses. It is an
8pin timer IC and has mainly two modes of operation: monostable and astable.
In monostable mode time delay of the pulses can be precisely controlled by an
external resistor and a capacitor whereas in astable mode the frequency & duty
cycle are controlled by two external resistors and a capacitor. 555 is very
commonly used for generating time delays and pulses

IC 555:

Fig. illustrates a monostable circuit. In this mode, the timer generates a fixed pulse whenever
the trigger voltage falls below Vcc/3.

When the trigger pulse voltage applied to the #2 pin falls below Vcc/3 while the timer output
is low, the timer's internal flip-flop turns the discharging Tr. off and causes the timer output to
become high by charging the external capacitor C1 and setting the flip-flop output at the same
time.

The voltage across the external capacitor C1, VC1 increases exponentially with the time
constant t=RA*C and reaches 2Vcc/3 at td=1.1RA*C. Hence, capacitor C1 is charged
through resistor RA. The greater the time constant RAC, the longer it takes for the VC1 to
reach 2Vcc/3.

In other words, the time constant RAC controls the output pulse width.

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When the applied voltage to the capacitor C1 reaches 2Vcc/3, the comparator on the trigger
terminal resets the flip-flop, turning the discharging Tr. on. At this time, C1 begins to
discharge and the timer output converts to low.

In this way, the timer operating in monostable repeats the above process. Figure 2 shows the
time constant relationship based on RA and C.Figure shows the general waveforms during
monostable operation.

It must be noted that, for normal operation, the trigger pulse voltage needs to maintain a
minimum of Vcc/3 before the timer output turns low. That is, although the output remains
unaffected even if a different trigger pulse is applied while the output is
high, it may be affected and the waveform not operate properly if the trigger pulse voltage at
the end of the output pulse
Remains at below Vcc/3. Figure shows such timer output abnormality.

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5.1.5 RESISTOR

Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance determines how
much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltages and
currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has very high resistance.
Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief displays of current
flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the air.) A low resistance
allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That is why wires
are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point without any
resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This keeps the wires from
coming in contact with other wires and creating short circuits. High voltage power lines are
covered with thick layers of plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous when
the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other things by
insulation.

Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms who played with
electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common resistor values are from 100 ohms to
100,000 ohms. Each resistor is marked with colored stripes to indicate its resistance.

Fig 4.1:- Resistors

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COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR

Fig 4.2 Colour coding of resistor

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well
as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation
limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage.
Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size,
and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be
physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

29
 Resistors produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical current flows through
them because they obey Ohm's Law, and different values of resistance produces different
values of current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic circuits by controlling or
reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across them. There are many different
Resistor Types and they are produced in a variety of forms because their particular
characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High
Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics
are less of a problem. Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble
resistor are; Temperature Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response,
Power as well as Temperature Rating, Physical Size and Reliability.

resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

• 1. Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage
values
• 2. Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage
values
• 3. Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage
ratings
• 4. Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

Composition Resistors

Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors as they are a cheap
general purpose resistor. Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely
ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay)
powder to bind it all together. The ratio of carbon to ceramic determines the overall resistive
value of the mixture and the higher this ratio is the lower the resistance. The mixture is then
moulded into a cylindrical shape and metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide
the electrical connection before being coated with an outer insulating material and colour
coded markings.

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Carbon Resistor

Carbon Composite Resistors are low to medium power resistors with low inductance which
makes them ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from noise and
stability when hot. Carbon composite resistors are prefixed with a "CR" notation (eg
CR10kΩ) and are available in E6 (±20% tolerance (accuracy)), E12 (±10% tolerance) and
E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.125 or 1/4 Watt up to 2
Watts.

Film Resistors

The generic term "Film Resistor" consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film
resistor types, which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an
oxide film, such as tin-oxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate. The resistive value
of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness of the film and then by laser
cutting a spiral helix groove type pattern into this film. This has the effect of increasing the
conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length of straight wire and forming it into
a coil.

This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as
compared to the simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the
difference between the preferred value (i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value i.e,
103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example
the actual tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a much higher maximum ohmic
value compared to other types and values in excess of 10MΩ (10 Million Ω´s) are available.

Film Resistor

31
Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents,
lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications.
Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current capability with a much higher
temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors.

Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an
alumina ceramic substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and
are generally used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks
in one package for pcb's and high frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability,
low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge current properties.

Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a "MFR" notation (eg MFR100kΩ) and a CF for
Carbon Film types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96
(±1% tolerance) and E192 (±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings
of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2 Watt. Generally speaking Film resistors are precision low
power components.

Wirewound Resistors

Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal alloy
wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral
helix similar to the Film Resistors. These types of resistors are generally only available in
very low ohmic high precision values (from 0.01 to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and
number of turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and
Whetstone bridge type applications. They are also able to handle much higher electrical
currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300
Watts. These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminum heat sink body
with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss. These types of
resistors are called "Chassis Mounted Resistors". They are designed to be physically mounted
onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat increasing their current
carrying capabilities even further.

Because the wire is wound into a coil, it acts like an inductor causing them to have inductance
as well as resistance and this affects the way the resistor behaves in AC circuits by producing
a phase shift at high frequencies especially in the larger size resistors. The length of the actual
resistance path in the resistor and the leads contributes inductance in series with the
"apparent"
DC resistance resulting in an overall impedance path Z. impedance (Z) is the combined effect
of resistance (R) and inductance (X), measured in ohms and for a series AC circuit is given
as, Z2 = R2 + X2.

When used in AC circuits this inductance value changes with frequency (inductive reactance,

32
XL = 2πƒL) and therefore, the overall value of the resistor changes. Inductive reactance
increases with frequency but is zero at DC (zero frequency). Then, wirewound resistors must
not be designed into AC or amplifier type circuits where the frequency across the resistor
changes. However, special non-inductive wirewound resistors are also available.

Wire wound Resistor

6.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

6.2.1 ADVANTAGES
• Gives the high output voltage
• Low operating duty cycles
• Lower voltage on MOSFET

6.2.2 DISADVANTAGES
• Require heat sing

6.2.3 APPLICATIONS:
• automotive applications
• power amplifier applications
• adaptive control applications
• battery power systems
• consumer electronics
• communication applications

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 CHAPTER 7
7.1 CONCLUSION

A fixed frequency PWM based boost converter operating in is designed and constructed. It is
found that The PWM based controller has a similar structure to that of a classical PWM
voltage mode controller. Sliding mode Controller and 8051 controller have same overshoot
voltage but only difference is that 8051controller has more voltage drop Than sliding mode.
Controller has maximum settling time as compared to sliding mode & 8051controller.

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7.2 REFERENCES

[1] 89s52 data sheet

[2] [3] Sam Davis, Power Design FAQ’s “Inductive-Boost DC-DC Converters”, Electronic
Design, Sponsored by National Semiconductor Corp.
[4] Daycounter, Inc.Engineering Services. [Online].
http://www.daycounter.com/Calculators/Switching-Converter-Calculator.phtml [5]
Advanced Power MOSFET IRFZ44 datasheet, Fairchild Semiconductor, 1996.
[6] 1N5822, Axial Lead Rectifiers datasheet, ON Semiconductor.
[7] USBasp.[Online]. http://www.fischl.de/usbasp/
[8] WinAVR. [Online]. http://sourceforge.net/projects/winavr/
[9] Alan Martin, “Boost converter Design Tips”, National semiconductor. [Online Seminar]
[10] EAGLE. [Online].
http://www.cadsoftusa.com/eagle-pcb-design-software/productoverview/?language=en

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