191EE51-POWER SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

P.S.R.ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
Sevalpatti (P.O), Sivakasi - 626140
 191EE51 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS L-T-P C
3-1-0 4
Programme: B.E.- Electrical and Electronics Engineering Sem: V Category: PC
Pre-requisites: Engineering Mathematics, Electric Circuits Analysis, Transmission and Distribution
AIM: To gain comprehensive knowledge on power system analysis problems.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, student will be able to
CO1. Develop mathematical model of a given power system.
CO2. Evaluate the power system network using simple bus building algorithms.
CO3. Perform power flow analysis using numerical techniques.
CO4. Analyze the behavior of the power system under symmetrical faulted condition.
CO5. Examine the behavior of the power system under unsymmetrical faulted condition in a power system.
CO6. Realize the stability status of power system under transient condition.

INTRODUCTION 12
Power scenario in India - Modern power system (or) electric energy system - Analysis for system planning
and operational studies – basic components of a power system - Primitive parameters - Single line diagram
– per unit quantities, p.u. impedance diagram. Simple building algorithms for the formation of Y-Bus matrix
and Z-Bus matrix.

POWER FLOW ANALYSIS 12

Bus classification, Formulation of Power Flow problems - Power flow solution using Gauss Seidel method -
Handling of Voltage controlled buses - Power Flow Solution by Newton Raphson method - Fast Decoupled
Power Flow Solution - Comparison of the three methods.

SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS 12

Symmetrical short circuit on Synchronous Machine - Bus Impedance matrix building algorithm (without
mutual coupling) - Symmetrical fault analysis through bus impedance matrix - Fault level, Current limiting
reactors – Short circuit capacity.

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS 12

Symmetrical components - Sequence impedances, Sequence networks - Analysis of unsymmetrical fault at
generator terminals - Bus impedance matrices of zero sequence, positive sequence and negative sequence -
analyzing unsymmetrical fault occurring at any point in a power system.

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY 12

Introduction to stability studies - Swing equation - Swing curve, Power-Angle equation - Equal area
criterion - Critical clearing angle and time - Further applications of the equal-area criterion - Classical step-
by-step solution of the swing curve
Total Periods 60

Text Books
1. Hadi Saadat, ‘Power System Analysis’, 3rd Edition (revised), Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, 2011.
2. I.J. Nagrath and D.P. Kothari, ‘Modern Power System Analysis’, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, 2011.
References
1. Olle I. Elgerd, ‘Electric Energy Systems Theory – An Introduction’, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company
Limited, Second Edition, 2003.
2. P. Kundur, ‘Power System Stability and Control’, 1st Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publications, 2006.
3. K.Nagasarkar and M.S. Sukhija, ‘Power System Analysis’, 1st Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007.
4. John J. Grainger and W.D. Stevenson Jr., ‘Power System Analysis’, 1st Edition, McGraw Hill International
Book Company, July 2017.
5. E. Mariani, S.S. Murthy, “Control of Modern Integrated Power Systems”, Springer, 1997.
6. Prof. A.K. Sinha, “NPTEL – Power System Analysis”, Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur. Link:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105067/#.

Program Specific
Course Program Outcomes (POs)
Outcomes (PSOs)
Outcomes
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4

CO1 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 1
CO2 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 1
CO3 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
CO4 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
CO5 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1
CO6 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1
1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)
Power System Analysis 191EE51

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
POWER SCENARIO IN INDIA
There are three primary segments in the electricity sector: generation, transmission and distribution.
Generation is the process of producing power using different fuels and is carried out in generating
stations (generation plants). Transmission utilities carry bulk power from the generation plants to the
distribution substations through a grid and at high voltages. Distribution utilities supply electricity
from the substations to individual consumers through a distribution network.
Distribution is the retail stage and operates at lower voltages. Figure 1 shows the overall
structureof the power sector.
Generation
In India, various sources of energy are used to generate power. These include coal, natural
gas, hydro, nuclear, and renewable (includes solar, wind, small hydro, biomass). As on
December 2018, the power generation capacity of the country is at 349 GW. 4 In the last two
decades, India’s generation capacity has increased considerably. This increase is attributed
to the delicensing of power generation in 2003, which enabled unrestricted participation of
private sector companies.
Today, private utilities generate 46% of the power in the country, followed by state
utilities (30%), and central generating utilities (24%).
Figure 1: Structure of the power sector

Energy Generation
Transmission utilities
sources plants
Open
Power Transmission access
purchase charges
cost
Distribution
utilities
Generation + Transmission +
distribution O&M costs +
depreciation + taxes

Small consumers Bulk consumers

 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Coal accounts for a majority of power generation at 55%. Overall thermal power
generation (including coal, and natural gas) is at 64%. Renewable energy accounts
for around 21% of the total generation capacity. Hydro power accounts for 13% of
generation and nuclear for 2%. Details of all-India power generation capacity are
provided in Figure 2 and Table 1 below. Power sector is the largest user of coal. In
2017-18, 576 MT of coal was dispatched to the power sector (84% of the total coal
dispatched in the country).

Figure 2: All India power generation Figure 3: Grid interactive renewable power
capacity (as on January 2019) capacities (as on January 2019)
2% 6%
13%
13%

47%
21%

64%
34%

Wind Power Solar Power

Thermal Renewable Hydro Nuclear Bio Power Small Hydro Power
Sources: Ministry of Power; PRS. Sources: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy; PRS.

Renewable energy
Renewable energy sources include wind, solar, bio power, and small hydro power. In
March 2019, the Union Cabinet announced that hydro power projects will be also classified
as renewable energy projects.6 Renewable sources could either be connected to the grid, or
be off-grid systems. Off- grid systems help in meeting the energy requirements of remote
areas, and areas which are not likely to be electrified in the near future. Examples of off-
grid systems include biomass-based heat and power projects, industrial waste-to-energy
projects, and solar roof-top systems.
As of January 2019, the total grid-interactive renewable power capacity (excluding hydro)
is at 74 GW.7 Hydro capacity is at 45 GW. The government has set a target of installing
175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022 (excluding hydro). 8 This includes 100 GW
from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5 GW from small hydro
power.9 Roughly, this would translate into an average capacity addition of about 33 GW
every year till 2022. Currently, the capacity addition is at around 24 GW per year. Note
that wind and solar power have a lower plant load factor (PLF) than thermal power given
the intermittent wind speed and sunlight, often averaging at 20-25%. Therefore, renewable
capacity addition needs to be higher than for thermal plants to generate the same amount
of electricity.
Figure 4 below shows the mode-wise electricity generation across several countries. Coal
continues to be the primary source of electricity in several countries. Few countries such as
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Brazil and Canada generate most of their electricity from cleaner sources of energy such as
hydro power.

Several countries such as Japan, Russia, UK and the US also generate a significant
amount of gas- based power, which is cleaner as compared to coal.
Transmission
Transmission is carried out primarily by central and state companies and largely remains a
government controlled activity. The transmission segment was separated from the central
generation agency in 1989 and Power Grid Corporation of India (Powergrid) was set up.
Powergrid is responsible for the planning, implementation, operation and maintenance of
inter-state transmission system, and the operation of national and regional power grids.
The Electricity Act, 2003 allows for open access which enables consumers to buy power from
any power generating plant through non-discriminatory access to transmission and
distribution lines, in a manner specified by the respective state/state regulator. The National
Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) manages the scheduling and dispatch of electricity over inter-
regional links in accordance with grid standards, and monitors the national transmission grid.
It is also the nodal agency providing transmission access to the power exchanges. The
Regional Load Despatch Centres (RLDCs) manage the operation of the power system grid in
the respective regions.
India’s transmission lines have grown at an average annual rate of 6.5% between 2007
and 2019 (till March 2019); substation capacity has grown during the same period at
11.2%.10,11 Inter- regional transmission capacity has grown from 14 GW in 2007 to 95
GW till January 2019.12
Distribution
Distribution includes maintenance of the distribution network and retail supply of
electricity to the consumers. It is mostly carried out by state-owned distribution companies
(discoms). However, incities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, and Kolkata, private
entities own the distribution business. Discoms (or distribution licensees) purchase power
from generation companies through power purchase agreements (PPAs), and supply it to
their consumers (in the area of distribution).
One of the key issues with the power sector currently is the poor financial situation of
state discoms. This has been affecting their ability to buy power for supply, and the ability
to invest in improving the distribution infrastructure. Consequently, this impacts the
quality of electricity that consumers receive.

Power consumption
India’s per capita power consumption was 1,149 kWh as on March 31, 2018. 13 This
consumption has increased at an average annual rate of 4.6% since 1990. However, it is
much lower as compared to several other countries (see Figure 5). Across different
categories, the consumption by the agriculture sector in India is higher as compared to other
countries. On the other hand, in India, the consumption by the commercial sector is lower
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

as compared to other countries (see Figure 6).

Figure 5: Per capita power consumption in 2015 (in kWh)
16,000

12,000

8,000

4,000

0
Canada

France
Brazil

India*
China

World
Japan

Korea

Russia

UK

USA
South Africa
Australia

Germany

Sources: Central Electricity Authority; PRS.

Figure 6: Category-wise consumption across countries (in 2015)

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
Australia Brazil Canada China Germany Japan Korea Russia South United United India World
Africa Kingdon States

REGULATORY STRUCTURE
With growth in the industrial and services sector in the 80s and the 90s, the power sector
has changed significantly. Regulatory changes during this period sought to increase
private sector participation in the sector, and bring in more competition and efficiency
(more details in Table 2). This resulted in the state owned electricity boards being
restructured. The generation segment was delicensed, and gradually witnessed increased
private participation. Independent regulators were set up at both the central and state
level, and Appellate Tribunals were established to hear appeals against these
commissions.
Currently, the Electricity Act, 2003 is the primary law regulating the electricity sector. 27
Power System Analysis 191EE51

State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs), and the Central Electricity Regulatory
Commission (CERC) regulate inter-state and intra-state matters in generation,
transmission, trading and distribution of power. One of the key roles of the Commissions
(typically SERCs) is to approve thetariff for retail sale of electricity.
Tariff determination: Typically, electricity tariff consists of two parts: (i) Fixed Cost, and
(ii) Variable Cost. It is also called as Two Part Tariff. 15 Fixed cost includes interest,
depreciation, operations and maintenance costs, return on equity (profit) and tax liabilities
of power generation, transmission and distribution network. The variable cost primarily
includes fuel cost (cost of electricity purchased from other utilities, cost of power lost in
transmission and distribution, and state levies such as surcharge, tax are also included in
certain cases). Discoms/ utilities are required to file their tariff petitions (annually) with the
relevant SERC, who then approves such tariff based on the specified criteria.
However, it has been observed in the past that state discoms do not necessarily work on
market principles, i.e., they do not price electricity to cover costs and reasonable profit.
Many state-owned discoms did not file tariff revision petitions for multiple years from 2003
to 2011.16 State discoms in states such as Bihar, Karnataka and Punjab did not revise their
tariff between 2008 and 2011, in spite of an increase in the cost of electricity. During the
same time period, the cost of power supply in these states went up by 12%, 10%, and 29%
respectively. In 2011, the Appellate Tribunal for Electricity passed a judgment requiring
SERCs to ensure that tariffs are revised in a timely manner by discoms. Following the
judgement, it was observed that between 2012 and 2014, more than 20 states revised their
tariffs.17
Competition in retail supply of electricity: The 2003 Act also provides for multiple
distribution licensees to set up their own parallel network in the same area, thus allowing
competition in the distribution segment.18, Parallel licensing is when multiple licenses are
issued to distribution companies to supply electricity in a specific area of supply.
However, the distribution segment has not seen much private participation (barring a few
areas like Mumbai, and Delhi). Setting up of a new network requires significant capital
investment and has acted as an entry barrier for new participants.
Recently, there have been proposals to bring in more private sector participation in the
power distribution segment. The Electricity (Amendment) Bill, 2014, (which has now
lapsed), and subsequent draft amendments proposed by the Ministry of Power, have
proposed further restructuring of the distribution segment to bring in competition. As per
the proposed framework, the distribution business will be segregated into the supply and
network business. Consumers will have the choice to buy electricity from multiple power
suppliers, as opposed to buying from a single distribution company currently. The discoms
will maintain the retail networks which will be used by the supply companies on payment
of usage charges.
Power System Analysis 191EE51
 Figure 7: Key
Power stakeholders
System Analysis in the power sector 191EE51
Energy sources Generation Transmission Distribution

Coal (including lignite) is Almost all distribution

the primary source of Majority generation by Powergrid (central grid) companies are state
power (57%). thermal sources (64%). owned.

Majority coal produced by 46% of thermal Private companies in

CIL (84% in 2017-18). generation capacity is State transmission utilities some areas - Delhi,
with private companies. Mumbai.
Coal linkages allocated
by CIL through auction 24% generation capacity Tariffs regulated by
(SHAKTI). is with central sector SERCs.
companies. In 2018-19,
Tariffs are not regulated. among the central sector
Prices determined companies, NTPC
through auctions. generated 73% of power.

Proposed segregation of the distribution function

The Electricity (Amendment) Bill, 2014 was introduced in Lok Sabha in December 2014, and lapsed with
the dissolution of the 16th Lok Sabha. The 2014 Bill sought to: (i) increase competition in the sector by
segregating the distribution segment into distribution and supply, (ii) rationalise tariff determination, and
(iii) promote renewable energy.54 The 2014 Bill was examined by the Standing Committee on Energy
(2015), which suggested certain changes to the Bill.55 In 2018, the Ministry of Power then proposed draft
amendments based on the Committee’s recommendations and other stakeholder consultations.56
The 2018 draft amendments retained the segregation of distribution into the network and supply business.
This would allow for multiple supply licensees in an area of supply, and consumers may choose to buy
electricity from multiple suppliers in an area. However, the explicit details of how such switching, or
transition between suppliers will work were not provided in the amendments.
The Standing Committee on Energy examining the 2014 Bill had suggested that the law should provide
certain details regarding consumer switching between supply licensees. These include: (i) the mechanism
for providing the consumer with the option to choose a supply licensee, and (ii) the transfer from one
supplier to another based on the choice of the consumer, and the cost involved in such choice and transfer.
Removing cross-subsidies in the sector
As discussed earlier, currently, consumers are charged different tariff rates based on their consumption
category. While state governments provide direct subsidies to discoms, low paying consumers
(agricultural and residential) are also cross-subsidised by high paying consumers (commercial and
industrial). In case of cross-subsidies, subsidisation is inbuilt in the tariff. Suchdifferential pricing and
subsequent cross-subsidising raises the input costs for manufacturing and service sectors.
The draft amendments provided that any subsidy to any category of consumer will be provided by the
state or central government through direct benefit transfer (DBT). Further, the cross- subsidisation within
a distribution area will not exceed 20%, and will be progressively reduced and eliminated within three
years. The CERC/SERC will have to ensure that the reduction in cross- subsidy is not less than six
percent in a year.
Power System Analysis 191EE51
 Power System Analysis 191EE51
The cross-subsidy for a consumer category is the difference between the cost to serve that category of
consumers and the average tariff realised from that category of consumers. Two possibilities arise due to
removal of such cross-subsidy. First, it could increase the tariffs for the currently low paying consumers
(agricultural and residential) who are being subsidised. Second, the state or central government may
choose to alleviate any increase in their tariffs by giving them explicit subsidies through DBT. This could
increase the subsidy burden on the exchequer (either through the Union budget or state budgets or a
combination of both).
Note that in August 2018, the Ministry of Power had also proposed amendments to the Tariff Policy, 2016
(for electricity) to simplify the current tariff categories and rationalise retail tariff. The draft suggested that
the tariff structure should do away with the concept of different tariff for different categories of
consumers. The price should instead be based on load used and energy consumed. Consumers with
sanctioned load and unit consumption in lower brackets will be subsidised by consumers in higher load
and consumption brackets.
REGULATORS
Electricity regulators need to be strengthened
The Electricity Regulatory Commissions were established in 1998 following the Electricity Regulatory
Commissions Act, 1998. The primary objective of setting up the Commissions was to have an
independent body regulating tariffs. The 2003 Act, broadened the mandate of the Commissions by
providing them the powers to grant licenses for inter-state transmission and trading of power and to
amend, suspend and revoke these licences. The Act also gave Commissions the powers to regulate
licensees by setting performance standards and ensuring their compliance. The broader objective of the
Commissions was to bring in transparency, accountability, and a professional approach to regulate the
sector, and also to impartially balance the interests of investors as well as consumers.
The Standing Committee on Energy (2012) had noted that the CERC has not been effective in its role.57
The Committee had recommended that the government should appoint an independent expert committee
to: (i) review the functioning of the CERC, (ii) identify areas to improve the working and autonomy of the
organization, and (iii) limitations of the law. The Committee had also recommended that the forum of
regulators should ensure that adequate steps are taken by all the SERCs and state discoms to rationalize
their tariff annually.
The Committee had observed that the pay structure, service conditions and other amenities available to
CERC employees are discouraging. In addition, there is a shortage of manpower in the Commission. It had
recommended that the personnel policy of the organization should be well laid down having its own cadre
with adequate promotional prospects and better amenities to the officials of the Commission corresponding
to their job profile.
Regulatory issues
The HLEC (2018) noted that delays in payments by discoms hurts the viability of generators. The
regulator must ensure the sustainable operation of the power sector. However, regulators often insist that
the generators forego the late payment surcharge on the delayed payments. This further affects the
viability of generators. It recommended that the Ministry may engage with the regulators to ensure that
the late payment surcharge is mandatorily paid.
 QUALITY
Power System Analysis OF POWER 191EE51

Villages have bee

n electrifi
Under the Electricity Act, 2003, the central and state governments have a joint responsibility in providing
electricity to rural areas. Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY), launched in 2005, was
the first scheme looking at rural electrification. Under the scheme, an electrified village as a village that
has the following: (i) provision of basic infrastructure such as
distribution transformers and lines the inhabited locality, (ii) provision of electricity in public places such
as schools, panchayat office, health centres, dispensaries, community centres, etc., and (iii) at least 10% of
the total number of households in the village are electrified.58 In December 2014, the Ministry of Power
launched the Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY). 59 Components of RGGVY were
subsumed under DDUGJY.
In April 2018, the Ministry of Power announced that all villages have been electrified. Just prior to this,
the Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (or Saubhagya) was launched. The scheme seeks to
ensure universal household electrification (in both rural and urban areas) by providing last mile
connectivity.
Duration of electricity supply
Currently, 4.3% of villages in India do not receive electricity for domestic use (most of these villages are
in the north-eastern region). 4.7% of villages receive electricity (for domestic use) for one to four hours in
a day. As per data collected under Mission Antyodaya implemented by the Ministry of Rural
Development, in 2018 about 53% of the villages receive electricity for less than 12 hours a day.2
Therefore, while villages have been electrified, the duration and quality of electricity they receive is poor.
Quality of rural electricity
The Standing Committee on Energy (2017) noted that the village electrification scheme aimed to provide
electricity to households for the limited purpose of illumination. The use of electricity for illumination
only does not provide scope for the beneficiaries to carry out even small electricity based commercial
activities. On the other hand, discoms who provide such connections perceive rural consumers as a
liability with little or no scope for revenue generation for them.
The Committee recommended that the government should seek to provide electricity connections in the
rural areas that are capable of carrying out some commercial activities. Further, the government should also
provide for the supply of quality and reliable power for a reasonable time as mere electrification without
adequate electricity supply does not make sense.
The Committee also recommended that every connection provided by the discoms, irrespective of the
purpose, type or category, must be metered. 100% metering of all connections will help in better energy
auditing and fixing accountability. While free or subsidised electricity could continue to be provided in
rural areas it should be metered to better understand the level of consumption and losses, if any.
Saubhagya scheme – household electrification
Though the scheme seeks to create the infrastructure to provide electricity across all households in the
country, the supply of electricity continues to be the challenge. If the discoms do not have enough fiscal
space to buy power, then the power supply situation will continue to remain poor.
Also, note that these are rural areas, or areas with more domestic consumers. They pay lower
tariffs and hence more supply to these consumers may lead to increased losses unless the
discoms are compensated by the government.
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Development of Modern Power System - A Brief Historical Preview

The development of the modern day electrical energy system took a few centuries. Prior to 1800,
scientists like William Gilbert, C. A. de Coulomb, Luigi Galvani, Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro
Volta etc. worked on electric and magnetic field principles. However, none of them had any
application in mind. They also probably did not realize that their work will lead to such an exciting
engineering innovation. They were just motivated by the intellectual curiosity.

Between 1800 and 1810 commercial gas companies were formed - first in Europe and then in North
America. Around the same time with the research efforts of scientists like Sir Humphrey Davy,
Andre Ampere, George Ohm and Karl Gauss the exciting possibilities of the use of electrical energy
started to dawn upon the scientific community.

In England, Michael Faraday worked on his induction principle between 1821 and 1831. The
modern world owes a lot to this genius. Faraday subsequently used his induction principle to build a
machine to generate voltage. Around the same time American engineer Joseph Henry also worked
independently on the induction principle and applied his work on electromagnets and telegraphs.

For about three decades between 1840 and 1870 engineers like Charles Wheatstone, Alfred Varley,
Siemens brothers Werner and Carl etc. built primitive generators using the induction principle. It
was also observed around the same time that when current carrying carbon electrodes were drawn
apart, brilliant electric arcs were formed. The commercialization of arc lighting took place in the
decade of 1870s. The arc lamps were used in lighthouses and streets and rarely indoor due to high
intensity of these lights. Gas was still used for domestic lighting. It was also used for street lighting
in many cities.

From early 1800 it was noted that a current carrying conductor could be heated to the point of
incandescent. Therefore the idea of using this principle was very tempting and attracted attention.
However the incandescent materials burnt very quickly to be of any use. To prevent them from
burning they were fitted inside either vacuum globes or globes filled with inert gas. In October 1879
Thomas Alva Edison lighted a glass bulb with a carbonized cotton thread filament in a vacuum
 Power System
enclosed Analysis
space. This 191EE51
was the first electric bulb that glowed for 44 hours before burning out. Edison
himself improved the design of the lamp later and also proposed a new generator design.

The Pearl Street power station in New York City was established in 1882 to sell electric energy for
incandescent lighting. The system was direct current three-wire, 220/110 V and supplied Edison
lamps for a total power requirement of 30 kW.

The only objective of the early power companies was illumination. However we can easily visualize
that this would have resulted in the under utilization of resources. The lighting load peaks in the
evening and by midnight it reduces drastically. It was then obvious to the power companies that an
elaborate and expensive set up would lay idle for a major amount of time. This provided incentive
enough to improve upon the design of electric motors to make them commercially viable. The
motors became popular very quickly and were used in many applications. With this the electric
energy era really and truly started.

However with the increase in load large voltage and unacceptable drops were experienced,
especially at points that were located far away from the generating stations due to poor voltage
regulation capabilities of the existing dc networks. One approach was to transmit power at higher
voltages while consuming it at lower voltages. This led to the development of the alternating current.

In 1890s the newly formed Westinghouse Company experimented with the new form of electricity,
the alternating current. This was called alternating current since the current changed direction in
synchronism with the generator rotation. Westinghouse Company was lucky to have Serbian
engineer Nicola Tesla with them. He not only invented polyphase induction motor but also
conceived the entire polyphase electrical power system. He however had to face severe objection
from Edison and his General Electric Company who were the proponents of dc. The ensuing battle
between ac and dc was won by ac due to the following factors:

 Transformers could boost ac voltage for transmission and could step it down for distribution.
 The construction of ac generators was simpler.
 The construction of ac motors was simpler. Moreover they were more robust and cheaper
than the dc motors even though not very sophisticated.

With the advent of ac technology the electric power could reach more and more people. Also size of
the generators started increasing and transmission level voltages started increasing. The modern day
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

system contains hundreds of generators and thousands of buses and is a large interconnected
network.
Introduction of Modern Power System

Modern electric power systems have three separate components - generation, transmission and
distribution. Electric power is generated at the power generating stations by synchronous alternators
that are usually driven either by steam or hydro turbines. Most of the power generation takes place at
generating stations that may contain more than one such alternator-turbine combination. Depending
upon the type of fuel used, the generating stations are categorized as thermal, hydro, nuclear etc.
Many of these generating stations are remotely located. Hence the electric power generated at any
such station has to be transmitted over a long distance to load centers that are usually cities or towns.
This is called the power transmission. In fact power transmission towers and transmission lines are
very common sights in rural areas.

Modern day power systems are complicated networks with hundreds of generating stations and load
centers being interconnected through power transmission lines. Electric power is generated at a
frequency of either 50 Hz or 60 Hz.

In an interconnected ac power system, the rated generation frequency of all units must be the same. In
India the frequency is 50 Hz.

Need for system planning and operational studies:

Planning and operation of power system - Operational planning covers the whole period ranging
from the incremental stage of system development
The system operation engineers at various points like area, space, regional & national load dispatch
of power

Power system planning and operational analysis covers the maintenance of generation, transmission
and distribution facilities
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Steps:
Planning of power system
Implementation of the plans
Monitoring system
Compare plans with the results
If no undesirable deviation occurs, then directly go to planning of system
If undesirable deviation occurs then take corrective action and then go to planning Of the system

Planning and operation of power system

Planning and operation of power system the following analysis are very important
(a). Load flow analysis
(b). Short circuit analysis
(c). Transient analysis
Load flow analysis
Electrical power system operate - Steady state mode
Basic calculation required to determine the characteristics of this state is called as Load flow
Power flow studies - To determine the voltage current active and reactive power flows in given
power system
A number of operating condition can be analyzed including contingencies. That operating
conditions are
(a). Loss of generator
(b).Loss of a transmission line
(c).Loss of transformer (or) Load
(d). Equipment over load (or) unacceptable voltage levels
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

The result of the power flow analysis is stating point for the stability analysis and power factor
improvement. Load flow study is done during the planning of a new system or the extension of an
existing one
Short circuit studies
To determine the magnitude of the current flowing through out the power system at various time
intervals after fault. The objective of short circuit analysis - To determine the current and voltages
at different location of the system corresponding to different types of faults
(a). Three phase to ground fault
(b). Line to ground fault
(c). Line to line fault
(d). Double line to ground fault
(e). Open conductor fault
Transient stability analysis
The ability of the power system consisting of two (or) more generators to continue to operate after
change occur on the system is a measure of the stability. In power system the stability depends on
the power flow pattern generator characteristics system loading level and the line parameters.

Basic Components Of A Power System

Major components of a power system are- synchronous generators, synchronising equipment, circuit
breakers, isolators, earthing switches, bus-bars, transformers, transmission lines, current transformers,
potential transformers, relay and protection equipment, lightning arresters, station transformer, motors
for driving auxiliaries in power station. Some of the components will be discussed here as shown in
Fig. 1.7 .
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Component # 1. Synchronous Generators:

The synchronous generators used in generating stations are revolving field type owing to its inherent
advantages.

The synchronous generators, based on the type of prime movers to which they are mechanically
coupled, may be classified as:
(i) Hydro-generators

(ii) Turbo-generators, and

(iii) Diesel engine driven generators.

 Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power Transformers:
Power transformers are used for stepping-up the voltage for transmission at generating stations and
for stepping-down voltage for further distribution at main step-down transformer substations. Usually
naturally cooled, oil immersed, known as ON type, two winding, three-phase transformers, are used
up to the rating of 10 MVA.

The transformers of rating higher than 10 MVA are usually air blast cooled. For very high rating, the
forced oil, water cooling and air blast cooling may be used. For regulating the voltage the
transformers used are provided with on load tap changer.

Component # 2. Switchgear:
Everyone is familiar with low voltage switches and rewirable fuses. A switch is used for opening and
closing of an electric circuit while a fuse is used for over-current protection. Every electric circuit
needs a switching device and protective device. Switching and protective devices have been
developed in different forms. Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment
concerned with switching and protection.

Circuit Breakers:
Circuit breakers are mechanical devices designed to close or open contact members, thus closing or
opening of an electrical circuit under normal or abnormal conditions.

Automatic circuit breakers, which are usually employed for the protection of electrical circuits, are
equipped with a trip coil connected to a relay or other means, designed to open the breaker
automatically under abnormal conditions, such as over-current.

solators:
Since isolators (or isolating switches) are employed only for isolating circuit when the current has
already been interrupted, they are simple pieces of equipment. They ensure that the current is not
switched into the circuit until everything is in order.

Isolators or disconnect switches operate under no load condition. They are not equipped with arc-
quenching devices. They do not have any specified current breaking capacity or current making
capacity. The isolators in some cases are used for breaking charging current of transmission line.

Earthing Switch:
Earthing switch is connected between the line conductor and earth. Normally it is open and it is closed
to discharge the voltage trapped on the isolated or disconnected line. When the line is disconnected
from the supply end, there is some voltage on the line to which the capacitance between the line and
earth is charged.This voltage is significant in hv systems. Before commencement of maintenance
work it is necessary that these voltages are discharged to earth by closing the earthing switch.
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Normally, the earthing switches are mounted on the frame of the isolator.
Component # 3. Bus-Bars:
Bus-bar (or bus in short) term is used for a main bar or conductor carrying an electric current to which
many connections may be made.

Bus-bars are merely convenient means of connecting switches and other equipment into various
arrangements. The usual arrangement of connections in most of the substations permits working on
almost any piece of equipment without interruption to incoming or outgoing feeders.

In some arrangements two buses are provided to which the incoming or outgoing feeders and the
principal equipment may be connected. One bus is usually called the ―main‖ bus and the other
―auxiliary‖ or ―transfer‖ bus. The main bus may have a more elaborate system of measuring
instruments, relays etc. associated with it. The switches used for connecting feeders or equipment to
one bus or the other are called ―selector‖ or ―transfer‖ switches.

Bus-bars may be of copper, aluminium or steel. Copper has a comparatively low resistivity and also
the advantage of relatively high mechanical strength; this makes it economical to use copper bus-bars
in installations of very large capacity where the currents are particularly heavy.

During 1960‘s the need for substituting the copper with aluminium became very urgent, particularly
in countries like India where copper is imported. Now aluminium is being increasingly used for
various switchgear installations due to its numerous advantages over copper such as higher
conductivity on weight basis, lower cost for equal current carrying capacity, excellent corrosion
resistance and ease of formability.

Component # 4. Lightning Arresters:

The lightning arrester is a surge diverter and is used for the protection of power system against the
high voltage surges. It is connected between the line and earth and so diverts the incoming high
voltage wave to the earth.

Lightning arresters act as safety valves designed to discharge electric surges resulting from lightning
strokes, switching or other disturbances, which would otherwise flash-over insulators or puncture
insulation, resulting in a line outage end possible failure of equipment.

They are designed to absorb enough transient energy to prevent dangerous reflections and to cut off
the flow of power-frequency follow (or dynamic) current at the first current zero after the discharge of
the transient. They include one or more sets of gaps to establish the breakdown voltage, aid in
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

interrupting the power follow current, and prevent any flow of current under normal conditions
(except that gap shunting resistors, when used to assure equal distribution of voltage across the gaps,
permits a very small leakage current).

Either resistance (valve) elements to limit the power follow current to values the gaps can interrupt, or
an additional arc extinguishing chamber to interrupt the power follow current are connected in series
with gaps. Arresters have a short time lag of breakdown compared with the insulation of apparatus,
the breakdown voltage being nearly independent of the steepness of the wave front.

Single line diagram:

In practice, electric power systems are very complex and their size is unwieldy. It is very difficult to
represent all the components of the system on a single frame. The complexities could be in terms of
various types of protective devices, machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their
connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system analysis, a simple single
phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the one line diagram (OLD) or the single line diagram
(SLD). An SLD is thus, the concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be noted that a
given SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system analysis/study under
consideration. For example, the details of protective devices need not be shown for load flow analysis
nor it is necessary to show the details of shunt values for stability studies.

Symbols used for SLD

Various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines as single phase
equivalents on the SLD,. Some of the important symbols used are as listed in the table of Figure 1.
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

P.U.Impedance / Reactance Diagram:

for a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers, transmission
lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or reactance diagram as
explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the properly selected base values of the
system, then the diagram is refered as the per unit impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu
diagram, the following are the procedural steps involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data

2. Choose a common base MVA for the system

3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by the presence of transformers)
 Power
4. Find theSystem Analysis
base KV of all the sections present 191EE51

5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.

6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.

Formation Of YBUS & ZBUS

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different frames of
reference as discussed below:
Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the bus vectors
of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1.5)
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a selected
Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and voltages through the
branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
EBR = ZBR IBR

IBR = YBR EBR (1.6)

Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a selected Tree
sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and voltages through the
branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP
ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP (1.7)

Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and the bus
impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of inspection as
explained next.

Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch relation: I =
(YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff‘s Current Law principle at the nodal
points, we get the relations as under:
At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)
 Power
AtSystem I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 – V1)
node 2:Analysis 191EE51

At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (1.8)

These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and they can be
represented in matrix form as:
I1 = (Y1+Y3 +Y6) -Y6 -Y3 V1
I2 = -Y6 (Y2+Y5 +Y6) -Y5 V2

0 = -Y3 -Y5 (Y3 +Y4+Y5) V3 (1.9)

In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1.10)
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus voltage
vectors respectively.
By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS of equation (9), it is observed that the
matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal to the sum
total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal
to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present between the buses I and j, if
any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the rule of inspection
are obtained as:
Yii = yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (1.11)
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between bus i and
ground (reference bus).

Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, then it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined by the rule
of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted to obtain the bus impedance
matrix, since the two matrices are inter-invertible. Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection
can be applied only to those power systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.

Per Unit Representation

n a power system different power equipment with different voltage and power levels are connected
together through various step up or step down transformers. However the presence of various
voltage and power levels causes problem in finding out the currents (or voltages) at different points
in the network. To alleviate this problem, all the system quantities are converted into a uniform
normalized platform. This is called the per unit system . In a per unit system each system variable or
quantity is normalized with respect to its own base value. The units of these normalized values are
per unit (abbreviated as pu) and not Volt, Ampere or Ohm. The base quantities chosen are:

 VA base ( Pbase ): This is the three-phase apparent power (Volt-Ampere) base that is
commonto the entire circuit.
 Voltage Base ( Vbase ): This is the line-to-line base voltage. This quantity is not uniform for
theentire circuit but gets changed by the turns ratio of the transformer.

Based on the above two quantities the current and impedance bases can be defined as

26
 Power System Analysis 191EE51

Assume that an impedance Z is defined as Z1 per unit in a base impedance of Zbase _ old .
The impedance now has to be represented in a new base value denoted as Z base_new . Therefore

From (1.120) Z2 can be defined in terms of old and new values of VA base and voltage base as

Example 1.1:
Let us consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19 (a) which contains the equivalent circuit of a
transformer. Let the transformer rating be
500 MVA, 220/22 kV with a leakage reactance of 10%.
The VA base of the transformer is 500 MVA and the voltage bases in the primary and secondary side
are 200 kV and 22 kV respectively. Therefore the impedance bases of these two sides are
(220 103 )2
Zbase1   96.8
500 106
 (22 103 )2
Zbase2   0.968
500 106
Problem #1:
Two generators rated 10 MVA, 13.2 KV and 15 MVA, 13.2 KV are connected in parallel to
abus bar. They feed supply to 2 motors of inputs 8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively. The
operating

voltage of motors is 12.5 KV. Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA, 13.8 KV, draw the per
unit reactance diagram. The percentage reactance for generators is 15% and that for motors is 20%.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1(a).

27
 Power System Analysis 191EE51
Selection of base quantities: 50 MVA, 13.8 KV (Given)
Calculation of pu values:
XG1 = j 0.15 (50/10) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.6862
pu. XG2 = j 0.15 (50/15) (13.2/13.8)2 = j
0.4574 pu. Xm1 = j 0.2 (50/8) (12.5/13.8)2 = j
1.0256 pu.
Xm2 = j 0.2 (50/12) (12.5/13.8)2 = j 0.6837
pu.Eg1 = Eg2 = (13.2/13.8) = 0.9565 00 pu
Em1 = Em2 = (12.5/13.8) = 0.9058 00 pu
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P1(b).

Problem #2:
Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a base
of11 KV, 100 MVA in the generator circuit.

Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is considered as shown in figure.
Selection of base quantities:
100 MVA, 11 KV in the generator circuit(Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 11
(115/11.5) = 110 KV in the transmission line circuit and 110 (6.6/11.5) = 6.31 KV in the motor
circuit.
Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.1 pu, Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243

28
 Power System Analysis 191EE51
pu.Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.

Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.

Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.
Eg = 1.000 pu, Em = (6.6/6.31) = 1.04500 pu
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P2(b).

Problem #3:
A 30 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The generator
supplies 2 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer
arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 20 MVA and 10 MVA at 12.8 KV with 20% sub
transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are rated at 35 MVA, 13.2 KV- /115 KV-Y with
10 % leakage reactance. The line reactance is 80 ohms. Draw the equivalent per unit reactance
diagram by selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator circuit.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P3(a).

Selection of base quantities:

30 MVA, 13.8 KV in the generator circuit
(Given);The voltage bases in other sections are:
13.8 (115/13.2) = 120.23 KV in the transmission line circuit and
120.23 (13.26/115) = 13.8 KV in the motor circuit.
Calculation of pu values:

29
 Power System Analysis 191EE51
XG = j 0.15 pu.
X

m1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516 pu.

Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.2581
pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.0784
pu.Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.
Eg = 1.000 pu; Em1 = Em2 = (6.6/6.31) = 0.9300 pu
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P3(b).
30 MVA, 13.8 KV in the generator circuit
(Given);The voltage bases in other sections are:
13.8 (115/13.2) = 120.23 KV in the transmission line circuit and
120.23 (13.26/115) = 13.8 KV in the motor circuit.
Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.15 pu.
Xm1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516
pu. Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j
0.2581 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.0784
pu.Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.
Eg = 1.000 pu; Em1 = Em2 = (6.6/6.31) = 0.9300 pu
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P3(b).

Problem #4:
A 33 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. The generator
supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer
arrangement. The motor has rated input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with 25% sub transient reactance.
Draw the equivalent per unit impedance diagram by selecting 25 MVA (3), 6.6 KV (LL) as base

30
 Power System Analysis 191EE51
values in the motor circuit, given the transformer and transmission line data as under:
Step up transformer bank: three single phase units, connected ∆–Y, each rated 10 MVA, 13.2/6.6
KV with 7.7 % leakage reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;
Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm/ KM and a
resistance of 0.2 ohm/ KM; and Step down transformer bank: three single phase units, connected –Y,
each rated 8.33 MVA, 110/3.98 KV with 8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance;
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P4(a).
3-phase ratings of transformers:
T1: 3(10) = 30 MVA, 13.2/ 66.43 KV = 13.2/ 115 KV, X = 0.077, R = 0.005 pu.
T2: 3(8.3325 MVA, 110/ 3.983 KV = 110/ 6.8936 KV, X = 0.08, R = 0.008 pu.
Selection of base quantities:
25 MVA, 6.6 KV in the motor circuit (Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 6.6
(110/6.8936) = 105.316 KV in the transmission line circuit and 105.316 (13.2/115) = 12.09 KV in
the generator circuit.

Calculation of pu values:
Xm = j 0.25 pu; Em = 1.000 pu.
XG = j 0.005 (25/33) (13.8/12.09)2 = j 0.005 pu; Eg = 13.8/12.09 = 1.41400 pu.
Zt1 = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09)2 = 0.005 + j 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV
side)
Zt2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316)2 = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV
side)Zline = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/ 105.3162) = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu.
Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P4(b).

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 Power System Analysis 191EE51

FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS

The bus admittance matrix, YBUS plays a very important role in computer aided power
system analysis. It can be formed in practice by either of the methods as under:
1. Rule of Inspection
2. Singular Transformation
3. Non-Singular Transformation
4. ZBUS Building Algorithms, etc.

The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different
frames of reference as discussed below:

Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the
bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance
matrix:

EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

IBUS = YBUS EBUS

Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a

selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

EBR = ZBR IBR

IBR = YBR EBR
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:

ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP

ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP

Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and the
bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of
inspection as explained next.

Rule of Inspection

Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff‟s Current
Law principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:

At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)

At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 – V1)

At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)

32
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS

These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and
they can be represented in matrix form as:

In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS (14)
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively. By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS of equation (13), it is observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by
a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node
i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any. This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the
algorithmic equations for the rule of inspection are obtained as:

Yii = S yij (j = 1,2,…….n)

Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (15)

For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).

33
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Bus impedance matrix

In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined
by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted to obtain the
bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are interinvertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.

Examples on Rule of Inspection:

Example 6: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside by
the rule of inspection

Example 7: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

34
Power System Analysis 191EE51

SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS

The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on the
impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not contain any
information about the behaviour of the interconnected network variables. Hence, it is
necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more meaningful matrices which can
relate variables of the interconnected network.

35
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is described
by n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1nodes are
present, out of which one of them is designated as the reference node).
For example a 5-bus system will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The
performance equation relating the bus voltages to bus current injections in bus frame of
reference in admittance form is given by

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (17)

Where EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus
IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus
YBUS = bus admittance matrix
The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by
i + j = [y] v
Pre-multiplying by At (transpose of A), we obtain

At i +At j = At [y] v (18)

However, as per equation (4),

At i =0,
since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents
incident at a bus, which by Kirchhoff‟s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the algebraic sum
of all source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the total current injected
at the bus. Hence,

At j = IBUS (19)
Thus from (18) we have, IBUS = At [y] v (20)
However, from (5), we have
v =A EBUS
And hence substituting in (20) we get,

IBUS = At [y] A EBUS (21)

Comparing (21) with (17) we obtain,

YBUS = At [y] A (22)

The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, (22) gives a singular
transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance matrix is given
by ,

ZBUS = YBUS-1 (23)

Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance, however,
since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the transformation will
obviously be power invariant.

36
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Examples on Singular Transformation:

Example 8: For the network of Fig E8, form the primitive matrices [z] & [y] and obtain
the bus admittance matrix by singular transformation. Choose a Tree T(1,2,3). The data is
given in Table E8.

Fig E8 System for Example-8

Table E8: Data for Example-8

37
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Solution:
The bus incidence matrix is formed taking node 1 as the reference bus.

The primitive incidence matrix is given by

The primitive admittance matrix [y] = [z]-1 and given by,

The bus admittance matrix by singular transformation is obtained as

38
Power System Analysis 191EE51

SUMMARY

The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution of any
electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances or
admittances.

Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph theory,
independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree-branches and
links are distinctly identified. The complete information about the interconnection of the
network, with the directions of the currents is contained in the bus incidence matrix.

The information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network is
contained in the primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be represented in
impedance form or admittance form. In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the
interconnected system is described by (n-1) nodal equations, where n is the number of
nodes. The bus admittance matrix and the bus impedance matrix relate the bus voltages
and currents. These matrices can be obtained from the primitive impedance and
admittance matrices.

FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

NODE ELIMINATION BY MATRIX ALGEBRA

Nodes can be eliminated by the matrix manipulation of the standard node equations.
However, only those nodes at which current does not enter or leave the network can be
considered for such elimination. Such nodes can be eliminated either in one group or by
taking the eligible nodes one after the other for elimination, as discussed next.

CASE-A: Simultaneous Elimination of Nodes:

Consider the performance equation of the given network in bus frame of reference in
admittance form for a n-bus system, given by:

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (1)

Where IBUS and EBUS are n-vectors of injected bus current and bus voltages and YBUS
is the square, symmetric, coefficient bus admittance matrix of order n. Now, of the n buses
present in the system, let p buses be considered for node elimination so that the reduced
system after elimination of p nodes would be retained with m (= n-p) nodes only. Hence
the corresponding performance equation would be similar to (1) except that the coefficient
matrix would be of order m now, i.e.,

IBUS = YBUSnew EBUS (2)

Where YBUSnew is the bus admittance matrix of the reduced network and the vectors

39
Power System Analysis 191EE51

IBUS and EBUS are of order m. It is assumed in (1) that IBUS and EBUS are obtained
with their elements arranged such that the elements associated with p nodes to be
eliminated are in the lower portion of the vectors. Then the elements of YBUS also get
located accordingly so that (1) after matrix partitioning yields,

Where the self and mutual values of YA and YD are those identified only with the nodes
to be retained and removed respectively and YC=YBt is composed of only the
corresponding mutual admittance values, that are common to the nodes m and p.
Now, for the p nodes to be eliminated, it is necessary that, each element of the vector
IBUS-p should be zero. Thus we have from (3):

IBUS-m = YA EBUS-m + YB EBUS-p

IBUS-p = YC EBUS-m + YD EBUS-p = 0
(4)

Solving,
EBUS-p = - YD-1YC EBUS-m
(5)
Thus, by simplification, we obtain an expression similar to (2) as,
IBUS-m = {YA - YBYD-1YC} EBUS-m
(6)
Thus by comparing (2) and (6), we get an expression for the new bus admittance matrix in
terms of the sub-matrices of the original bus admittance matrix as:
YBUSnew = {YA – YBYD -1YC}
(7)
This expression enables us to construct the given network with only the necessary nodes
retained and all the unwanted nodes/buses eliminated. However, it can be observed from
(7) that the expression involves finding the inverse of the sub-matrix YD (of order p). This
would be computationally very tedious if p, the nodes to be eliminated is very large,
especially for real practical systems. In such cases, it is more advantageous to eliminate
the unwanted nodes from the given network by considering one node only at a time for
elimination, as discussed next.

CASE-B: Separate Elimination of Nodes:

Here again, the system buses are to be renumbered, if necessary, such that the node to be
removed always happens to be the last numbered one. The sub-matrix YD then would be a
single element matrix and hence it inverse would be just equal to its own reciprocal value.
Thus the generalized algorithmic equation for finding the elements of the new bus
admittance matrix can be obtained from (6) as,

Yij new = Yij old – Yin Ynj / Ynn " i,j = 1,2,…… n. (8)

40
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Each element of the original matrix must therefore be modified as per (7). Further, this
procedure of eliminating the last numbered node from the given system of n nodes is to be
iteratively repeated p times, so as to eliminate all the unnecessary p nodes from the
original system.

Examples on Node elimination:

Example-1: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown below by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

The admittance equivalent network is as follows:

The bus admittance matrix is obtained by RoI as:

The reduced matrix after elimination of node 3 from the given system is determined as per the
equation:

41
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Alternatively,

Thus the reduced network can be obtained again by the rule of inspection as shown below.

Example-2: Obtain YBUS for the admittance network shown below by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

42
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Thus the reduced system of two nodes can be drawn by the rule of inspection as under:
Power System Analysis 191EE51

ZBUS building

FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

The bus impedance matrix is the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. An alternative
method is possible, based on an algorithm to form the bus impedance matrix directly from
system parameters and the coded bus numbers. The bus impedance matrix is formed
adding one element at a time to a partial network of the given system. The performance
equation of the network in bus frame of reference in impedance form using the currents as
independent variables is given in matrix form by

When expanded so as to refer to a n bus system, (9) will be of the form

Now assume that the bus impedance matrix Zbus is known for a partial network of m
buses and a known reference bus. Thus, Zbus of the partial network is of dimension mxm.
If now a new element is added between buses p and q we have the following two
possibilities:
(i) p is an existing bus in the partial network and q is a new bus; in this case p-q is a
branch added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1a, and
Power System Analysis 191EE51

(ii) both p and q are buses existing in the partial network; in this case p-q is a link
added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1b.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

If the added element ia a branch, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix would be of
order m+1, and the analysis is confined to finding only the elements of the new row and
column (corresponding to bus-q) introduced into the original matrix. If the added element
ia a link, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix will remain unaltered with regard to its
order. However, all the elements of the original matrix are updated to take account of the
effect of the link added.

ADDITION OF A BRANCH
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
branch p-q, given by

It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have

Vector ypq-rs is not equal to zero and Zij= Zji " i,j=1,2,…m,q
(12)

To find Zqi:
The elements of last row-q and last column-q are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.2. Since all other bus currents are zero, we have from (11) that

Ek = Zki Ii = Zki " k = 1, 2,…i .......p,….m, q

(13)
Hence, Eq = Zqi ; Ep = Zpi ………

Also, Eq=Ep -vpq ; so that Zqi = Zpi - vpq " i =1, 2,…i.…...p,….m, _q
(14)

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Fig.2 Calculation for Zqi

Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Special Cases
The following special cases of analysis concerning ZBUS building can be considered with
respect to the addition of branch to a p-network.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

ADDITION OF A LINK
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
link p-l, (p-l being a fictitious branch and l being a fictitious node) given by

It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have

To find Zli:
The elements of last row-l and last column-l are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.3. Further, the current in the added element is made zero by connecting a
voltage source, el in series with element p-q, as shown. Since all other bus currents are
zero, we have from (25) that
Power System Analysis 191EE51

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

From (39), it is thus observed that, when a link is added to a ref. bus, then the situation is
similar to adding a branch to a fictitious bus and hence the following steps are followed:
Power System Analysis 191EE51

1. The element is added similar to addition of a branch (case-b) to obtain the new matrix
of order m+1.
2. The extra fictitious node, l is eliminated using the node elimination algorithm.

Case (d): If there is no mutual coupling, then elements of pq rs y , are zero. Further, if p is
not the reference node, then

MODIFICATION OF ZBUS FOR NETWORK CHANGES

An element which is not coupled to any other element can be removed easily. The Zbus is
modified as explained in sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (to be
removed), a link whose impedance is equal to the negative of the impedance of the
element to be removed. Similarly, the impedance value of an element which is not coupled
to any other element can be changed easily. The Zbus is modified again as explained in
sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (whose impedance is to be
changed), a link element of impedance value chosen such that the parallel equivalent
impedance is equal to the desired value of impedance. When mutually coupled elements
are removed, the Zbus is modified by introducing appropriate changes in the bus currents
of the original network to reflect the changes introduced due to the removal of the
elements.

Examples on ZBUS building

Example 1: For the positive sequence network data shown in table below, obtain ZBUS
by building procedure.

Solution:
The given network is as shown below with the data marked on it. Assume the elements to
be added as per the given sequence: 0-1, 0-3, 1-2, and 2-3.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Fig. E1: Example System

Consider building ZBUS as per the various stages of building through the consideration of
the corresponding partial networks as under:
Step-1: Add element–1 of impedance 0.25 pu from the external node-1 (q=1) to internal
ref. node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;

Step-2: Add element–2 of impedance 0.2 pu from the external node-3 (q=3) to internal ref.
node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Step-3: Add element–3 of impedance 0.08 pu from the external node-2 (q=2) to internal node-
1 (p=1). (Case-b), as shown in the partial network;

Step-4: Add element–4 of impedance 0.06 pu between the two internal nodes, node-2
(p=2) to node-3 (q=3). (Case-d), as shown in the partial network;
Power System Analysis 191EE51

The fictitious node l is eliminated further to arrive at the final impedance matrix as under:
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Solution: The specified system is considered with the reference node denoted by node-0.
By its inspection, we can obtain the bus impedance matrix by building procedure by
following the steps through the p-networks as under:
Step1: Add branch 1 between node 1 and reference node. (q =1, p = 0)

Step2: Add branch 2, between node 2 and reference node. (q = 2, p = 0).

Power System Analysis 191EE51

Step3: Add branch 3, between node 1 and node 3 (p = 1, q = 3)

Step 4: Add element 4, which is a link between node 1 and node 2. (p = 1, q = 2)

Power System Analysis 191EE51

Now the extra node-l has to be eliminated to obtain the new matrix of step-4, using the
algorithmic relation:

Step 5: Add link between node 2 and node 3 (p = 2, q=3)

Power System Analysis 191EE51

32
Power System Analysis 191EE51

UNIT-2

LOAD FLOW STUDIES

REVIEW OF NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms
the basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power
system analyses, such as during linear graph analysis, load flow analysis (nonlinear
equations), transient stability studies (differential equations), etc. Hence, it is necessary to
review the general forms of the various solution methods with respect to all forms of
equations, as under:

1. Solution Linear equations:

* Direct methods:
- Cramer‟s (Determinant) Method,
- Gauss Elimination Method (only for smaller systems),
- LU Factorization (more preferred method), etc.

* Iterative methods:
- Gauss Method
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for diagonally dominant systems)

3. Solution of Nonlinear equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for smaller systems)
- Newton-Raphson Method (if corrections for variables are small)

4. Solution of differential equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Euler and Modified Euler method,
- RK IV-order method,
- Milne‟s predictor-corrector method, etc.

It is to be observed that the nonlinear and differential equations can be solved only by the
iterative methods. The iterative methods are characterized by the various performance
features as under:
_ Selection of initial solution/ estimates
_ Determination of fresh/ new estimates during each iteration
_ Selection of number of iterations as per tolerance limit
_ Time per iteration and total time of solution as per the solution method selected
_ Convergence and divergence criteria of the iterative solution
_ Choice of the Acceleration factor of convergence, etc.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

A comparison of the above solution methods is as under:

In general, the direct methods yield exact or accurate solutions. However, they are suited
for only the smaller systems, since otherwise, in large systems, the possible round-off
errors make the solution process inaccurate. The iterative methods are more useful when
the diagonal elements of the coefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off
diagonal elements. The round-off errors in these methods are corrected at the successive
steps of the iterative process.The Newton-Raphson method is very much useful for
solution of non –linear equations, if all the values of the corrections for the unknowns are
very small in magnitude and the initial values of unknowns are selected to be reasonably
closer to the exact solution.

LOAD FLOW STUDIES

Introduction: Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future expansion
of power systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at all the buses,
for a particular load condition. Different steady state solutions can be obtained, for
different operating conditions, to help in planning, design and operation of the power
system. Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which
involves bulk power transmission. The load at the buses is assumed to be known. Load
flow studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation, such as:
violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between buses
linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency shutdown of
generators, etc. Load flow studies are required for deciding the economic operation of the
power system. They are also required in transient stability studies. Hence, load flow
studies play a vital role in power system studies. Thus the load flow problem consists of
finding the power flows (real and reactive) and voltages of a network for given bus
conditions. At each bus, there are four quantities of interest to be known for further
analysis: the real and reactive power, the voltage magnitude and its phase angle. Because
of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations, describing the given power system, their
solutions are obviously, based on the iterative methods only. The constraints placed on the
load flow solutions could be:
_ The Kirchhoff‟s relations holding good,
_ Capability limits of reactive power sources,
_ Tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
_ Specified power interchange between interconnected systems,
_ Selection of initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, etc.

Classification of buses for LFA: Different types of buses are present based on the
specified and unspecified variables at a given bus as presented in the table below:
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Table 1. Classification of buses for LFA

Importance of swing bus: The slack or swing bus is usually a PV-bus with the largest
capacity generator of the given system connected to it. The generator at the swing bus
supplies the power difference between the “specified power into the system at the other
buses” and the “total system output plus losses”. Thus swing bus is needed to supply the
additional real and reactive power to meet the losses. Both the magnitude and phase angle
of voltage are specified at the swing bus, or otherwise, they are assumed to be equal to 1.0
p.u. and 00 , as per flat-start procedure of iterative
solutions. The real and reactive powers at the swing bus are found by the computer routine
as part of the load flow solution process. It is to be noted that the source at the swing bus is
a perfect one, called the swing machine, or slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the
magnitude of voltage fixed. The phase angle is the system reference phase and hence is
fixed. The generator at the swing bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or
swing as the demand changes. This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.

Importance of YBUS based LFA:

The majority of load flow programs employ methods using the bus admittance matrix, as
this method is found to be more economical. The bus admittance matrix plays a very
important role in load flow analysis. It is a complex, square and symmetric matrix and
hence only n(n+1)/2 elements of YBUS need to be stored for a n-bus system. Further, in
the YBUS matrix, Yij = 0, if an incident element is not present in the system connecting
the buses „i‟ and „j‟. since in a large power system, each bus is connected only to a fewer
buses through an incident element, (about 6-8), the coefficient matrix, YBUS of such
systems would be highly sparse, i.e., it will have many zero valued elements in it. This is
defined by the sparsity of the matrix, as under:

The percentage sparsity of YBUS, in practice, could be as high as 80-90%, especially

for very large, practical power systems. This sparsity feature of YBUS is extensively used
in reducing the load flow calculations and in minimizing the memory required to store the
Power System Analysis 191EE51

coefficient matrices. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements YBUS can be
stored during the computer based implementation of the schemes, by adopting the suitable
optimal storage schemes. While YBUS is thus highly sparse, it‟s inverse, ZBUS, the bus
impedance matrix is not so. It is a FULL matrix, unless the optimal bus ordering schemes
are followed before proceeding for load flow analysis.

THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM

Here, the analysis is restricted to a balanced three-phase power system, so that the analysis
can be carried out on a single phase basis. The per unit quantities are used for all
quantities. The first step in the analysis is the formulation of suitable equations for the
power flows in the system. The power system is a large interconnected system, where
various buses are connected by transmission lines. At any bus, complex power is injected
into the bus by the generators and complex power is drawn by the loads. Of course at any
bus, either one of them may not be present. The power is transported from one bus to other
via the transmission lines. At any bus i, the complex power Si (injected), shown in figure
1, is defined as

where Si = net complex power injected into bus i, SGi = complex power injected by the
generator at bus i, and SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i. According to
conservation of complex power, at any bus i, the complex power injected into the bus must
be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the transmission lines.
Hence,

Si = _Sij " i = 1, 2, ..............n

(3)
where Sij is the sum over all lines connected to the bus and n is the number of buses in the
system (excluding the ground). The bus current injected at the bus-i is defined as

Ii = IGi – IDi " i = 1, 2, ………..n (4)

Power System Analysis 191EE51

where IGi is the current injected by the generator at the bus and IDi is the current drawn
by the load (demand) at that bus. In the bus frame of reference

IBUS = YBUS VBUS

(5)
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the „power flow equations‟ or the „load flow
equations‟ in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each bus-i is
characterized by four variables, Pi, Qi, |Vi|, and di. Thus a total of 4n variables are
Power System Analysis 191EE51

involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be solved for any 2n unknowns,
if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need for classification of buses
of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.

DATA FOR LOAD FLOW

Irrespective of the method used for the solution, the data required is common for any load
flow. All data is normally in pu. The bus admittance matrix is formulated from these data.
The various data required are as under:

System data: It includes: number of buses-n, number of PV buses, number of loads,

number of transmission lines, number of transformers, number of shunt elements, the slack
bus number, voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally taken as 0o), tolerance
limit, base MVA, and maximum permissible number of iterations.

Generator bus data: For every PV bus i, the data required includes the bus number,
active power generation PGi, the specified voltage magnitude i sp V , , minimum reactive
power limit Qi,min, and maximum reactive power limit Qi,max.

Load data: For all loads the data required includes the the bus number, active power
demand PDi, and the reactive power demand QDi.

Transmission line data: For every transmission line connected between buses i and k the
data includes the starting bus number i, ending bus number k,.resistance of the line,
reactance of the line and the half line charging admittance.

Transformer data:
For every transformer connected between buses i and k the data to be given includes: the
starting bus number i, ending bus number k, resistance of the transformer, reactance of the
transformer, and the off nominal turns-ratio a.

Shunt element data: The data needed for the shunt element includes the bus number
where element is connected, and the shunt admittance (Gsh + j Bsh).

GAUSS – SEIDEL (GS) METHOD

The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated till
convergence is reached. The GS method applied to power flow problem is as discussed
below.

Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and PQ buses are
ordered next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared to random ordering
of buses. Consider the expression for the complex power at bus-i, given from (7), as:
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Equation (17) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both sides of
the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique. Starting from an initial
estimate of all bus voltages, in the RHS of (17) the most recent values of the bus voltages
is substituted. One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus voltages. In
Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the computation of
subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up convergence. Iterations are
carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not change by more than the tolerance
value. Thus the algorithm for GS method is as under:

Algorithm for GS method

1. Prepare data for the given system as required.

2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,…n. In practical power systems, the magnitude
of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at all (n-1) buses
(except slack bus) are taken to be 1.000. This is normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any (k +1)st iteration, from (17) the voltages are given by
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3….(i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are used.
For buses (i+1)…..n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.

Where,e is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (15) [assuming bus 1 is
slack bus].

7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.

Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:

At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified. Hence it is
needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (18). From (15) we have
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during any
iteration, i.e (k +1) i Q computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to lack
of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st iteration and
the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:

If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be switched
back to PV status.
Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with increase
in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if the
correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant α, called
the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let

where  is a real number. When  =1, the value of (k +1) is the computed value. If 1<
<2 then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally _ is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for
GS load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates
Power System Analysis 191EE51

the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied,
with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.

Examples on GS load flow analysis:

Power System Analysis 191EE51

Since the difference in the voltage magnitudes is less than 10-6 pu, the iterations can be
stopped. To compute line flow
Power System Analysis 191EE51

The total loss in the line is given by S12 + S21 = j 0.133329 pu Obviously, it is observed
that there is no real power loss, since the line has no resistance.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Example-2:
For the power system shown in fig. below, with the data as given in tables below, obtain
the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying GS method.
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Example-3:
Obtain the load flow solution at the end of first iteration of the system with data as given
below. The solution is to be obtained for the following cases
(i) All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses
(ii) Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu
Power System Analysis 191EE51

(iii) Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 and 0.25_Q2_1.0 pu.
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Limitations of GS load flow analysis

GS method is very useful for very small systems. It is easily adoptable, it can be
generalized and it is very efficient for systems having less number of buses. However, GS
LFA fails to converge in systems with one or more of the features as under:
• Systems having large number of radial lines
• Systems with short and long lines terminating on the same bus
• Systems having negative values of transfer admittances
• Systems with heavily loaded lines, etc.

GS method successfully converges in the absence of the above problems. However,

convergence also depends on various other set of factors such as: selection of slack bus,
initial solution, acceleration factor, tolerance limit, level of accuracy of results needed,
type and quality of computer/ software used, etc.
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobian matrix. The vector of unknown variables is
updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two successive
iterations is less than the tolerance value.

24
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51

28
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis 191EE51
Power System Analysis R17A0215
Power System Analysis 191EE51

FINAL WORD

In this chapter, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has been
considered in detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the buses and
the complex power flows in the lines. Though, algorithms are available using the
impedance form of the equations, the sparsity of the bus admittance matrix and the ease of
building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms using the admittance form of
equations more popular. The most popular methods are the Gauss-Seidel method, the
Newton-Raphson method and the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method. These methods
have been discussed in detail with illustrative examples. In smaller systems, the ease of
programming and the memory requirements, make GS method attractive. However, the
computation time increases with increase in the size of the system. Hence, in large systems
NR and FDLF methods are more popular. There is a trade off between various
requirements like speed, storage, reliability, computation time, convergence characteristics
etc. No single method has all the desirable features. However, NR method is most popular
because of its versatility, reliability and accuracy.
 UNIT 3
SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
A fault is any abnormal condition in a power system. The steady state operating mode of a
power system is balanced 3-phase a.c. .However, due to sudden external or internal changes
in the system, this condition is disrupted.

When the insulation of the system fails at one or more points or a conducting object comes
into contact with a live point, a short circuit or a fault occurs.

CAUSES OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

The causes of faults are numerous, e.g.

 Lightning
 Heavy winds
 Trees falling across lines
 Vehicles colliding with towers or poles
 Birds shorting lines
 Aircraft colliding with lines
 Vandalism
 Small animals entering switchgear
 Line breaks due to excessive loading

COMMON POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Power system faults may be categorised as one of four types; in order of frequency of
occurrence, they are:
 Single line to ground fault
 Line to line fault
 Double line to ground fault
 Balanced three phase fault
The first three types constitutes severe unbalanced operating conditions which involves only
one or two phases hence referred to as unsymmetrical faults. In the fourth type, a fault
involving all the three phases occurs therefore referred to as symmetrical (balanced) fault.

1.04 EFFECTS OF POWER SYSTEM FAULTS

Faults may lead to fire breakout that consequently results into loss of property, loss of life and
destruction of a power system network. Faults also leads to cut of supply in areas beyond the
fault point in a transmission and distribution network leading to power blackouts; this
interferes with industrial and commercial activities that supports economic growth, stalls
learning activities in institutions, work in offices, domestic applications and creates insecurity
at night.

All the above results into retarded development due to low gross domestic product realised.

It is important therefore to determine the values of system voltages and currents during
faulted conditions, so that protective devices may be set to detect and minimize the harmful
effects of such contingencies

THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear network containing any number of voltage sources
and impedances can be replaced by a single emf and an impedance.

The emf is the open circuit voltage as seen from the terminals under consideration and the
impedance is the network impedance as seen from these terminals.

This circuit consisting of a single emf and impedance is known as Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

The calculation of fault current can then be very easily done by applying this theorem after
obtaining the open circuit emf and network impedance as seen from the fault point.
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
The majority of faults in power systems are asymmetrical. To analyse an asymmetrical fault,
an unbalanced 3- phase circuit has to be solved. Since the direct solution of such a circuit is
very difficult, the solution can be more easily obtained by using symmetrical components
since this yields three (fictitious) single phase networks, only one of which contains a driving
emf.

Since the system reactances are balanced the thee fictitious networks have no mutual coupling
between them, a fact that is making this method of analysis quite simple.

1.21 General principles

Any set of unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or current) can be transformed into 3 balanced sets.
These are:

1. A positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages (i.e. all numerically equal
and all displaced from each other by 1200) having the same phase sequence abc as the
original set and denoted by Va1,Vb1,Vc1 as shown in the fig(1a)

Vc1 Va1

Vb1

Fig. (a)
2. A negative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages having the phase sequence
opposite to that of the original set and denoted by Va2, Vb2, Vc2 as shown in fig(1b)

Va2

Vb2

Vc2

Fig. 1 (b)
3. A zero sequence set of three voltages, all equal in magnitude and in phase with each other
and denoted by Va0, Vb0, Vc0 as shown in fig (1c) below:

Va0

Vb0

Vc0

Fig. 1 (c )

The positive, negative and zero sequence sets above are known as symmetrical components.

Thus we have,

Va = Va1 +Va2 +Va0

Vb = Vb1 +Vb2 +Vb0

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 +Vc0

The symmetrical components application to power system analysis is of fundamental

importance since it can be used to transform arbitrarily unbalanced condition into symmetrical
components, compute the system response by straightforward circuit analysis on simple
circuit models and transform the results back to the original phase variables.

Generally the subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are used to indicate positive sequence, negative sequence
and zero sequence respectively.

The symmetrical components do not have separate existence; they are just mathematical
components of unbalanced currents (or voltages) which actually flow in the system.
1.2.2 The “a” operator

The operator “a” as used in symmetrical components is one in which when multiplied to a
vector, rotates the vector through 1200 in a positive (anticlockwise) direction without
changing the magnitude.

The operator “a” is defined as 1 1200

THREE-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

Positive sequence currents give rise to only positive sequence voltages, the negative sequence
currents give rise to only negative sequence voltages and zero sequence currents give rise to
only zero sequence voltages, hence each network can be regarded as flowing within in its own
network through impedances of its own sequence only.

In any part of the circuit, the voltage drop caused by current of a certain sequence depends on
the impedance of that part of the circuit to current of that sequence.

The impedance of any section of a balanced network to current of one sequence may be
different from impedance to current of another sequence.

The impedance of a circuit when positive sequence currents are flowing is called impedance,

When only negative sequence currents are flowing the impedance is termed as negative
sequence impedance.

With only zero sequence currents flowing the impedance is termed as zero sequence
impedance.

The analysis of unsymmetrical faults in power systems is carried out by finding the
symmetrical components of the unbalanced currents. Since each sequence current causes a
voltage drop of that sequence only, each sequence current can be considered to flow in an
independent network composed of impedances to current of that sequence only.

The single phase equivalent circuit composed of the impedances to current of any one
sequence only is called the sequence network of that particular sequence.
The sequence networks contain the generated emfs and impedances of like sequence.

Therefore for every power system we can form three- sequence network s. These sequence
networks, carrying current I a1, Ia2 and Ia0 are then inter-connected to represent the different
fault conditions.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SEQUENCE COMPONENTS

This is achieved by considering the fields which results when these sequence voltages are
applied to the stator of a 3-phase machine e.g. an induction motor.

If a positive sequence set of voltages is applied to the terminals a, b, c of the machine, a

magnetic field revolving in a certain direction will be set up. If now the voltages to the
terminals band c are changed by interchanging the leads to terminals b and c, it is known from
induction motor theory that the direction of magnetic field would be reversed.

It is noted that for this condition, the relative phase positions of the voltages applied to the
motor are the same as for the negative sequence set.

Hence, a negative sequence set of voltages produces a rotating field rotating in an opposite
direction to that of positive sequence.

For both positive and negative sequence components, the standard convention of counter
clockwise rotation is followed.

The application of zero sequence voltages does not produce any field because these voltages
are in phase and the three -phase windings are displaced by 1200.The positive and the
negative sequence set are the balanced one. Thus, if only positive and negative sequence
currents are flowing, the phasor sum of each will be zero and there will be no residual current.
However, the zero sequence components of currents in the three phases are in phase and the
residual current will be three times the zero sequence current of one phase. In the case of a
fault involving ground, the positive and negative sequence currents are in equilibrium while
the zero sequence currents flow through the ground and overhead ground wires.
 SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
An unloaded synchronous machine having its neutral earthed through impedance, zn, is shown
in fig. 2(a) below.

A fault at its terminals causes currents Ia, Ib and Ic to flow in the lines. If fault involves earth, a
current In flows into the neutral from the earth. This current flows through the neutral
impedance Zn.

Thus depending on the type of fault, one or more of the line currents may be zero.

Ia1
a

Ea +
-
In Zn
n
- Eb +

- Ib1
Ec
+ b
c

Ic1

Fig.2 (a)
 Positive sequence network
The generated voltages of a synchronous machine are of positive sequence only since the
windings of a synchronous machine are symmetrical.

The positive sequence network consists of an emf equal to no load terminal voltages and is in
series with the positive sequence impedance Z1 of the machine. Fig.2 (b) and fig.2(c) shows
the paths for positive sequence currents and positive sequence network respectively on a
single phase basis in the synchronous machine. The neutral impedance Zn does not appear in
the circuit because the phasor sum of Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 is zero and no positive sequence current
can flow through Zn. Since its a balanced circuit, the positive sequence N

The reference bus for the positive sequence network is the neutral of the generator.

The positive sequence impedance Z1 consists of winding resistance and direct axis reactance.
The reactance is the sub-transient reactance X”d or transient reactance X’d or synchronous
reactance Xd depending on whether sub-transient, transient or steady state conditions are
being studied.

From fig.2 (b) , the positive sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is
given by:

Va1= Ea - Z1Ia1 Ia1

Z1 +
-

- Eb +
Ib1
Z1
-
Ec
+ b

Ic1
Fig.2 (b)
 Reference bus

-
Ea

Z1
a
Ia1

Fig.2(c)

2.02 Negative sequence network

A synchronous machine does not generate any negative sequence voltage. The flow of
negative sequence currents in the stator windings creates an mmf which rotates at
synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotor, i.e., at twice the
synchronous speed with respect to rotor.

Thus the negative sequence mmf alternates past the direct and quadrature axis and sets up a
varying armature reaction effect. Thus, the negative sequence reactance is taken as the
average of direct axis and quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, i.e.,

X2 = 0.5 ( X”d + X”q ).

It not necessary to consider any time variation of X2 during transient conditions because there
is no normal constant armature reaction to be effected. For more accurate calculations, the
negative sequence resistance should be considered to account for power dissipated in the rotor
poles or damper winding by double supply frequency induced currents.

The fig.2 (d) and fig.2 (e) shows the negative sequence currents paths and the negative
sequence network respectively on a single phase basis of a synchronous machine.

The reference bus for the negative sequence network is the neutral of the machine. Thus, the
negative sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is given by:

Va2= -Z2Ia2
 Ia2

Z2

Z2
Z2
Ib2
b

Ic2

Fig.2 (d)

Reference bus

Z2

a
Ia2

Fig.2 (e)
2.0.3 Zero sequence network
No zero sequence voltage is induced in a synchronous machine. The flow of zero sequence
currents in the stator windings produces three mmf which are in time phase. If each phase
winding produced a sinusoidal space mmf, then with the rotor removed, the flux at a point on
the axis of the stator due to zero sequence current would be zero at every instant.

When the flux in the air gap or the leakage flux around slots or end connections is considered,
no point in these regions is equidistant from all the three –phase windings of the stator.

The mmf produced by a phase winding departs from a sine wave, by amounts which depend
upon the arrangement of the winding.

The zero sequence currents flow through the neutral impedance Zn and the current flowing
through this impedance is 3Ia0.

Fig.2(f) and fig.2(g) shows the zero sequence current paths and zero sequence network
respectively, and as can be seen, the zero sequence voltage drop from point a to ground is -
3Ia0Zn –Ia0Zg0 where Zg0 is the zero sequence impedance per phase of the generator.

Since the current in the zero sequence network is Ia0 this network must have an impedance of
3Zn +Zg0. Thus,

Z0 =3Zn +Zg0
The zero sequence voltage of terminal a with respect to the reference bus is thus:

Va0 = -Ia0Z0
 Ia0

a
Zg0

Ea
I a0+ I b0+ I c0
n Zg0
Zn Ib0

Zg0
b
c

Ic0
Fig.2 (f)

Reference bus

3Zn

Z0
Zg0

a
Ia 0

Fig.2 (g)
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSMISSION LINE
The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear symmetrical static circuits do not
depend on the phase sequence and are, therefore equal. When only zero sequence currents
flow in the lines, the currents in all the phases are identical. These currents return partly
through the ground and partly through overhead ground wires.

The magnetic field due to the flow of zero sequence currents through line, ground and round
wires is very different from the magnetic field due to positive sequence currents. The zero
sequence reactance of lines is about 2 to 4 times the positive sequence reactance.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSFORMERS

A power system network has a number of transformers for stepping up and stepping down the
voltage levels.

A transformer for a 3-phase circuit may consist of three single phase transformers with
windings suitably connected in star or delta or it may be a 3-phase unit.

Modern transformers are invariably three-phase units because of their lower cost, lesser space
requirements and higher efficiency. The positive sequence impedance of a transformer equals
its leakage impedance. The resistance of the windings is usually small as compared to leakage
reactance.

For transformers above 1 MVA rating, the reactance and impedance are almost equal. Since
the transformer is a static device, the negative sequence impedance is equal to the positive
sequence impedance.

The zero sequence impedance of 3-phase units is slightly different from positive sequence
impedance. However the difference is very slight and the zero sequence impedance is also
assumed to be the same as the positive sequence impedance.

The flow of zero sequence currents through a transformer and hence in the system depends
greatly on the winding connections. The zero sequence currents can flow through the winding
connected in star only if the star point is grounded. If the star point isolated zero sequence
currents cannot flow in the winding.

The zero sequence currents cannot flow in the lines connected to a delta connected winding
because no return path is available for these zero sequence currents. However, the zero
sequence currents caused by the presence of zero sequence voltages can circulate through the
delta connected windings.

FORMATION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS

A power system network consists of synchronous machines, transmission lines and
transformers.

The positive sequence network is the same as the single line reactance diagram used for the
calculation of symmetrical fault current. The reference bus for positive sequence network is
the system neutral.

The negative sequence network is similar to the positive sequence network except that the
negative sequence network does not contain any voltage source. The negative sequence
impedances for transmission line and transformers are the same as the positive sequence
impedances. But the negative sequence impedance of a synchronous machine may be
different from its positive sequence impedance.

Any impedance connected between a neutral and ground is not included in the positive and
negative sequence networks because the positive and the negative sequence currents cannot
flow through such impedance.

The zero sequence network also does not contain any voltage source. Any impedance
included between neutral and ground becomes three times its value in a zero sequence
network.

The following are the summary of the rules for the formation of sequence networks:-

 The positive sequence network is the same as single line impedance or reactance
diagram used in symmetrical fault analysis. The reference bus for this network is the
system neutral.
  The generators in power system produce balanced voltages. Therefore only positive
sequence network has voltage source. There are no voltage sources in negative and
zero sequence networks.
 The positive sequence current can cause only positive sequence voltage drop.
Similarly negative sequence current can cause only negative sequence voltage drop
and zero sequence current can cause only zero sequence voltage drop.
 The reference for negative sequence network is the system neutral. However, the
reference for zero sequence network is the ground. Zero sequence current can flow
only if the neutral is grounded.
 The neutral grounding impedance Zn appears as 3Zn in the zero sequence network.
 The three sequence networks are independent and are interconnected suitably
depending on the type of fault.

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
The basic approach to the analysis of unsymmetrical faults is to consider the general situation
shown in the fig.3.0 which shows the three lines of the three- phase power system at the point
of fault.

The general terminals brought out are for purposes of external connections which simulate the
fault. Appropriate connections of the three stubs represent the different faults, e.g., connecting
stub `a’ to ground produces a single line to ground fault, through zero impedance, on phase
`a’. The currents in stubs b and c are then zero and Ia is the fault current.

Similarly, the connection of stubs b and c produces a line to line fault, through zero
impedance, between phases b and c, the current in stub a is then zero and Ib is equal to Ic.The
positive assignment of phase quantities is important. It is seen that the currents flow out of
the system.

The three general sequence circuits are shown in fig.3.1 (a). The ports indicated correspond to
the general 3- phase entry port of fig.3.1. A suitable inter- connection of the three- sequence
networks depending on the type fault yields the solution to the problem.
The sequence networks of fig.3.1 (a) can be replaced by equivalent sequence networks of
fig.3.1 (b) . Z0, Z1 and Z2 indicate the sequence impedances of the network looking into the
fault

Ia Ib Ic
+ + +

n Va Vb Vc

Fig.3.0 General 3- phase access port

 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Z0 Ia0
Zero Ia0 +
sequence +
network Va0 Va0

- -

Ia1 Z1 Ia1
Positive + +
sequence +
Va1 E
network - Va1
-
-

Ia2 Z2 Ia2
Negative +
+
sequence
network Va2
Va2
-
-

Fig.3.1 (a) Fig.3.1 (b)

SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig. 3.2 brings about a condition
of single line to ground fault through a fault impedance Zf .
Typically Zf is set to zero in all fault studies. I include Zf in the analysis for the sake of
generality. The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations:

Ib = 0

Ic = 0

Va = IaZf

Ia + Ib Ic
Zf

Va + Vb + Vc
n

Fig. 3.2

Connections of sequence networks for a single line to ground fault and its simplified
equivalent circuit are shown in the fig. 3.3(a) and fig. 3.3 (b) below:
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Ia0 Ia1
Ia0
Zero Z0
Va0
+
Sequence
Va0
network
-
Ia1

Ia1
Z1
Positive
+ Va1 3Zf
Sequence +
3Zf
Va1 E0
network
-
-

Ia2 Ia2= Ia1

Negative

Sequence
The Z2
+ Va2
network Va2
-

Fig.3.3 (b)
Fig.3.3 (a)
 LINE TO LINE FAULT
The termination of the three- phase access port as in the fig.3.4 below simulates a line to line
fault through a fault impedance Zf .

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.4

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,

Ia = 0

Ib = -Ic

Vb = Vc + Zf Ib

Ib = -Ic = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2

Connection of sequence networks for a line to line fault and its simplified equivalent circuit
are shown in the fig.3.5 (a) and fig.(b) below.
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequence networks

Ia0
Zero
+
Sequence

network

Ia1

Ia1
Positive
Z1
Sequence + +

network Zf E0 Zf
Va1
+- -

Ia2 Ia2
Negative

Sequence
+
Network Z2
Va2

Fig. 3.5 (a) Fig.3.5 (b)

DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

The termination of the three- phase access port as shown in fig.3.6 simulates a double line to
ground fault through fault impedance Zf.

The terminal conditions at the fault point give the following equations,
Ia = 0

Vb = Vc = ( Ib + Ic ) Zf

Ia Ib Ic

+ +
Zf
Va Vb Vc
n

Fig. 3.6

The sequence networks and the equivalent circuit are shown by the Fig.3.7 (a) and Fig. 3.7 (b)
below
 Equivalent sequence networks
General sequencenetworks

Ia0 +
Zero 3Zf Ia0 3Zf

Sequence Va0
network Z0 Va0

-
Ia1
Ia1
Positive +
Z1
Sequence +
Va1
network E0 Va1

- -

Ia2
Ia2
Negative +

Sequence

Network Va2 Z2
Va2

-
Fig. 3.7(a) Fig.3.7 (b)
 BALANCED THREE PHASE FAULT
This type of fault occurs infrequently, as for example, when a line, which has been made safe
for maintenance by clamping all the three phases to earth, is accidentally made alive or when,
due to slow fault clearance, an earth fault spreads across to the other two phases or when a
mechanical excavator cuts quickly through a whole cable.

It is an important type of fault in that it results in an easy calculation and generally, a

pessimistic answer.

The circuit breaker rated MVA breaking capacity is based on 3- phase fault MVA. Since
circuit breakers are manufactured in preferred standard sizes e.g. 250, 500, 750 MVA high
precision is not necessary when calculating the 3- phase fault level at a point in a power
system.

The system impedances are also never known accurately in three phase faults.
 THE BUS

IMPEDANCE MATRIX

INTRODUCTION
Since the actual power systems are very large, network reduction method can only be used to
solve very small systerms.Therefore a systematic procedure suitable for digital computer
calculations is necessary.

System studies can be carried out using Ybus or Zbus . YBus is used for load flow computations,
but for fault calculations ( short circuit studies) , the use of Zbus is preferable.

THE ALGORITHM FOR FORMULATING THE COMPLEX Zbus IMPEDANCE

MATRIX
This is described in terms of modifying an existing bus impedance matrix designated as
[Zbus]old.. The new modified matrix is designated as [Zbus]new.

The network consists of a reference bus and a number of other buses. When a new element
having self impedance zs is added, a new bus may be created if the new element is a tree
branch or a new bus may not be created if the new element is a link.

Each of these two cases can be subdivided into two cases so that zs may be added in the
following ways:

1. Adding zs from a new bus to reference.

2. Adding zs from a new bus to an old bus.

3. Adding zs from an old bus to reference.

4. Adding zs between two old buses.

The case of addition of zs to create two new buses simultaneously has been carefully avoided
by properly selecting the order in which the elements are added.

Therefore, for my case, bus zero was taken as the reference bus and then the following
procedure was adhered to:
 1. A branch was added from a new bus to a reference bus zero.

2. A branch was then added from a new bus to an existing bus.

3. A link was finally added between two old buses to generate the complex bus
impedance matrix by method of building algorithms.

A THREE BUS POWER SYSTEM NETWORK

A 3-bus system characterised by the following parameter values was used for the analysis:

Input data ( Impedances in per- unit)

BUS CODE Z0 Z1
0 1 0.0 0.40 0.0 0.25
0 2 0.0 0.10 0.0 0.25
1 2 0.0 0.30 0.0 0.125
1 3 0.0 0.35 0.0 0.15
2 3 0.0 0.7125 0.0 0.25
 ANALYSIS
Fault analysis was done by technical computer method using the theory of symmetrical
components.The fault impedance Zf was taken as zero.

The following describes how the program codes that were developed for each type of fault
were executed using a Matlab environment to generate results for the analysis:

LINE-GROUND FAULT

The program prompts the user to enter the faulted bus number and the fault impedance Zf.
The prefault bus voltages are defined by the reserved Vector V. The array V may be defined
or it is returned from the power flow programs lfgauss, lfnewton, decouple or perturb. If V
does not exist the prefault bus voltages are automatically set to 1.0 per unit. The program
obtains the total fault current, bus voltages and line currents during the fault.

LINE-LINE FAULT

The program prompts the user to enter the faulted bus number and the fault impedance Zf.
The prefault bus voltages are defined by the reserved Vector V. The array V may be defined
or it is returned from the power flow programs lfgauss, lfnewton, decouple or perturb. If V
does not exist the prefault bus voltages are automatically set to 1.0 per unit. The program
obtains the total fault current, bus voltages and line currents during the fault.

DOUBLE-LINE-GROUND FAULT
 From To Current Angle
The program prompts the user to enter the faulted bus number and the fault impedance Zf.
The prefault bus voltages are defined by the reserved Vector V. The array V may be defined
or it is returned from the power flow programs lfgauss, lfnewton, decouple or perturb. If V
does not exist the prefault bus voltages are automatically set to 1.0 per unit. The program
obtains the total fault current, bus voltages and line currents during the fault.

SYMMETRICAL FAULT (BALANCED THREE - PHASE FAULT)

The program prompts the user to enter the faulted bus number and the fault impedance Zf.
The prefault bus voltages are defined by the reserved Vector V. The array V may be defined
or it is returned from the power flow programs lfgauss, lfnewton, decouple or perturb. If V
does not exist the prefault bus voltages are automatically set to 1.0 per unit. The program
obtains the total fault current, the postfault bus voltages and line currents.

Z BUILD CODE
The zero sequence impedances and the positive sequence impedances for the network were
computed using the zbuild code where the positive and the negative sequence impedances
were treated to be the same as indicated by the programs specifications.The network data for
the various sequence impences i.e the sequence network of its thevenin’s equivalent was
obtained as below:

The above sequence network was the run using the zbuild code to form the complex bus
impedance matrix by the method of building algorithm.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

UNIT-5
STABILITY ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major problem for
secure operation of the system. Recent major black-outs across the globe caused by system
instability, even in very sophisticated and secure systems, illustrate the problems facing
secure operation of power systems. Earlier, stability was defined as the ability of a system to
return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form of disturbance.
This fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to remain in synchronism. However,
modern power systems operate under complex interconnections, controls and extremely
stressed conditions. Further, with increased automation and use of electronic equipment, the
quality of power has gained utmost importance, shifting focus on to concepts of voltage
stability, frequency stability,
inter-area oscillations etc.

The IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have proposed the
following definition in 2004: “Power System stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded, so that
practically the entire system remains intact”. The Power System is an extremely non-linear
and dynamic system, with operating parameters continuously varying. Stability is hence, a
function of the initial operating condition and the nature of the disturbance. Power systems
are continually subjected to small disturbances in the form of load changes. The system must
be in a position to be able to adjust to the changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. The
system must also withstand large disturbances, which may even cause structural changes due
to isolation of some faulted elements. A power system may be stable for a particular (large)
disturbance and unstable for another disturbance. It is impossible to design a system which
is stable under all disturbances. The power system is generally designed to be stable under
those disturbances which have a high degree of occurrence. The response to a disturbance is
extremely complex and involves practically all the equipment of the power system. For
example, a short circuit leading to a line isolation by circuit breakers will cause variations in
the power flows, network bus voltages and generators rotor speeds. The voltage variations
will actuate the voltage regulators in the system and generator speed variations will actuate
the prime mover governors; voltage and frequency variations will affect the system loads. In
stable systems, practically all generators and loads remain connected, even though parts of
the system may be isolated to preserve bulk operations. On the other hand, an unstable
system condition could lead to cascading outages and a shutdown of a major portion of the
power system.

1
Power System Analysis 191EE51

ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY

Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of the synchronous machines of an interconnected
power system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a disturbance. Instability
results in some generators accelerating (decelerating) and losing synchronism with other
generators. Rotor angle stability depends on the ability of each synchronous machine to
maintain equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque. Under steady
state, there is equilibrium between the input mechanical torque and output electromagnetic
torque of each generator, and its speed remains a constant. Under a disturbance, this
equilibrium is upset and the generators accelerate/decelerate according to the mechanics of a
rotating body. Rotor angle stability is further categorized as follows:

Small single (or small disturbance) rotor angle stability

It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances. In
this case, the system equation can be linearized around the initial operating point and the
stability depends only on the operating point and not on the disturbance. Instability may
result in
(i) A non oscillatory or a periodic increase of rotor angle
(ii) (ii) Increasing amplitude of rotor oscillations due to insufficient damping.
The first form of instability is largely eliminated by modern fast acting voltage regulators
and the second form of instability is more common. The time frame of small signal stability
is of the order of 10-20 seconds after a disturbance.

Large-signal rotor angle stability or transient stability

This refers to the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under large
disturbances, such as short circuit, line outages etc. The system response involves large
excursions of the generator rotor angles. Transient stability depends on both the initial
operating point and the disturbance parameters like location, type, magnitude etc. Instability
is normally in the form of a periodic angular separation. The time frame of interest is 3-5
seconds after disturbance. The term dynamic stability was earlier used to denote the steady-
state stability in the presence of automatic controls (especially excitation controls) as
opposed to manual controls. Since all generators are equipped with automatic controllers
today, dynamic stability has lost relevance and the Task Force has recommended against its
usage.

MECHANICS OF ROTATORY MOTION

Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating bodies
are applicable to it. In rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The angle _m is
defined, with respect to a circular arc with its center at the vertex of the angle, as the ratio of
the arc length s to radius r.
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This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the two
machines swing coherently.

POWER–ANGLE EQUATION:

In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally made (i) Mechanical power
nput Pm is a constant during the period of interest, immediately after the disturbance (ii)
Rotor speed changes are insignificant. (iii) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the
transient is neglected i.e the excitation is assumed to be a constant. As discussed in section
9.4, the power–angle relationship plays a vital role in the solution of the swing equation.

POWER–ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON–SALIENT POLE MACHINE:

The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that of a constant voltage behind an
impedance. This model is called the classical model and can be used for cylindrical rotor
(non–salient pole) machines. Practically all high–speed turbo alternators are of cylindrical
rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the periphery of the rotor is uniform.
This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic reluctance, regardless of the
angular position of the rotor, with respect to the armature mmf.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

POWER ANGLE EQUATION FOR A SALIENT POLE MACHINE:

Here because of the salient poles, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit in which flows the
flux produced by an armature mmf in line with the quadrature axis is higher than that of the
magnetic circuit in which flows the flux produced by the armature mmf in line with the
direct axis. These two components of armature mmf are proportional to the corresponding
components of armature current. The component of armature current producing an mmf
acting in line with direct axis is called the direct component, Id. The component of armature
current producing an mmf acting in line with the quadrature axis is called the quadrature
axis component, Iq.

(9.42) gives the steady state power angle relationship for a salient pole machine. The second
term does not depend on the excitation and is called the reluctance power component. This
component makes the maximum power greater than in the classical model. However, the
angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 90o.

TRANSIENT STABILITY:

As defined earlier, transient stability is the ability of the system to remain stable under large
disturbances like short circuits, line outages, generation or load loss etc. The evaluation of
the transient stability is required offline for planning, design etc. and online for load
management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability analysis deals
with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the dynamics of the
machines and their controls and interfacing it with the algebraic equations describing the
Power System Analysis 191EE51

interconnections through the transmission network. Since the disturbance is large, linearized
analysis of the swing equation (which describes the rotor dynamics) is not possible. Further,
the fault may cause structural changes in the network, because of which the power angle
curve prior to fault, during the fault and post fault may be different. Due to these reasons, a
general stability criteria for transient stability cannot be established, as was done in the case
of steady state stability (namely PS > 0). Stability can be established, for a given fault, by
actual solution of the swing equation. The time taken for the fault to be cleared (by the
circuit breakers) is called the clearing time. If the fault is cleared fast enough, the probability
of the system remaining stable after the clearance is more. If the fault persists for a longer
time, likelihood of instability is increased. Critical clearing time is the maximum time
available for clearing the fault, before the system loses stability. Modern circuit breakers are
equipped with auto reclosure facility, wherein the breaker automatically recloses after two
sequential openings. If the fault still persists, the breakers open permanently. Since most
faults are transient, the first reclosure is in general successful. Hence, transient stability has
been greatly enhanced by auto closure breakers.

Some common assumptions made during transient stability studies are as follows:
1. Transmission line and synchronous machine resistances are neglected. Since resistance
introduces a damping term in the swing equation, this gives pessimistic results.
2. Effect of damper windings is neglected which again gives pessimistic results.
3. Variations in rotor speed are neglected.
4. Mechanical input to the generator is assumed constant. The governor control loop is
neglected. This also leads to pessimistic results.
5. The generator is modeled as a constant voltage source behind a transient reactance,
neglecting the voltage regulator action.
6. Loads are modeled as constant admittances and absorbed into the bus admittance matrix.

The above assumptions, vastly simplify the equations. A digital computer program for
transient stability analysis can easily include more detailed generator models and effect of
controls, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of present treatment. Studies on the
transient stability of an SMIB system, can shed light on some important aspects of stability
of larger systems. The figure below shows an example of how the clearing time has an effect
on the swing curve of the machine.
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Modified Euler’s method:

Euler‟s method is one of the easiest methods to program for solution of differential
equations using a digital computer . It uses the Taylor‟s series expansion, discarding all
second–order and higher–order terms. Modified Euler‟s algorithm uses the derivatives at the
beginning of a time step, to predict the values of the dependent variables at the end of the
step (t1 = t0 +∆t). Using the predicted values, the derivatives at the end of the interval are
computed. The average of the two derivatives is used in updating the variables.

Consider two simultaneous differential equations:

Power System Analysis 191EE51

Starting from initial values x0, y0, t0 at the beginning of a time step and a step size h we
solve as follows:

Let

x 1 and y1 are used in the next iteration. To solve the swing equation by Modified Euler‟s
method, it is written as two first order differential equations:
Power System Analysis 191EE51

Starting from an initial value _o, _o at the beginning of any time step, and choosing a step
size _t s, the equations to be solved in modified Euler‟s are as follows:
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7.7
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7.8
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Generating units of present day have lower values of H, due to advanced cooling techniques,
which have made it possible to increase the rating of the machines without significant
increase in the size. Modern control schemes like generator excitation control, Turbine valve
control, single-pole operation of circuit breakers and fast-acting circuit breakers with auto
re-closure facility have helped in enhancing overall system stability.

Factors which can improve transient stability are

(i) Reduction of transfer reactance by using parallel lines.
(ii) Reducing transmission line reactance by reducing conductor spacing and increasing
conductor diameter, by using hollow cores.
(iii) Use of bundled conductors.
(iv) Series compensation of the transmission lines with series capacitors. This also increases
the steady state stability limit. However it can lead to problem of sub-synchronous
resonance.
(v) Since most faults are transient, fast acting circuit breakers with rapid re-closure facility
can aid stability.
(vi) The most common type of fault being the single-line-to-ground fault, selective single
pole opening and re-closing can improve stability.
(vii) Use of braking resistors at generator buses. During a fault, there is a sudden decrease in
electric power output of generator. A large resistor, connected at the generator bus, would
partially compensate for the load loss and help in decreasing the acceleration of the
generator. The braking resistors are switched during a fault through circuit breakers and
remain for a few cycles after fault is cleared till system voltage is restored.
(viii) Short circuit current limiters, which can be used to increase transfer impedance during
fault, there by reducing short circuit currents.
(ix) A recent method is fast valving of the turbine where in the mechanical power is lowered
quickly during the fault, and restored once fault is cleared.
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