ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

MAGNETIC FLUX:-
The magnetic flux through a surface is defined as total number of magnetic field lines

crossing the surface normally.

If surface is normal to the direction of magnetic field,

then magnetic flux linking with the surface

 =B A

If surface is not normal to the direction of magnetic

field, then magnetic flux linking with

the surface

 = B ( A cos  )
= BA cos 
=BA

Thus magnetic flux is dot product of magnetic field vector and area vector.

Unit of magnetic flux:

SI: weber(Wb)

1 Wb=1 T  1m2

C.G.S.: maxwell (Mx)

Dimensional formula:

  =  B   A  =  M 1 T −2 A −1   L2  =  M 1 L 2 T −2 A −1 
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:-
First law:-Whenever magnetic flux linking with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil and it lasts so long as
the change in magnetic flux continues.

Explanation: When a magnet is moved towards the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil increases and when a
magnet is moved away from the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil decreases. In both the cases galvanometer
shows deflection indicating that e.m.f. is induced in the coil.

When there is no relative motion between the magnet and the coil , magnetic flux linking with the coil remains
constant. Then galvanometer shows no deflection indicating that no e.m.f is induced in the coil.
Second law:-

The magnitude of e.m.f. induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked
with the coil.

d
 −
dt
d
Or ,  = −
dt
If the coil has N no. of turns, then

d
 = −N
dt
Negative sign indicates that the induced e.m.f. opposes any change in magnetic flux.

Explanation:-

When magnet is moved faster , the magnetic flux linking with the coil changes at faster rate . So galvanometer
deflection is more . It indicates induced e.m.f. is more.

When magnet is moved closer slowly , the magnetic flux linking with the coil changes at slower rate . So
galvanometer deflection is less . It indicates induced e.m.f. is less.

LENZ’S LAW:-
The direction of induced e.m.f. is such that it opposes the cause which creates it.

Explanation:- When north pole of a bar magnet is moved towards the coil , the magnetic flux linking with coil
increases . The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux . So north pole is
developed in coil as seen from magnet side . So current induced in coil is in anticlockwise direction as seen from
magnet side.

Similarly, when north pole of a bar magnet is moved away from the coil , the direction of induced current is such that
it opposes the change in magnetic flux . So south pole is developed in coil as seen from magnet side . So current
induced in coil is in clockwise direction as seen from magnet side.
LENZ’S LAW AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:-
Lenz’s law obeys the law of conservation of energy. For example , when north pole of magnet is moved towards the
coil, the nearer face of the coil acquires north polarity. In order to continue to bring the magnet towards the coil,
work has to be done against the repulsive force between the two north poles.

This mechanical work in moving the magnet induces current in the coil.
Thus mechanical work changes in to electrical energy.
Thus Lenz’s law obeys the law of conservation of energy . The energy being transformed only.

Various methods of producing induced E.M.F.:-

There are three methods of producing induced E.M.F.
1. By changing the magnitude of magnetic field.
2. By changing the area A , i.e., by shrinking or stretching or changing the shape of coil.
3. By changing angle  between the direction of B and area vector.

Motional E.M.F.:-
The e.m.f. induced across a conducting rod when it moves through a magnetic field is called as motional e.m.f. .
A metal rod PQ moves in a magnetic field B directed in to the plane with velocity v towards left.
From Faraday’s law:-

The induced emf,

d B d d
 =− = − ( BA ) = − B ( l x )
dt dt dt
 dx 
= Bl  − = Bl v
 dt 

Or,  = B l v
A metal rod PQ moves in a magnetic field B directed in to the plane with velocity v towards left.

From Lorentz’s force:-

As the conductor is moving towards left , the magnitude of magnetic force acting upon each electron,

FB = ev B ...........(i )
(Directed from Q to P)

Due to this magnetic force the electrons move from Q to P. So the end Q acquires positive charge and P acquires
negative charge . The electric field E is set up from Q to P.

Due to this electric field, the magnitude of force acting upon each electron ,
 FE = e E...............(ii)
(Directed from P to Q)

In equilibrium,

FE = FB
Or , e E = e v B
Induced emf Or , E = B v ....................(iii )

=El
Or ,  = B v l ............(iv)

Power dissipated in a conductor moved in a magnetic field:-

Current induced in the loop,

 Bl v
I= = .................(v)
r r
Where r= resistance of conductor PQ

The magnitude of force acting upon the conductor PQ

 Bl v  B2 l 2 v
F = B Il = B   l = ...................(vi)
 r  r

The direction of force is opposite to the velocity of conductor.

Power required to push the conductor with velocity v

B2 l 2 v B2 l 2 v2
P =F v= v= ..............(vii)
r r
Mechanical energy required to move the conductor PQ is first converted to electrical energy and then converted to
heat energy.

Heat energy produced per second or power loss as heat,

B2 l 2 v2
PJ = ...............(viii )
r
RELATION BETWEEN ∆Φ AND ∆q:
∆∅
We know |𝜀| = ∆𝑡

𝜀 ∆∅
But, I= 𝑟= 𝑟 ∆𝑡
∆𝑞 ∆∅
Or, ∆𝑡 =𝑟 ∆𝑡
∆∅
Or, ∆𝑞 = 𝑟

⃗ . (𝑙 × 𝑣)
Note:- 𝜀 = 𝐵
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE:-

If we stretch the thumb , first finger and central finger of right

hand in mutually perpendicular directions such that first finger
points along the direction of magnetic field and thumb is along
the direction of motion of conductor, then the central finger gives
the direction of induced current.

EDDY CURRENT OR FOCAULT CURRENT :-

When magnetic flux linking with a metallic block changes, a current is induced in it called as eddy current or Focault
current.

As size of electron is very small as compared to size of conductor.

Therefore electrons find a number of closed path to move . So the
current looks like eddies or whirlpools. So the current is termed as
eddy current.

Experiment 2:- Suspend a flat metallic plate between pole pieces N and S of an electromagnet. Suppose
initially the plane of the plate is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

When the magnetic field is off, the metallic plate if disturbed from it’s equilibrium position and left, oscillates
freely for a longer time. But when the electromagnet is switched on, the oscillation of the plate is damped and stops
quickly. It is due to eddy current developed in the plate.

If the same plate with slots cut in it is made to oscillate in the magnetic

field, the damping effect is reduced as eddy current is reduced. This is because magnetic moment of induced
current depends upon area of the plate.
 APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENTS:-
(a)Electro-magnetic damping:- In galvanometer , the coil is wound over a non magnetic metallic frame .
When current passes through the coil , the coil is deflected . As the coil is deflected, eddy current is produced in the
frame opposes the motion of the coil . Therefore the coil attains its equilibrium almost instantly . The motion of the
coil is damped . It is called as electromagnetic damping and it makes galvanometer dead beat type.
(b) Induction furnace:- A high frequency alternating current is passed through a coil which surrounds the
metals . The large eddy currents produced in metals causes sufficient heat to melt them to prepare alloys.
(c) Magnetic brakes:- Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electrically powered trains
.When the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train. As
there are no mechanical linkages , the braking effect is smooth.
(d) Electric power meters:- The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter rotates due to eddy currents .
Electric currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in the coil.
Undesirable effects produced by eddy currents:-
(i) Electrical energy is dissipated as heat.
(ii) The excessive heating may break insulation in the appliances and reduce their life.
Minimisation of eddy currents:-

(i) Instead of taking a single metal block as core , we are using laminated core. Laminated core consists of thin
sheets, each sheet is electrically insulated from other by insulating material like varnish or lacquer

(ii) The plane of lamination must be parallel to the direction of magnetic field.

SELF INDUCTION:-
It is the phenomenon in which an e.m.f. is induced in a coil when changing current passes through it.

The induced e.m.f. is called as self induced e.m.f. or back e.m.f..

Suppose I= strength of current flowing through a coil at any instant.

 = magnetic flux linking with the coil at that time.

  I
Or ,  = L I

Where L= coefficient of self induction or self inductance of the coil.

 Definition of L:-
If I= 1, then L=

Thus the coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux

linking with the coil when unit current passes through it.

E.M.F. induced in the coil:-

d B d d I
 =− = − − (L I ) = − L
dt dt dt

If dI/dt= 1,then L=-

Thus the coefficient of self induction is numerically equal to the e.m.f. induced in the coil when current
through the coil changes at the unit rate.

Unit of self inductance:-

S.I.:- henry (H)

1V
1H =
1 A s −1

Self inductance of a coil is said to be one henry if one volt of e.m.f. is induced in the coil when current
changes at the rate of 1 ampere/second in it.

Dimensions:-

 M 1 L 2T −3 A−1 
 self induc tan ce  = =  M 1L 2T −2 A−2 
 A T 
1 −1

SELF INDUCTANCE OF A LONG SOLENOID:-

Let N= total no. of turns in the solenoid

A = area of cross section of the solenoid

l= length of solenoid

The magnetic field inside the solenoid is

B = 0 n i ..........(i )

Where n= N/l = no. of turns per unit length of the solenoid

The magnetic flux linking with each turn of the solenoid

 = B A =  0 n i A ...........(ii)
/

Total magnetic flux linking with the solenoid

N  N 2A i
 = N  / = N 0 n i A = N 0 i A= 0 ..............(iii)
l l

But,  = L i .........(iv)
 From equations (iii) and (iv),

0 N 2 A
L= ..........(v)
l

If a ferromagnetic substance of relative permeability

r ,then

0  r N 2 A
L= ............(vi)
l
MUTUAL INDUCTION:-
It is the phenomenon in which an e.m.f. is induced in one coil when changing current passes through the
neighbouring coil.

To understand it , let us take two coils primary P and secondary S.P is connected to a cell through a key K.
S is connected to a sensitive galvanometer G.

On pressing K, current in P increases from zero to maximum value. During this time, current in P is
increasing. Therefore , magnetic flux linked with P is increasing. As S is very close to P ,magnetic flux through S also
increases. An e.m.f. is induced in S. The induced current oppose increase in current in P.

Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance of two coils:-

Let I= current flowing through primary coil
= magnetic flux linking with secondary coil.
 I
If I=1, then Or ,  = M I
M =
The coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to magnetic flux linking with one coil
when unit current flows through neighbouring coil.
Induced e.m.f. in the neighbouring coil,
d d d I
 =− = − (M I ) = − M
dt dt dt
Definition of mutual inductance in terms of induced e.m.f.:-

If dI/dt = 1, then M=-

The coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the e.m.f. induced in one coil current
through neighbouring coil changes at unit rate.
S.I. unit of M:-

henry(H)
 The coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is said to be one henry, if an e.m.f. of one volt is induced in
one coil when current in the neighbouring coil changes at the rate of 1 ampere/second.

Dimension:-

 Mutual induc tance =  M 1

L2 T −2
A −2 

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG COAXIAL SOLENOIDS:-

The magnetic field inside the solenoids due to current I2 in S2

B2 = 0 n 2 I 2 ..................(i )

The magnetic flux through S1 ,

 1 = N1 B2 A ............(ii)

Where N1 = n1 l =total no. of turns in S1

But,
1 = n1 l 0 n2 I 2 A = ( 0 n1 n2 A l ) I 2 ..............(iii )

But
1 = M 12 I 2 .................(iv )

Where M12 =mutual inductance of S1 with respect to S2

From (iii) and (iv)

M 12 = 0 n1 n2 A l ...............(v)

Simillarly the magnetic field inside the solenoids due to current I1 in S1

B1 = 0 n1 I1 ..............(vi)

The magnetic flux through S2

2 = N 2 B1 A ..............(vii )

Where N2 =n2 l= total no.of turns in S2

2 = n2 l 0 n1 I1 A = ( 0 n1 n2 l A) I1 ..................(viii )

But 2
 = M I ..............(ix)
21 1

Where M21 =mutual inductance of S2 with respect to S1

M 21 = 0 n1 n2 Al.................( x)
From equations (viii) and (ix)

From equations (v) and (x)

0 N1 N 2 Al 0 N1 N 2 A
M 21 = M12 = 0 n1 n2 Al = 2
= ...............( xi )
l l
If a ferromagnetic substance of relative permeability r is used as core ,then
0  r N1 N 2 A
M 21 = M 12 = ................( xii )
l
 MAGNETIC ENERGY STORED IN A SOLENOID:-
Induced emf
𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
Power, P=𝜀𝑖 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑖
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑖
Or, 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑖

Or, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖
𝐼
𝐼 𝑖2 𝐼2
Net workdone, W=∫0 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖 =L⌈ 2 ⌉ =𝐿 2
0

𝐼2
Magnetic energy stored in the inductor, U= 𝐿 2

Magnetic Energy Density:-

𝑈
𝑢=
𝑉
𝐼2 𝜇0 𝑁2 𝐴 2
𝐿 1 𝐵
= =
𝑉 2
2 𝑙
𝐴𝑙
(𝜇 0𝑛)
0

1 𝑁 2 𝐵0 2 𝐵0 2
= 𝜇0 ( ) =
2 𝑙 2 𝜇0 𝑛 2𝜇0

A.C. GENERATOR:-
An a.c. generator is machine which produces alternating current energy from mechanical energy.

Principle:- It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, i.e., whenever magnetic flux linking with
a coil changes ,an e.m.f. is induced in it.

Construction:- It consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic field. The coil or armature is mechanically rotated in the uniform magnetic field by
some external means. The ends of coil are connected to an external circuit by means of slip rings and brushes.

Theory and working:-

Suppose the coil is rotated with a constant angular speed .

Let = angle between the magnetic field vector and the area vector at any instant.

The magnetic flux linking with the coil at this instant is

 = B  A = B A cos  =B A cos  t ................(i)

The induced e.m.f.

d d d
 =− = − ( B A cos  t ) = − B A ( cos  t )
dt dt dt
, = − B A (− sin  t ) = B A  sin  t ...............(ii)

Or ,  = N B A  sin  t
=  0 sin  t .....................(iii )

If the coil has N no. of turns,

Where
 0 = NBA = peak value of e.m.f.

If the coil continues to rotate , the same cycle repeats again and again .

The e.m.f. induced is called as alternating e.m.f. .