MORPHOLOGICAL IMAGE

PROCESSING
DIP-2023
WHAT IS MORPHOLOGICAL IMAGE PROCESSING

The word morphology commonly denotes a branch

of biology that deals with the form and structure of
animals and plants. We use the same word here in
the context of mathematical morphology as a tool
for extracting image components that are useful in
the representation and description of region shape,
such as boundaries, skeletons, and the convex hull.
We are interested also in morphological techniques
for pre- or postprocessing, such as morphological
filtering, thinning, and pruning.
 Morphological image processing
► The language of mathematical morphology is set theory. As such, morphology offers
a unified and powerful approach to numerous image processing problems.
► Whenworking with images, sets in mathematical morphology represent objects in those
images.
► In binary images, the sets in question are members of the 2-D integer space
Z2, where each element of a set is a tuple (2-D vector) whose coordinates are the
coordinates of an object (typically foreground) pixel in the image.
► Grayscale digital images can be represented as sets whose components are in Z3. In this case,
two components of each element of the set refer to the coordinates of a pixel, and the
third corresponds to its discrete intensity value.
► Sets in higher dimensional spaces can contain other image attributes, such as color and time-
varying components.
MORPHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF SETS. IN IMAGE PROCESSING,

WE USE MORPHOLOGY WITH TWO TYPES OF SETS OF PIXELS: OBJECTS AND

STRUCTURING ELEMENTS (SE’S).

Typically, objects are defined as sets of foreground pixels. Structuring elements can be
specified in terms of both foreground and background pixels.

In addition, structuring elements sometimes contain so-called “don’t care” elements, denoted by 𝑋,
signifying that the value of that particular element in the SE does not matter.

In this sense, the value can be ignored, or it can be made to fit a desired value in the evaluation of
an expression; for example, it might take on the value of a pixel in an image in applications in
which value matching is the objective.
 Z2 and Z3
► set in mathematic morphology represent objects in an image
▪ binary image (0 = white, 1 = black) : the element of the set is the coordinates (x,y) of pixel
belong to the object  Z2

► gray-scaled image : the element of the set is the coordinates (x,y) of pixel belong to the
object and the gray levels  Z3

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 Basic Set Theory

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Example of object background etc.
The concept of set reflection and translation are used extensively in
morphology in connection with structuring elements. The reflection of
a set (structuring element) B about its origin, denoted by 𝐵෠

That is, if B is a set of points in 2-D, then 𝐵෠ is the set of points

in B whose (x,y) coordinates have been replaced by (−x,−y).
Translation operation
Example of Morphological operation

Fig shows a simple binary image, I, consisting of an object (set)

A, shown shaded, and a 3 × 3 SE whose elements are all 1’s
(foreground pixels). The background pixels (0’s) are shown in
white.

(1) form a new image, of the same size as I, consisting only of background values initially,
(2) translate (slide) B over image I,
(3) at each increment of translation, if B is completely contained in A, mark the location of the origin of B as a foreground
pixel in the new image; otherwise, leave it as a background point.
 We begin the discussion of morphology by studying two

Erosion and dilation

operations: erosion and dilation. These operations are
fundamental to morphological processing. In fact, many of the
morphological algorithms discussed in this chapter are based on
these two primitive operations.

An alternate definition
 Preliminaries (1)

► Reflection

The reflection of a set B, denoted B, is defined as

B = {w | w = −b, for b  B}

► Translation

The translation of a set B by point z = ( z1 , z2 ), denoted ( B) Z ,

is defined as
( B) Z = {c | c = b + z , for b  B}

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 Example: Reflection and Translation

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 Preliminaries (2)

► Structure elements (SE)

Small sets or sub-images used to probe an image under study for

properties of interest

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 Examples: Structuring Elements (1)

origin

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 Examples: Structuring Elements (2)
Accommodate the
entire structuring
elements when its Origin of B visits
origin is on the every element of A
border of the
original set A
At each location of
the origin of B, if B
is completely
contained in A,
then the location is
a member of the
new set, otherwise
it is not a member
of the new set.

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 Structuring Elements, Hits & Fits

B Structuring Element

Fit: All on pixels in the

structuring element cover on
pixels in the image
A Hit: Any on pixel in the
C structuring element covers an
on pixel in the image

All morphological processing operations are based on these

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 Erosion

With A and B as sets in Z 2 , the erosion of A by B, denoted A B,

defined
A B =  z | ( B) Z  A

The set of all points z such that B, translated by z , is contained by A.

A B =  z | ( B) Z  A = 
c

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 Example
of
Erosion

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 Erosion Example
Original Image Processed Image With Eroded Pixels

11/25/2024 Structuring Element 27

 Erosion Example
Original Image Processed Image

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 Erosion

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 Erosion Example

Original image Erosion by 3*3 Erosion by 5*5

square structuring square structuring
element element

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Watch out: In these examples a 1 refers to a black pixel!

 Erosion Example

After erosion
Original
with a disc of
image
radius 10

After erosion After erosion

with a disc of with a disc of
radius 5 radius 20

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 Dilation

2
With A and B as sets in Z , the dilation of A by B,
denoted A  B, is defined as

 ()
A  B= z | B  A  
z

The set of all displacements z, the translated B and A
overlap by at least one element.

 ()
A  B = z |  B  A  A
 z  
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 Examples of Dilation

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 Dilation Example
Original Image Processed Image

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 Dilation Example
Original Image Processed Image With Dilated Pixels

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 Dilation

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 Dilation Example

Original image Dilation by 3*3 Dilation by 5*5

square structuring square structuring
element element

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Watch out: In these examples a 1 refers to a black pixel!

 Examples of Dilation

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 Duality

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11/25/2024
Dilation 40
 Duality

► Erosion and dilation are duals of each other with respect to set complementation
and reflection

( A − B) = A B
c c

and
( A  B) = Ac − B
c

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 Duality

► Erosion and dilation are duals of each other with respect to set complementation
and reflection

( A − B) =  z | ( B ) Z  A
c c

=  z | ( B ) Z  A = 
c c

=  z | ( B ) Z  Ac  
= Ac  B

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 Duality

► Erosion and dilation are duals of each other with respect to set complementation
and reflection

 ( )  A  
c
( A  B) = z| B
c

=  z | ( B )  A = 
c
Z

= Ac − B

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 Opening and Closing

► Opening generally smoothes the contour of an object, breaks narrow isthmuses,

and eliminates thin protrusions

► Closing tends to smooth sections of contours but it generates fuses narrow

breaks and long thin gulfs, eliminates small holes, and fills gaps in the contour

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 Opening and Closing

The opening of set A by structuring element B,

denoted A B, is defined as
A B = ( A − B)  B

The closing of set A by structuring element B,

denoted A B, is defined as
A B = ( A  B) − B

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 Opening

The opening of set A by structuring element B,

denoted A B, is defined as
A B= ( B ) | ( B )
Z Z
 A

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 Opening Example

Original
Image

Image
After
Opening
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 Closing Example

Original
Image

Image
After
Closing
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 Useful: Opening & Closing

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 Duality of Opening and Closing

► Opening and closing are duals of each other with respect to set
complementation and reflection

ˆ
( A • B) = ( A  B) c c

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 The Properties of Opening and Closing

► Properties of Opening
(a) A B is a subset (subimage) of A
(b) if C is a subset of D, then C B is a subset of D B
(c) ( A B) B = A B
► Properties of Closing

(a) A is subset (subimage) of A B

(b) If C is a subset of D, then C B is a subset of D B
(c) ( A B) B = A B
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 The Hit-or-Miss
Transformation

if B denotes the set composed of

D and its background,the match
(or set of matches) of B in A,
denoted A  B,
A * B = ( A − D )   Ac − (W − D ) 

B = ( B1 , B2 )
B1 : object
B2 : background
A  B = ( A − B1 )  ( Ac − B2 )
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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (1)

► Boundary Extraction
The boundary of a set A, can be obtained by first eroding A by B and then
performing the set difference between A and its erosion.

 ( A) = A − ( A − B )

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 Example 1

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 Example 2

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (2)

► Hole Filling
A hole may be defined as a background region surrounded by a connected
border of foreground pixels.

Let A denote a set whose elements are 8-connected boundaries, each boundary
enclosing a background region (i.e., a hole). Given a point in each hole, the
objective is to fill all the holes with 1s.

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (2)

► Hole Filling
1. Forming an array X0 of 0s (the same size as the array containing A), except
the locations in X0 corresponding to the given point in each hole, which we set
to 1.

2. Xk = (Xk-1 + B) Ac 
k=1,2,3,…

Stop the iteration if Xk = Xk-1

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 Example

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (3)

► Extraction of Connected Components

Central to many automated image analysis applications.

Let A be a set containing one or more connected components, and form an

array X0 (of the same size as the array containing A) whose elements are 0s,
except at each location known to correspond to a point in each connected
component in A, which is set to 1.

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (3)

► Extraction of Connected Components

Central to many automated image analysis applications.

X k = ( X k −1 + B )  A
B : structuring element

until X k = X k -1

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (4)

► Convex Hull
A set A is said to be convex if the straight line segment joining any two points
in A lies entirely within A.

The convex hull H or of an arbitrary set S is the smallest convex set containing
S.

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (4)

► Convex Hull
Let B i , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, represent the four structuring elements.
The procedure consists of implementing the equation:
X ki = ( X k −1 * B i )  A
i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and k = 1, 2, 3,...
with X 0i = A.
When the procedure converges, or X ki = X ki −1 , let D i = X ki ,
the convex hull of A is
4
C ( A) =  D i
i =1

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (5)

► Thinning
The thinning of a set A by a structuring element B, defined

A  B = A − ( A * B)
= A  ( A * B) c

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (5)

► A more useful expression for thinning A symmetrically is based on a sequence of

structuring elements:

  
B = B1
, B 2
, B 3
,..., B n

where B i is a rotated version of B i -1

The thinning of A by a sequence of structuring element {B}

A  {B} = ((...(( A  B1 )  B 2 )...)  B n )

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (6)

► Thickening:

The thickening is defined by the expression

A B = A  ( A* B)

The thickening of A by a sequence of structuring element {B}

A {B} = ((...(( A B1 ) B 2 )...) Bn )

In practice, the usual procedure is to thin the background of the set

and then complement the result.

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (6)

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (7)

► Skeletons

A skeleton, S ( A) of a set A has the following properties

a. if z is a point of S ( A) and ( D ) z is the largest disk
centered at z and contained in A, one cannot find a
larger disk containing ( D ) z and included in A.
The disk ( D ) z is called a maximum disk.
b. The disk ( D ) z touches the boundary of A at two or
more different places.

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (7)

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (7)

The skeleton of A can be expressed in terms of

erosion and openings.
K
S ( A) =  S k ( A)
k =0

with K = max{k | A − kB  };

S k ( A) = ( A − kB ) − ( A − kB ) B
where B is a structuring element, and
( A − kB ) = ((..(( A − B ) − B ) − ...) − B )
k successive erosions of A.
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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (7)

A can be reconstructed from the subsets by using

K
A =  ( S k ( A)  kB )
k =0

where S k ( A)  kB denotes k successive dilations of A.

( S k ( A)  kB ) = ((...(( S k ( A)  B )  B )...  B )

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (8)

► Pruning

a. Thinning and skeletonizing tend to leave parasitic components

b. Pruning methods are essential complement to thinning and
skeletonizing procedures

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 Pruning:
Example
X 1 = A  {B}

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 Pruning:
Example
X 2 =  ( X1 * Bk )
8

k =1

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 Pruning:
Example

X3 = ( X2  H )  A
H : 3  3 structuring element

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 Pruning:
Example

X 4 = X1  X 3

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 Pruning:
Example

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 Some Basic Morphological Algorithms (9)

► Morphological Reconstruction

It involves two images and a structuring element

a. One image contains the starting points for the
transformation (The image is called marker)
b. Another image (mask) constrains the transformation
c. The structuring element is used to define connectivity

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 Morphological Reconstruction: Geodesic Dilation

Let F denote the marker image and G the mask image,

F  G. The geodesic dilation of size 1 of the marker image
with respect to the mask, denoted by DG(1) ( F ), is defined as
DG(1) ( F ) = ( F  B )  G

The geodesic dilation of size n of the marker image F

with respect to G , denoted by DG( n ) ( F ), is defined as
DG( n ) ( F ) = DG(1) ( F ) 
 G (F )
D ( n −1)

with DG(0) ( F ) = F .
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 Morphological Reconstruction: Geodesic Erosion

Let F denote the marker image and G the mask image.

The geodesic erosion of size 1 of the marker image with
respect to the mask, denoted by EG(1) ( F ), is defined as
EG(1) ( F ) = ( F − B )  G

The geodesic erosion of size n of the marker image F

with respect to G , denoted by EG( n ) ( F ), is defined as
EG( n ) ( F ) = EG(1) ( F ) 
 G (F )
E ( n −1)

with EG(0) ( F ) = F .
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 Morphological Reconstruction by Dilation

Morphological reconstruction by dialtion of a mask image

G from a marker image F , denoted RGD ( F ), is defined as
the geodesic dilation of F with respect to G , iterated until
stability is achieved; that is,

RGD ( F ) = DG( k ) ( F )

with k such that DG( k ) ( F ) = DG( k −1) ( F ).

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 Morphological Reconstruction by Erosion

Morphological reconstruction by erosion of a mask image

G from a marker image F , denoted RGE ( F ), is defined as
the geodesic erosion of F with respect to G , iterated until
stability is achieved; that is,

RGE ( F ) = EG( k ) ( F )

with k such that EG( k ) ( F ) = EG( k −1) ( F ).

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 Opening by Reconstruction

The opening by reconstruction of size n of an image F is

defined as the reconstruction by dilation of F from the
erosion of size n of F ; that is

( F − nB ) 
OR( n ) ( F ) = RFD  

where ( F − nB ) indicates n erosions of F by B.

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 Filling Holes

Let I ( x, y ) denote a binary image and suppose that we

form a marker image F that is 0 everywhere, except at
the image border, where it is set to 1- I ; that is

1 − I ( x, y ) if ( x, y ) is on the border of I
F ( x, y ) = 
 0 otherwise
then
c
H =
 R (F )
D
Ic

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 SE : 3  3 1s.

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 c
H =
 R (F )
D
Ic 
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 Border Clearing
It can be used to screen images so that only complete objects
remain for further processing; it can be used as a singal that
partial objects are present in the field of view.

The original image is used as the mask and the following

marker image:
 I ( x, y ) if ( x, y ) is on the border of I
F ( x, y ) = 
 0 otherwise
X = I − RID ( F )

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 Summary (1)

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 Summary (2)

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 Gray-Scale Morphology

f ( x, y ) : gray-scale image
b( x, y ): structuring element

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 Gray-Scale Morphology: Erosion and Dilation by Flat
Structuring

f − b  ( x, y ) = min  f ( x + s, y + t )
( s ,t )b

f  b  ( x, y ) = max  f ( x − s, y − t )
( s ,t )b

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 Gray-Scale Morphology: Erosion and Dilation by Nonflat
Structuring

f − bN  ( x, y ) = min  f ( x + s, y + t ) − bN ( s, t )
( s ,t )b

f  bN  ( x, y ) = max  f ( x − s, y − t ) + bN ( s, t )
( s ,t )b

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 Duality: Erosion and Dilation

 

f −b  ( x, y ) =  f  b  ( x, y )
c c

 

where f c
= − f ( x, y ) and b = b( − x, − y )
 

f −b  = f b
c c

 

( f  b) = ( f − b)
c c

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 Opening and Closing

f b = ( f − b)  b
f • b = ( f  b) − b

 
(f b) = f b=−f
c c
b
 
(f b) = f b=−f b
c c

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 Properties of Gray-scale Opening

(a) f bf
(b) if f1f 2 , then ( f1 b )  ( f2 b )
(c ) (f b) b = f b

where er denotes e is a subset of r and also

e( x, y )  r ( x, y ).

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 Properties of Gray-scale Closing

(a) f f b
(b) if f1f 2 , then ( f1 b )  ( f 2 b )
(c ) (f b) b = f b

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 Morphological Smoothing

► Opening suppresses bright details smaller than the specified SE, and closing
suppresses dark details.

► Opening and closing are used often in combination as morphological filters for
image smoothing and noise removal.

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 Morphological Smoothing

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 Morphological Gradient

► Dilation and erosion can be used in combination with image subtraction to

obtain the morphological gradient of an image, denoted by g,

g = ( f  b) − ( f − b)
► The edges are enhanced and the contribution of the homogeneous areas are
suppressed, thus producing a “derivative-like” (gradient) effect.

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 Morphological Gradient

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 Top-hat and Bottom-hat Transformations

► The top-hat transformation of a grayscale image f is defined as f minus its

opening:

That ( f ) = f − ( f b)
► The bottom-hat transformation of a grayscale image f is defined as its closing
minus f:

Bhat ( f ) = ( f • b) − f

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 Top-hat and Bottom-hat Transformations

► One of the principal applications of these transformations is in removing objects

from an image by using structuring element in the opening or closing operation

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 Example of Using Top-hat Transformation in Segmentation

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 Granulometry

► Granulometry deals with determining the size of distribution of particles in an

image

► Opening operations of a particular size should have the most effect on regions
of the input image that contain particles of similar size

► For each opening, the sum (surface area) of the pixel values in the opening is
computed

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 Example

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 Textual Segmentation

► Segmentation: the process of subdividing an image into regions.

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 Textual Segmentation

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 Gray-Scale Morphological Reconstruction (1)

► Let f and g denote the marker and mask image with the same size, respectively
and f ≤ g.
The geodesic dilation of size 1 of f with respect to g is defined as

Dg(1) ( f ) = ( f  g )  g
where  denotes the point-wise minimum operator.
The geodesic dilation of size n of f with respect to g is defined as

Dg( n ) ( f ) = Dg(1)  D
 g
( n −1)
( f ) 
 with Dg ( f ) = f
(0)

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 Gray-Scale Morphological Reconstruction (2)

► The geodesic erosion of size 1 of f with respect to g is defined as

Eg(1) ( f ) = ( f − g )  g
where  denotes the point-wise maximum operator.

The geodesic erosion of size n of f with respect to g is defined as

Eg( n ) ( f ) = Eg(1)  E
 g
( n −1)
( f ) 
 with E g ( f ) = f
(0)

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 Gray-Scale Morphological Reconstruction (3)

► The morphological reconstruction by dilation of a gray-scale mask image g by a

gray-scale marker image f, is defined as the geodesic dilation of f with respect to
g, iterated until stability is reached, that is,

RgD ( f ) = Dg( k ) ( f
)
with k such that Dg( k ) ( f ) = Dg( k +1) ( f )
The morphological reconstruction by erosion of g by f is defined as

RgE ( f ) = E g( k ) ( f )
with k such that Eg( k ) ( f ) = Eg( k +1) ( f )
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 Gray-Scale Morphological Reconstruction (4)

► The opening by reconstruction of size n of an image f is defined as the

reconstruction by dilation of f from the erosion of size n of f; that is,

f  f − nb 
OR( n ) ( f ) = R D
The closing by reconstruction of size n of an image f is defined as the
reconstruction by erosion of f from the dilation of size n of f; that is,

CR( n ) ( f ) = R Ef  f  nb 
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 Steps in the Example

1. Opening by reconstruction of the original image using a horizontal line of size 1x71 pixels in
the erosion operation

f  f − nb 
OR( n ) ( f ) = R D

2. Subtract the opening by reconstruction from original image

f ' = f − OR( n ) ( f )
3. Opening by reconstruction of the f’ using a vertical line of size 11x1 pixels

f  f '− nb '
f 1 = OR( n ) ( f ') = R D
4. Dilate f1 with a line SE of size 1x21, get f2.

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 Steps in the Example

5. Calculate the minimum between the dilated image f2 and and f’, get f3.

6. By using f3 as a marker and the dilated image f2 as the mask,

RD = f 2 ( f 3)
(k )
f 2 ( f 3) D
with k such that D (f k2) ( f 3) = D (f k2+1) ( f 3)

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