sensors

Review
Intelligent Warehouse in Industry 4.0—Systematic
Literature Review
Agnieszka A. Tubis * and Juni Rohman

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The development of Industry 4.0 (I4.0) and the digitization and automation of manufac-
turing processes have created a demand for designing smart warehouses to support manufacturing
processes. Warehousing is one of the fundamental processes in the supply chain, and is responsible
for handling inventory. Efficient execution of warehouse operations often determines the effective-
ness of realized goods flows. Therefore, digitization and its use in exchanging information between
partners, especially real-time inventory levels, is critical. For this reason, the digital solutions of
Industry 4.0 have quickly found application in internal logistics processes and enabled the design
of smart warehouses, also known as Warehouse 4.0. The purpose of this article is to present the
results of the conducted review of publications on the design and operation of warehouses using the
concepts of Industry 4.0. A total of 249 documents from the last 5 years were accepted for analysis.
Publications were searched for in the Web of Science database using the PRISMA method. The article
presents in detail the research methodology and the results of the biometric analysis. Based on the
results, a two-level classification framework was proposed, which includes 10 primary categories
and 24 subcategories. Each of the distinguished categories was characterized based on the analyzed
publications. It should be noted that in most of these studies, the authors’ attention primarily focused
on the implementation of (1) Industry 4.0 technological solutions, such as IoT, augmented reality,
RFID, visual technology, and other emerging technologies; and (2) autonomous and automated
vehicles in warehouse operations processes. Critical analysis of the literature also allowed us to
identify the current research gaps, which will be the subject of further research by the authors.
Citation: Tubis, A.A.; Rohman, J.
Intelligent Warehouse in Industry
Keywords: Warehouse 4.0; Industry 4.0; literature review; PRISMA; classification framework
4.0—Systematic Literature Review.
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105. https://
doi.org/10.3390/s23084105

Academic Editors: Joaquin 1. Introduction

Garcia-Alfaro and Pantaleone
The main goal of any supply chain management is to achieve coordination and link-
Nespoli
ages between all processes and cooperating entities [1]. The impact of information exchange
Received: 20 March 2023 on the development of supply chains has become more significant with advances in Infor-
Revised: 16 April 2023 mation Technology (IT) [1]. Lotfi et al. [2] note explicitly that with advances in information
Accepted: 18 April 2023 technology, different network structures can be modeled to make the coordination within
Published: 19 April 2023 supply chain partners even closer. In addition, increasing the amount and scope of informa-
tion exchanged reduces uncertainty. As a result, customers receive a higher quality product
at a lower cost in a shorter period. A significant trend aimed at improving information
flows in supply chains is the digital transformation observed for several years. In the
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
initial phase of the transformation, digitization was equated with an electronic version of a
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
document or sound [3]. However, the process is now seen from a broader perspective and is
This article is an open access article
identified with the various sociotechnical phenomena and processes of adopting and using
distributed under the terms and
digital technologies in a broader individual, organizational, and societal context [4]. Indeed,
conditions of the Creative Commons
digitization introduces changes in supply chain operations that affect equally [5] (1) the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
organization’s technical capabilities and technological infrastructure, (2) the organization’s
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
strategies and directions, (3) the potential of the human factor, and (4) the integration

Sensors 2023, 23, 4105. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23084105 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 2 of 28

of all stakeholders around the organization. Digitization also supports the integration
of management structures [6] and increases the transparency and traceability of supply
chain processes [7]. Therefore, its implementation is usually focused mainly on the use
of multiple techniques that monitor real-time items, reduce the idle time in production,
visualize a smart interconnected network, make more efficient use of resources, optimize
supply chain inventories to enable supplier risk assessment, and provide excellent visibility
along the supply chain [8].
Digitization of logistics processes enables companies to monitor real-time material
flows and handle units better. However, the application of new technologies in logistics
should be based on the following four principles [9]:
• Decision support and decision-making—this refers to the potential of artificial intelli-
gence and big data analysis to automate decision-making processes or support human
decisions using a data-based approach;
• Identification and interconnectivity—this refers to IoT (Internet of Things) technolo-
gies and intelligent sensors that are able to unambiguously identify products and
materials and improve product tracking inside and outside companies, including
intercommunication;
• Information flow—this refers to the integration of IT systems (vertical integration),
which also uses cloud computing to provide access to data from multiple sources in
real time to better respond to real-time production planning;
• Automation, robotics, and new production technologies—introduction of new equip-
ment and intelligent transportation systems capable of replacing or duplicating human
labor in manual activities.
Integrating physical logistics processes with digital data and increasing the visibility
of each link throughout the supply chain are forcing the transformation from traditional to
digital supply chains [8]. However, implementing Industry 4.0 (I4.0) solutions in manufac-
turing processes has naturally accelerated the digital transformation, primarily in internal
logistics processes, particularly in the material and finished goods warehouse handling
processes. This is because these processes significantly affect the efficiency [10] and con-
tinuity of manufacturing processes and are of dominant importance for the operation of
automated production [1].
Warehousing is one of the fundamental processes implemented in supply chain man-
agement. According to [1], it is an essential part of the integration of all operations in
supply chains. It is considered an essential part of product flows due to its involvement in
achieving optimum and continuous operation of the production and distribution processes.
According to [11], warehousing has been playing a new role for several years and can
make all chain processes better integrated, not only in storing goods but also in providing
better service visibility. Through this function, it becomes possible to avoid overstocking
throughout the supply chain. Therefore, digitization and its use in exchanging information
between partners, especially real-time inventory levels, is critical. For this reason, the digital
solutions of Industry 4.0 have quickly found their way into internal logistics processes
and enabled the design of intelligent warehouses, also known as Warehouse 4.0. These
warehouses are designed and function following the basic principles of I4.0, which include,
in particular, interoperability, virtualization, decentralization, real time, service orientation,
modularity, and reconfigurability [12]. These warehouses address the current need to
effectively manage all warehouse processes and design a dynamic warehouse facility that
is easily accessible [13].
Changes related to the digitization and automation of warehouse operations and
the changing role of the warehouse in effective supply chain management increase the
demand for research in this area. This is confirmed by the growing number of recent
publications related to this topic. This observed upward trend was also confirmed in the
studies presented in this article (in Section 3). For this reason, there is a need to identify
the dominant research areas related to the design and operation of Warehouse 4.0 and to
organize (classify) the increasing number of publications.
 Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 29

Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 dominant research areas related to the design and operation of Warehouse 4.0 and to or-
3 of 28
ganize (classify) the increasing number of publications.
Therefore, it is reasonable to conduct a literature review aimed at finding answers to
the following research questions:
Therefore, it is reasonable to conduct a literature review aimed at finding answers to
• following
the Q1: What are thequestions:
research research directions related to the adaptation of warehouses to the
needs of Industry 4.0 and digital supply chains over the last five years (2018–2022)?
•• Q1: Q2:What
Which areresearch
the research
areasdirections relatedinteresting
are particularly to the adaptation of warehouses
to the scientific to the
community
needs of Industry 4.0 and digital supply chains over the last five years
(high publication rate), and which are still in the early stages of development or less (2018–2022)?
• Q2: Which research areas are particularly interesting to the scientific community (high
popular?
• publication
Q3: Is thererate), and which
a research gap arethatstill in thebeearly
should stages particularly
analyzed, of development or less popular?
in connection with
• Q3: Is there a research gap that should be
the digitization and automation of warehouse processes? analyzed, particularly in connection with
the digitization and automation of warehouse processes?
Therefore, the article aims to present the results of the literature review from 2018–
Therefore,
2022, which was thethe
article
basisaims to present the
for identifying resultsareas
research of therelated
literature review from4.0
to Warehouse 2018–2022,
and de-
which was the basis for identifying research areas related to Warehouse
fining the current research gap. The presented literature review, in addition to the answers 4.0 and defining
the
to current research
the research gap. The
questions presented
posed above,literature
makes anreview, in addition
essential scientifictocontribution
the answersin tothe
the
research
form of: questions posed above, makes an essential scientific contribution in the form of:
•• Development
Developmentof ofaatwo-level
two-level classification
classification framework
framework for for research
research from
from the
the analyzed
analyzed
area according to the assumptions of the
area according to the assumptions of the concept map; concept map;
•• Conducting
Conductingthe thequalification
qualification procedure
procedure following
following the
the adopted distribution criteria
adopted distribution criteria
based on the results of the literature research covering 220 articles from
based on the results of the literature research covering 220 articles from the last five the last five
years;
years;
•• Detailed
Detailedcharacteristics
characteristicsofof research
research trends
trendsdescribed in articles
described belonging
in articles to the
belonging to10 high-
the 10
lighted primary categories.
highlighted primary categories.
The
Thestructure
structureofofthe
thearticle
articleisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure 1.1.

Figure 1. Structure of the article.

Figure 1. Structure of the article.

2.2.Methodology
Methodology
Thechoice
The choiceof ofmethod
methodfor forimplementing
implementing the literature review
review depends
depends on on the
theresearch
research
objectivesset
objectives setatatthe
theinitial
initialstage.
stage. The
The systematic
systematic literature review method
method waswas chosen
chosenforfor
theresearch
the researchdue
dueto tothe
theresearch
research questions
questions that
that were
were posed in the introduction
introduction and and the
the
relatedpurpose
related purposeofofthethearticle.
article.According
According to to the research presented in [14],
[14], this
this is
is the
themost
most
effective method of logical exploration
effective method of logical exploration of the of the current state of knowledge and development
knowledge and development
ofofexisting
existingscientific
scientificknowledge
knowledgeon ona agiven
giventopic
topicThe
Thechoice
choicewas
wasalso
alsodetermined
determinedbecause
becauseit
is considered the gold standard among review methods [15]. Many authors recommend
this method to identify, collect, and classify related studies in a more structured, nuanced,
and reproducible manner (among others [16]). Thanks to its application, the conducted
 Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 29

Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 it is considered the gold standard among review methods [15]. Many authors recommend 4 of 28
this method to identify, collect, and classify related studies in a more structured, nuanced,
and reproducible manner (among others [16]). Thanks to its application, the conducted
researchprocedure
research procedurewill
willidentify
identifyall
allempirical
empiricalevidence
evidencethat
thatfits
fitsthe
the prespecified
prespecified inclusion
inclusion
criteriatotoanswer
criteria answeraaparticular
particularresearch
researchquestion
question[17].
[17].
Theentire
The entireresearch
researchprocedure
procedurecarried
carriedout
outfor
forthe
thearticle
article included
included five
five stages
stages of
of the
the
investigation. A detailed
investigation. detailedcharacterization
characterizationofofthe steps
the taken
steps in each
taken stage
in each is shown
stage in Fig-
is shown in
ure 2. 2.
Figure

Figure 2. Stages of the research procedure.

Figure 2. Stages of the research procedure.

Theresearch
The researchprocedure
procedureused
usedthe
thePreferred
PreferredReporting
ReportingItems
Itemsfor
forSystematic
Systematic Reviews
Reviews
and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and the Four-Phase Flow Diagram, which allowsto
and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and the Four-Phase Flow Diagram, which allows us uscre-
to
ate a systematic and unambiguous review with established methods for identification,
create a systematic and unambiguous review with established methods for identification,
selection,and
selection, andevaluation
evaluation[18].
[18].The
Theentire
entireprocedure
procedure consists
consists of
of four
four stages:
stages: identification,
identification,
screening, qualification, and inclusion. The results of the procedure carried
screening, qualification, and inclusion. The results of the procedure carried out areout are shown
shown
ininFigure
Figure3.3.

2.1. Identification
The database chosen for the study was the Web of Science, the most significant
technical research repository typically used in literature reviews [19]. This database was also
chosen because of the high quality of the documents that are recorded in it. Identification
of publications was carried out through three independent searches that included the
following sets of keywords:
• “warehouse” AND “industry 4.0”;
• “intelligent warehouse”;
• “warehouse 4.0”.
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 5 of 28
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 29

Figure 3. PRISMA—Flow diagram of the systematic selection literature in the analyzed research
Figure 3. PRISMA—Flow diagram of the systematic selection literature in the analyzed research area.
area.
An analysis of review articles preceded the selection of the keywords used (among
2.1. Identification
others [20–22]), which identified the most commonly used terms for warehouses designed
The database
and operated followingchosenthefor the study
Industry 4.0was the Web
concept. Theofkeywords
Science, the most
were significant
searched tech-
under
nical research
“Topic”, repository
which includes typically
title, abstract,used in literature
author’s keywords, reviews [19]. This database
and Keywords Plus. was also
chosen
Afterbecause of stage
this first the high quality
of the of themethod,
PRISMA documents 336that are recorded
documents werein it. Identification
selected for the
of publications
screening stage. was carried out through three independent searches that included the fol-
lowing sets of keywords:
2.2. Screening
• “warehouse” AND “industry 4.0”;
• In“intelligent
the second stage, the screening was carried out according to the adopted inclusion
warehouse”;
criteria
• “warehouse 4.0”. for further analysis. The first inclusion criterion was the date
of the documents
of publication of the document. The period of 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2022 was
An analysis of review articles preceded the selection of the keywords used (among
adopted as the primary qualification dates. This period was chosen because, since 2017,
others [20–22]), which identified the most commonly used terms for warehouses designed
development of the Industry 4.0 concept and related changes in the design and operation
and operated following the Industry 4.0 concept. The keywords were searched under
of warehouses have been observed. The second criterion included documents registered as
“Topic”, which includes title, abstract, author’s keywords, and Keywords Plus.
proceeding papers or articles in the study. Both of the indicated criteria made it possible to
limit theAfter this first
document basestage of the PRISMA
to publications method,
reflecting the 336 documents
latest were selected
scientific research resultsfor the
and,
at screening stage.meet the requirements of peer-reviewed publications proving the quality
the same time,
of the presented results.
2.2. Screening
2.3. Eligibility
In the second stage, the screening was carried out according to the adopted inclusion
criteria of the stage
The third documents
of thefor further analysis.
procedure aims to The first inclusion
eliminate records criterion was meet
that do not the date
theof
publication of the document. The period of 1 January 2018 to 31
substantive and qualitative requirements for the analysis being carried out. In this case,December 2022 was
adopted as the primary qualification dates. This period was chosen because,
records that occurred multiple times (and that were repeated in at least two initial searches) since 2017,
development of the Industry 4.0 concept and related changes in the design and operation
 2.3. Eligibility
The third stage of the procedure aims to eliminate records that do not meet the sub
stantive and qualitative requirements for the analysis being carried out. In this case, re
ords that occurred multiple times (and that were repeated in at least two initial searche
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 were eliminated at this stage. The second exclusion criterion was thematic6compatibili
of 28

assessed based on the published contents of the documents. In the case of five document
the content of the abstract did not confirm thematic compliance and access to the full te
were
waseliminated at this
limited. This stage.
ruled outThe
thesecond exclusion
possibility criterion was
of verifying thematiccompliance
substantive compatibilityand qual
assessed based on the published contents of the documents. In the case of five documents,
fication proceedings thoroughly.
the content of the abstract did not confirm thematic compliance and access to the full
text was limited. This ruled out the possibility of verifying substantive compliance and
2.4. Included
qualification proceedings thoroughly.
Based on the identification, inclusion, and exclusion procedure thus carried out fo
2.4. Included
publications related to magazines in Industry 4.0, 249 records were accepted for analysi
Based
In the on the identification,
subsequent stages of theinclusion,
research,and exclusion
these procedure
documents thusthe
became carried
basisout
forfor
developin
publications related to magazines in Industry 4.0, 249 records were accepted
a two-level publication qualification framework for the analyzed area. for analysis.
In the subsequent stages of the research, these documents became the basis for developing
a two-level publication qualification framework for the analyzed area.
3. Bibliometric Analysis
3. Bibliometric Analysis
A bibliometric analysis was prepared for the 249 documents accepted for analysi
ThisA study makesanalysis
bibliometric it possible to present
was prepared forthe
theresults of the conducted
249 documents accepted for literature
analysis.review
This study makes
quantitative andit qualitative
possible to present the resultsthe
sets describing of analyzed
the conducted literatureDue
documents. review in requir
to the
quantitative and qualitative sets describing the analyzed documents. Due
ments introduced for the publication period of the documents accepted for analysis, it to the require-
ments introduced
crucial to assessforthe thetrends
publication period with
associated of thethe
documents
numberaccepted for analysis,
of publications it is
appearing eac
crucial to assess the trends associated with the number of publications appearing each year
year (Figure 4). As can be seen, there is a clear upward trend in the analyzed period an
(Figure 4). As can be seen, there is a clear upward trend in the analyzed period and an
an increasing
increasing number number of publications
of publications fromtoperiod
from period period.toHowever,
period. However, while the
while the increase in increas
in number
the the number of documents
of documents in 2019inrelative
2019 relative
to 2018tohas2018
morehas more
than than doubled,
doubled, this upwardthis upwar
trend flattens out in subsequent periods. Given the continued development
trend flattens out in subsequent periods. Given the continued development of technologies of technol
gies related
related to Industry
to Industry 4.0 and the4.0 and the accompanying
accompanying digital transformation,
digital transformation, the observed upward the observe
trend will also
upward continue
trend in the
will also next fewin
continue years. The novelty
the next of our
few years. research
The novelty is the
of analysis of
our research is th
the global approach to Warehouse 4.0 also including publications that appeared
analysis of the global approach to Warehouse 4.0 also including publications that ap by the end
ofpeared
2022. Soby this
theis end
the current
of 2022.state
So of
thisknowledge as of the
is the current beginning
state of 2023, as
of knowledge which canbeginning
of the be
referred to in subsequent updates.
2023, which can be referred to in subsequent updates.

Figure 4. Publication by year.

Figure 4. Publication by year.

The number of documents published by the largest publishing houses is shown in

Figure 5. The leading publisher is IEEE, with 61 publications (including 13 articles and
48 conference papers). This is understandable, as this publishing house is a leader in
innovative technologies and engineering solutions publications. At the same time, it
publishes conference materials from leading international conferences where the latest
development trends are presented. In second place was the MDPI publishing house, with
a total number of 41 publications. This publishing house has many journals related to
modern technologies and their implementation in technical systems. For this reason, many
researchers publish their research results there due to the faster review process than in
other journals. This is important for publications on the latest technological solutions,
 tive technologies and engineering solutions publications. At the same time, it publishe
conference materials from leading international conferences where the latest developmen
trends are presented. In second place was the MDPI publishing house, with a total numbe
of 41 publications. This publishing house has many journals related to modern technolo
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 gies and their implementation in technical systems. For this reason, many 7 ofresearcher
28

publish their research results there due to the faster review process than in other journal
This is important for publications on the latest technological solutions, which new one
which newreplace.
quickly ones quickly replace.
Elsevier Elsevier
ranked ranked
third withthird with 39 publications
39 publications (13 articles
(13 articles and 48and conferenc
48 conference papers).
papers).

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Publication
Publication by the
by the publisher.
publisher.

Table
Table 1 shows
1 shows thethe publication
publication research
research area related
area related to warehouse
to warehouse and industry
and industry 4.0. 4.0
The
Themost
most significant
significantnumber
numberof articles camecame
of articles from journals and conferences
from journals related torelated t
and conferences
automation
automation and control
and systems—58
control systems—58 articles; business
articles; and economics—55
business and economics—55articles; and
articles; an
computer science—30 articles. Most were related to emerging technologies that influenced
computer science—30 articles. Most were related to emerging technologies that influence
warehouse development, such as IoT, RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification), digital twins,
warehouse development, such as IoT, RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification), digita
machine learning, artificial intelligence, mixed reality, etc. However, eight articles and con-
twins,papers
ference machine alsolearning,
came fromartificial intelligence,
the operation mixed
research and reality, etc.
management However,
field, eight article
as warehouse
and conference papers also came from
activities are inseparable from logistic processes. the operation research and management field, a
warehouse activities are inseparable from logistic processes.
Table 1. Research area.
Table 1. Research area.
Research Area Number of Publications Percent (%)
Automation Research
& ControlArea
System Number 58 of Publications 23.3%Percent (%)
Business & Economics
Automation & Control System 55 58 22.1% 23.3%
Computer Science 30 12.0%
Business
Education & Economics
& Educational Research 23 55 9.2% 22.1%
Computer
Energy & FuelsScience 20 30 8.0% 12.0%
EducationEngineering
& Educational Research 15 23 6.0% 9.2%
Instrument & Instrumentation 11 4.4%
Energy & Fuels
Material Science 9 20 3.6% 8.0%
Engineering
Operation Research & Management 8 15 3.2% 6.0%
Remote Sensing
Instrument & Instrumentation 5 11 2.0% 4.4%
Robotics 5 2.0%
Material
Science Science
& Technology 3 9 1.2% 3.6%
OperationSocial
Research
Science& Management 3 8 1.2% 3.2%
Telecommunication 2 0.8%
Remote Sensing 5 2.0%
Transportation 2 0.8%
Robotics 5 2.0%
Total Articles 249 100%
Science & Technology 3 1.2%
Social Science 3 1.2%
An analysis of the authors’ origins and institutions allows us to map the publications
Telecommunication 2 0.8%
we obtain by region with 50 countries in total. Most of the publications were prepared
by authors from China. It should therefore be pointed out that publications from this
region account for 20.4% of all analyzed articles; India—8.4%; Portugal—7.6%; Italy—6.4%;
Poland—4.4%; Czech Republic and Greece—3.6% each; Spain—3.2%; Brazil and Germany
with 2.0% each; France, Hong Kong, Morocco, Turkey, and the US with 2% each. Therefore,
those countries are under 2.0% each. This is shown in Figure 6.
 An analysis of the authors’ origins and institutions allows us to map the publications
we obtain by region with 50 countries in total. Most of the publications were prepared by
authors from China. It should therefore be pointed out that publications from this region
account for 20.4% of all analyzed articles; India—8.4%; Portugal—7.6%; Italy—6.4%; Po-
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 land—4.4%; Czech Republic and Greece—3.6% each; Spain—3.2%; Brazil and Germany 8 of 28
with 2.0% each; France, Hong Kong, Morocco, Turkey, and the US with 2% each. There-
fore, those countries are under 2.0% each. This is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Article distribution.

Figure 6. Article distribution.

4.4.Results
Results
Afteranalysis,
After analysis,the
thetotal
totalnumber
numberofofarticles
articlesrelated
relatedtotoWarehouse
Warehouse4.0,4.0,intelligent
intelligentware-
ware-
house, and Industry 4.0 obtained was 249 articles. Based on the analysis
house, and Industry 4.0 obtained was 249 articles. Based on the analysis of these publica- of these publica-
tions,a anew
tions, new classification
classification framework
framework for for research
research related
related to Warehouse
to Warehouse 4.0 developed.
4.0 was was devel-
oped.
The The proposed
proposed classification
classification distinguishes
distinguishes 10 primary
10 primary categories,
categories, of which
of which 5 catego-
5 categories
are
riesadditionally divided
are additionally into 24
divided subcategories.
into WhenWhen
24 subcategories. the number of publications
the number in thein
of publications
primary category
the primary was small,
category or theor
was small, subject mattermatter
the subject was very
wasdiverse, no subcategories
very diverse, were
no subcategories
created in this in
were created case.
thisSome
case. subcategories
Some subcategoriescould could
exist in multiple
exist primary
in multiple categories
primary due
categories
todue
thetointerpenetration
the interpenetration of specific thematic groups. However, an article that couldnot
of specific thematic groups. However, an article that could not
bebecategorized
categorizedinto intothe
thedistinguished
distinguishedcategory
categorywaswasassigned
assignedto tothe
the‘uncategorized’
uncategorized’cate-
cate-
gory.
gory.All
Allbasic
basiccategories
categoriesand andsubcategories
subcategoriesare aremapped
mappedininFigure
Figure77and
andare
arepresented
presentedinin
Table
TableS1S1ininthe
theSupplementary
SupplementaryMaterials.
Materials.

4.1. Literature Review

The literature review is an essential part of the research, collecting key sources and
discussing those to gain insight into the state of the art. The literature review commonly
presents challenges, solutions, benefits, and tools in a general way. Based on the findings
and analyzed article, 49 articles were categorized in this category, divided into 8 subcate-
gories based on the focus topic presented by authors. Those subcategories are:
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) [23–25];
2. Augmented reality (AR) [26–29];
3. Emerging technologies as a major discussion [30–35];
4. Internet of Things (IoT) [36–39];
5. Manufacturing related with warehousing [40–42];
6. Storage system [43–45];
7. Supply chain management [46–49];
8. Other topics that covered research related to:
• Current state of discrete event simulation and digital twins [50];
• Improvement in industry 4.0 for business process [51];
• Wireless communication behavior in warehouse [52];
• Material handling [53];
• 5G in digital supply chain [54];
• Impact of industry 4.0 on logistics [55];
• Automated logistic system [56];
• Technology related to industry 4.0 for safety [57];
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 9 of 28

• Production logistic and human–computer interaction [58];

• Mixed reality in intralogistics [59];
• Using CPS (cyber-physical system) for smart warehouse [60]
• Overview of the risk value in logistics [61];
• Design of intelligent warehouse management [20];
• Spare parts and logistics management [62];
• Intelligent warehouse stocking system [21];
• Smart factory [63];
• Issue of port logistics and developing conceptual framework [64];
• Application blockchain technology [65];
• Implementation AGV (Automated Guided Vehicle) related risk analysis [66];
• Identifying challenge and strategy related smart warehouse [67]; and asset interoper-
ability [68];
• Summarizing discussion at conference on emerging technology and factory automa-
tion about distributed warehousing and localized kitting systems [69].

4.2. Assessment/Evaluation
Assessment or evaluation is a method for reviewing something, which is then used
as a benchmark to improve performance, a work result, or a process that is more efficient
in the future. Based on the analyzed articles’ findings, 19 articles were found in this
category. After further study, these articles can be categorized into subcategories. The first
subcategory is case studies. Articles from this group present an assessment or performance
evaluation of the use of emerging technologies [70–76] or articles that discuss a work
process of Warehouse 4.0 [77–81]. The second subcategory is the maturity model. In this
subcategory, the article discussed assessing a readiness model in the implementation of
Warehouse 4.0. Articles that fall into this subcategory are [82–86]. The last subcategory is
other. Some articles presented validation [87], testbed [88], or tool/system evaluation [89]
applied to the system of Warehouse 4.0.

4.3. Design/Model
The model is the basis of the designed tool or system. It can have a physical form
but also intangible, e.g., a process flow diagram or mathematical formula. In this category,
43 articles were categorized and divided into 5 subcategories based on analysis. The first
subcategory is algorithm. In these articles, the authors designed a new or developed an
existing algorithm/model relating to warehouse operation in the concept of Industry 4.0.
Papers in this subcategory describe optimization algorithms relating to:
• Dijkstra approach [90];
• Mathematical model for cloud-based drone routing problem [91];
• Mathematical modeling of cross-docking based on MVA for AGV [92];
• Defining linear programing model for decision support [93];
• Graph-based context tier model for flexible production system [94], and designing
SBS/RS using ML-based algorithm [95].
• Designing MCDM (multiple-criteria decision model) for evaluating ERP software in
warehouse and inventory management [96];
• Model predictive control of multiple AGV fault tolerance for increasing the agility [97],
and developing a deep neural network for optimization transmission power of
AGV [98].
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 10 of 28
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 29

Figure 7. Category mapping of articles.

Figure 7. Category mapping of articles.
4.1. Literature Review
The second subcategory is layout. In examining issues about layout warehouse, the
Thefocus
authors literature review is primarily
their attention an essential partdesign
on the of theof
research, collecting
the warehouse key sources
environment so and
that
discussing those to gain insight into the state of the art. The literature review commonly
the use of emerging technologies can be supported. Studies in this subcategory include:
presents challenges, solutions, benefits, and tools in a general way. Based on the findings
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 11 of 28

• Creating an environment for rapid prototyping robotic [99];

• Designing of intelligent warehouse based on tracking goods and dynamic data on a
real-time basis [100];
• Layout design process for automated warehouse [101], or new plant based on industry
4.0 [102].
The third subcategory is tool/system. This category includes studies in which the
authors designed:
• An automated machine sweeper [103];
• Smart counting for unboxed stock [104];
• Collaborative robot and AGV [105], robot for industry 4.0 [106], health and safety
inspection autonomously robot for detecting hazard event [107], mechatronic interface
for mobile robot [108];
• Lean Value Stream Mapping 4.0 tool for logistic process [109];
• Novel shuttle for picking system [110];
• StoreMe-Mr for intelligent warehouse control [111];
• Software framework of IoT [112];
• Indoor positioning system [113];
• Intelligent logistics warehousing and handling robot from mechanical perspective [114];
• Comprehensive monitoring system for intelligent warehouse [115];
• Architecture for developing smart warehouse [22];
• Warehouse management system using MySQL [116];
• Automating cross-docking system [117];
• Indoor UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) equipped with an onboard autonomous
navigation system [118].
This subcategory also includes studies in which the authors presented models of tools
or systems supporting work in the warehouse. This group includes studies on:
• Intelligent warehouse monitoring model using distributed system and edge comput-
ing [119];
• Modeled task assignment model of automation for scheduling technology [120];
• Modeling robot automatic task [121];
• Modeling UAV interconnection mechanism [122];
• Modeling intelligent software for warehouse management [123];
• Creating robot communication model in ROS [124];
• Dynamic model warehouse automation [125];
• Improving position measurement and corresponding path planning of AGV guided
using visual sensor [126];
• Build a model for implementation of logistics 5.0 [127].
The last subcategory is other. This subcategory includes a publication whose au-
thors presented a general model that could not be assigned to the distinguished subcate-
gories. However, these publications were related to Warehouse 4.0 as they were concerned
with modeling mixed assembly line [128], and modeling smart factory based on Industry
4.0 [129].

4.4. Framework
A framework is a proposal of assumptions for a system or an organizational concept
formulated as part of the conducted research. Its task is to present the general mechanisms
of operation and identify the key elements/components that make up this system. Many
researchers describe general assumptions for the system/organizational solution, which
are then adapted to the needs of the client and the specificity of the functioning of a given
warehouse. The analyzed publications referred to the conceptual framework for:
• Digital Twin for industry automated system [130];
• Distributed semantic for collaborative robot [131];
• For intelligent automation [132], and autonomous robot [133];
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 12 of 28

• Agent-oriented smart factory for problem and domain definition AOSR (agent-oriented
storage and retrieval) in warehouse [134];
• Of warehouse resource management system based on Industry 4.0-driven technolo-
gies [135], and IoT for warehousing [136];
• For assessment of sustainable warehousing [137], and for a smart and sustainable
supply chain [138];
• Fault-tolerant design for forklift [139];
• Of order picking 4.0 concept [140];
• For new logistic center [141], and logistics 4.0 concept [12].

4.5. Implementation
The biggest challenge in the development of intelligent warehouses is the imple-
mentation of Industry 4.0 solutions. This implementation requires infrastructural and
organizational changes and mental changes in some cases. The results of research indicate
that this topic has been critical in recent years and often appears in published documents
from the area studied. Considering the number of publications on implementing each
technology, it is reasonable to divide them into leading and other emerging technologies.
Articles belonging to each group are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Articles belonging to category “Implementation”, source: own work.

Emerging Technology Articles

Leading Emerging Technologies
Augmented Reality [142–144]
Internet of Things [1,13,145–152]
RFID [153–160]
Visual Technology [161–164]
Other Emerging Technologies
Ultra-Wideband [165]
Platform [166]
Machine Learning [167,168]
Autonomous Vehicle [169]
Real-Time Location System [170]
Shuttle [171]
Blockchain [172]
Digital Twin [173]
Digitalization Work Environment [174]

4.6. Improving Knowledge

Along with the changing era and the development of existing technology, humans
must continuously improve their knowledge and skills. Moreover, with the era shifting
from traditional warehouse to Warehouse 4.0, human ability is needed for balance. There-
fore, in the last three years, there have been many articles on new learning techniques
and the development of new training programs on the required competencies in Industry
4.0 systems. Concerning new learning techniques, a key innovation is the use of virtual
reality in the process of competence improvement by trainees. Examples of such arti-
cles are [175,176]. The latter also uses the concept of a digital twin. The curricula and
training programs being developed deal with new technologies and their application to
Warehouse 4.0 and intelligent manufacturing [177–179]. This increases participants’ interest
in theoretical knowledge and encourages practical skills.
Meanwhile, the authors of [180] developed a project that intends to replicate the
processes applied in a manufacturing factory, helping students to develop new technologies
and solutions to real industry problems. New technologies also enable the creation of
educational tools that reflect the natural working environment. An example of this is
RobotAtFactory 4.0, presented by [181], which mimics a solution dedicated to a fully
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 13 of 28

automated industrial logistics warehouse and helps identify related challenges in the
execution of maintenance operations.

4.7. Method
A method is a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something,
especially a systematic or established one. In this category, 59 articles were discovered and
divided into 3 subcategories.
The first subcategory is algorithm. In this subcategory, researchers analyzed algorithms
whose task is to optimize the use of 4.0 technology and increase the efficiency of warehouse
processes. Studies assigned to this subcategory concern:
• Algorithm for improving storage system [182–187];
• Algorithm for optimization routes or path planning of AGVs or multi-robot [188–196];
• Algorithm for optimization indoor positioning, tracking, or localization [197–204], and
anti-collision algorithm for intelligent warehouse [205];
• Scheduling algorithm [206–210], and algorithm for task assignment [211–218];
• Algorithm to gain efficiency [219,220];
• Algorithm for developing 3D or dynamic environment [221–224].
The second subcategory is data analysis, which is those focused on studying data
analysis approaches for decision making/support, such as:
• Proposing intelligent logistic inspection system based on big data [225];
• Analyzing big data for decision support [226], or big data warehouse [227] for decision
making;
• Self-adapted SWARM Architecture [228];
• Analyzing data of predictive model for shipment delay and demand forecasting [229];
• Knowledge-based mining data analysis [230];
• Analyzing big data with a simulation model for a decision support system [231], or
hybrid simulation model [232].
Other articles on methods, but not directly related to algorithms or data analysis, are
classified in the subcategory other. The study that appeared in this group concerned:
• Developing versatile procedure for eliminating time waste in picking process [233];
method of digital transition [234];
• Developing intelligent logistic system based on ubiquitous information [235];
• Uses interval Type-2 Fuzzy approach for demand and order quantities with multi-
objective vendor [236];
• Defining new control algorithm for real-time replenishment [237];
• Defining method of use of data to optimize lean manufacturing practices in the era of
digitization and Industry 4.0 [238];
• Uses non-negative discriminative collective target nearest-neighbor representation
algorithm for classifying data image [239].

4.8. Network
In Warehouse 4.0, many operations previously performed manually are supported by
autonomous solutions such as AGVs (Automated Guided Vehicles), AMRs (Autonomous
Mobile Robots), or UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles). These devices, in line with Industry
4.0, should be adequately connected to each other, and a properly prepared network of
connections enables this. Extending the standard ETSI NFV reference architecture [240]
proposed an implementation and orchestration mechanism to enable Cross-Slice Commu-
nication (CSC) in industrial environments. Experimental results using Warehouse Robotics
show significant improvements in expected mission completion delay and transmission
time using the proposed CSC approach compared to other cross-slice communication
methods. This proposal applies to 5G (mobile communication) technology. In contrast,
the results presented by [241] address a scenario moving toward 6G, where ultra-high
performance backbone network slicing is associated with the part of an end-to-end solution
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 14 of 28

to address ultra-reliable, low-latency communications for critical industrial operations

for smart factories and manufacturing, intelligent warehouses and other Industry 4.0
applications and beyond.

4.9. Safety
Occupational health and safety are a significant part of all activities, including in the
industrial world. Digital transformation and associated new technologies are bringing
many changes to anthropotechnical systems, changing people’s working conditions and
modifying the risks involved. Warehouse 4.0 operations increasingly use visual technology
such as augmented reality, mixed reality, global vision, and virtual reality. An example
of such a solution is the support of a picking worker through smart glasses to increase
the efficiency of his work. However, it is necessary to observe that this could impair the
comfort of his work and create occupational health and safety risks. For this reason, there
are also publications on the assessment of this impact in the literature, such as the effects of
smart glasses on eyesight [242], and visual and optometric issues of smart glasses [243].

4.10. Uncategorized
The uncategorized group has been supplemented with articles presenting research
results unrelated to the distinguished areas because of the focus on another field instead of
warehousing. Those articles focus more on industrial, mechanical design, aircraft manage-
ment, etc. The warehouse appears in these publications as a testing ground, a link in the
analyzed process, or possibly an area supporting manufacturing processes. Nevertheless,
these articles were included in the analysis because they appeared in the search results and
are related to Warehouse 4.0. The scope of the research included the following:
• The solution to extend the autonomy of machining centers by using a six-axis robot to
replace the operator on work piece feeding operation [244];
• Implementing AR with gamification on order picking [245];
• Research about first report of driver injuries [246];
• Developing cost in logistics related industry 4.0 [247];
• Optimizing production related smart manufacturing process [248];
• Studying storage shelf deformation with FEA [249];
• Benchmarking of three low-cost and one medium-cost inertial analysis [250];
• Tracking asset and production [251];
• Create a system for localizing people being evacuated from a building when a disaster
occurred in a workplace [252];
• Implementation RFID-based data for establishing inspection and maintenance interval
of machine in production line [253];
• Big data analysis in EoL aircraft management [254];
• Trajectory planning for smart mobile robot [255];
• Designing model smart wearable devices for disabilities related to industry 4.0 [256];
• HMDFF (Heterogeneous Medical Data Fusion Framework) for medical data [257];
• Discover new algorithm for stress distribution [258];
• Designing automatic feed machine in fishponds [259];
• Single side priority-based algorithm for 3D printing center integration [260];
• Analyzing big data for risk management [261];
• Innovating operation exhibition of e-commerce by internet celebrity [262];
• Framework of a heterogenous multi-modal medical data fusion [263];
• Assessment of safety culture in major hazard industries [264].

5. Discussion
The development of technologies supporting Industry 4.0 systems has accelerated
digital transformation in both manufacturing and logistics processes. This has significantly
affected the technological transformation of peri-manufacturing systems, such as warehous-
ing and internal logistics. This trend has caused more and more research on Industry 4.0 to
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 15 of 28

focus on aspects of Manufacturing 4.0 and Warehouse 4.0. Strong trends toward developing
digital supply chains also support implementing new digital solutions and 4.0 technologies
in warehouses. These chains are oriented toward implementing techniques to improve their
information exchange and supply chain management’s transparency, reliability, traceability,
and efficiency [7]. It is impossible to achieve these goals without digitizing warehouse
operations.

5.1. Analysis of the Obtained Results

Our literature review highlighted 10 leading research areas and 24 subcategories. It
should be noted that in most of these studies, the authors’ attention was primarily focused
on the implementation of (1) Industry 4.0 technological solutions, such as IoT, augmented
reality, RFID, visual technology, and other emerging technologies; and (2) autonomous
and automated vehicles, such as automated/autonomous guided vehicles, autonomous
robots, drones, etc., in warehouse operations processes. The presented research results
reveal the challenges of implementing Industry 4.0 solutions in warehouse processes
(Sections 4.3 and 4.5) define the framework for the implementation and operation of these
systems (Section 4.4), and opportunities are sought to optimize or increase the efficiency
of warehouse processes implemented using new technologies (Sections 4.3 and 4.7). At
the same time, it should be emphasized that the scope of research related to the opera-
tion of smart warehouses is very comprehensive, as evidenced by the many highlighted
primary categories and subcategories and the many individual publications included in
the “Uncategorized” group. Some of these research areas are already well recognized,
as evidenced by the large number of publications within a given subcategory and even
the occurrence of review articles on a given topic. Examples of such research areas are
IoT implementation (review articles) [36–39], augmented reality (review articles [26–29]),
and other emerging technologies (review articles [30–35]). However, the large number of
individual articles in the “Uncategorized” group indicates that many topics related to smart
warehouses are only in the early stages of research. Such a conclusion is justified. The first
period of development of the Industry 4.0 concept was focused primarily on the digitiza-
tion and automation of manufacturing processes. Only their digitization forced changes
in the next stage of the transformation and also in the processes supporting production
systems, including warehouses. The COVID-19 pandemic has also reinforced the need for
digitization and automation in supply chains [265]. The disruption resulting from high
worker absenteeism has forced organizational and technological changes in the current
implementation of warehouse operations. As a result, it can be expected that the number
of publications on smart warehouses will continue to increase in the coming years.
It should also be noted that most articles focus primarily on the benefits of implement-
ing Industry 4.0 solutions in logistics processes. The implemented technologies may be
a way to eliminate human errors occurring in traditional warehouses, standardize pro-
cesses and operations, improve the efficiency and effectiveness of operations, and improve
communication and information exchange between the cooperating links of the supply
chain [266]. In [267], the author also emphasizes that Industry 4.0 significantly improves
sustainable practices if an organization focuses on humans. However, Bai et al. [268] indi-
cate that autonomous robots, big data, blockchain, sensors, and analytics can positively
influence the organization’s environmental sustainability practices.
However, because Warehouse 4.0 promotes a new approach to cargo handling in
internal logistics, it is worth paying attention to the existing barriers to its implementation.
Matt et al. [3] distinguished four groups of obstacles related to implementing Industry
4.0 solutions in the internal processes of enterprises. These are organizational, market,
institutional, social, and ethical barriers. From the point of view of digital transformation in
warehouses, organizational barriers highlighted in [3] should be considered critical, among
which it is worth pointing out:
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 16 of 28

1. A skeptical attitude toward the advantages envisaged by a digitalized industry.

2. Lack of commitment and motivation within the company.
3. Substantial implementation and opportunity costs of integrating digital systems into
existing IT solutions and databases.
Particularly noteworthy are the barriers to implementing Industry 4.0 solutions in the
warehouse, highlighted by Kumar et al. [269]. The authors identified 17 such barriers and
limitations in their research. Some of them coincide with the results presented by Matt
et al. In this case, it is worth highlighting additionally [269]: (1) long return on investment;
(2) high market competition and uncertainty; (3) lack of dynamic environment/systems
and scalability; (4) lack of technical knowledge and support; (5) lack of skilled manpower;
(6) lack of physical infrastructure; (7) lack of IT infrastructure; (8) lack of financial support.
Analyzing existing limitations and barriers should be the starting point for the designed and
implemented solutions. For this reason, these factors need to be considered, particularly in
publications belonging to groups 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5.

5.2. Identification of the Research Gap

Our literature review allowed us to identify the research gaps that still exist, even
though, as we have highlighted, the area of current research related to warehouses op-
erating according to the 4.0 concept is broad. First, the small number of publications
assessing the risks in smart warehouses is surprising. Only two articles dealt with the risks
associated with using augmented reality and its impact on the health and safety of workers
(Section 4.9). However, Industry 4.0 technologies also generate other risks for workers
and various adverse events that can disrupt the warehouse’s product and material flows.
This aspect should be the subject of detailed research since smart warehouse safety and
efficiency depend on the enterprise’s risk management system. We considered the second
research gap to be the lack of publications related to the maintenance of technical systems in
Warehouse 4.0. One can find publications on the maintenance of Industry 4.0 systems in the
literature—an example is a review article [270]. However, our search found no publication
on maintaining specific 4.0 systems in the warehouse area. There is also a lack of studies
on using 4.0 technologies in warehouse maintenance processes (e.g., augmented reality
and virtual reality in increasing maintenance operations’ efficiency and the maintenance
staff’s competence).

5.3. Summary of the Discussion

Summarizing the results of our research, it is important to indicate the novelty of the
results obtained. They can be described in terms of three main achievements:
1. General nature of the conducted literature review.
In Section 4.1, we presented a compilation of review articles related to the operation of
warehouses in the era of Industry 4.0. Most of these papers presented results focused on a
specific research problem—applying specific technological solutions (Internet of Things,
emerging technologies, augmented reality, artificial intelligence). On the other hand, in
these reviews, the smart warehouse appeared only as one element of a broader research
area (supply chain management, improvement in industry 4.0, impact of industry 4.0 on
logistics). Our research focused on articles describing the functioning of smart warehouses,
and the scope of the proposed classification framework covers all aspects related to the
design, operation, and maintenance of Warehouse 4.0, which have been the subject of
publications so far.
2. Identification of two research gaps in the analyzed literature review
The critical analysis of the literature made it possible to identify significant research
gaps from the point of view of further development of the Warehouse 4.0 concept and the
reported demand for scientific analyses. From the point of view of our further activities, we
have identified two critical research gaps regarding the lack of studies on (1) risk assessment
and management in warehouses, taking into account specific operating conditions related
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 17 of 28

to the Industry 4.0 environment; and (2) selection of maintenance strategies for technical
systems supporting logistics processes in Warehouse 4.0.
3. Development of a new classification framework for Warehouse 4.0 publications.
Our framework for classifying research related to Industry 4.0 in magazines covers
a wide range of topics. Despite this, we still see the potential for further development in
these areas, also based on the identified research gaps. For this reason, in the next step, it is
desirable to publish research results that will allow us to supplement our framework with
two additional basic categories, namely:
(a) “Risk assessment”, which should consider security issues (cyber security, em-
ployee health, and life) and disruptions affecting the logistics service level pro-
vided by the warehouse.
(b) “Maintaining smart warehouses”, which should include selecting appropriate
maintenance strategies for modern technical systems, using digital technolo-
gies in maintenance processes, changing the requirements, and improving the
competence of maintenance staff.
Our future activities aim to achieve results that fit into both of the above categories.

6. Conclusions and Future Work

The analyses presented in the article concerned the group of 249 publications identified
in a research investigation using the PRISMA method. All of these publications dealt
directly or indirectly with the warehouse operation concerning the concept of Industry
4.0. The results presented in the article consider the wide range of research in this area.
As a result, they can be used by both theoreticians and practitioners. The classification
framework we have proposed represents the most important directions of research work
published over the past 5 years in journals worldwide. This enables industry representatives
to gain knowledge of the leading technologies used in smart warehouses and the challenges
and good practices associated with their implementation. The classification procedure
carried out in the article points them to specific documents they can use to acquire this
knowledge. At the same time, the results of our research indicate to theorists the dominant
directions of research work that have been undertaken in recent years. The research gaps
identified, on the other hand, indicate to them the need for the results of future analyses,
the fulfilling of which will allow them to improve the operation of Warehouse 4.0.
The five-stage research procedure we adopted was comprehensive. We used a rec-
ognized journal database that registers high-profile and peer-reviewed publications to
search for documents in line with the stated goal. In this way, we ensured the documents
accepted for analysis were high quality. Our proposed selection of keywords to search
for relevant records was preceded by a thorough analysis of review articles in the area.
However, the focus of attention only on articles and proceedings papers, and the lack of
non-reviewed documents in the analysis, which often appear in magazines and on industry
websites, can be considered a limitation. However, such action is justified by our care for
the quality of published results accepted for analysis. The selection of keywords and the
type of documents also resulted in only English-language documents being indicated for
analysis by the search engine. Consequently, the study did not include documents prepared
in other language versions. However, it should be emphasized that their absence from
the identified group means that such publications did not even have an English-language
version of the title, abstract, and keywords.
The results in the article allow us to answer all the research questions posed in the
Introduction. From the point of view of further work, it is important to answer question
Q3, which allowed us to identify the existing research gaps. Our future research will
therefore focus on assessing risk factors, the effects of adverse events, and methods of risk
analysis for improving the current operation of intelligent warehouses. On the other hand,
the second direction of our work will be the development of maintenance strategies for
technical systems that support goods flows in Warehouse 4.0.
Sensors 2023, 23, 4105 18 of 28

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at:

https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/s23084105/s1.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.A.T. and J.R.; methodology, A.A.T. and J.R.; validation,
A.A.T. and J.R.; formal analysis, A.A.T. and J.R.; investigation, A.A.T. and J.R.; resources, A.A.T. and
J.R.; data curation, A.A.T. and J.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.T. and J.R.; writing—
review and editing, A.A.T.; visualization, A.A.T. and J.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research no external funding received.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the reviewers for the insightful comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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