EEF 363: chapter 3.

Oscillators
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
● Understand and describe characteristics of the sinusoidal oscillators and the square-wave oscillators

2.1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain │Af│greater
than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit. An oscillator circuit then provides
a varying output signal:
- If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal oscillator.
- If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage level and later drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit
is generally referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.
To understand how a feedback circuit performs as an oscillator, consider the feedback circuit of Fig.2.1a:
- When the switch at the amplifier input is open, no oscillation occurs. Consider that we have a fictitious voltage
at the amplifier input Vi. This results in an output voltage Vo = AVi after the amplifier stage, and in a feedback
voltage Vf = β(AVi) after the feedback stage, where βA is referred to as the loop gain. If the circuits of the base
amplifier and feedback network provide βA of a correct magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi.
- Then, when the switch is closed and the fictitious voltage Vi is removed, the circuit will continue operating since
the feedback voltage is sufficient to drive the amplifier and feedback circuits, resulting in a proper input voltage
to sustain the loop operation. The output waveform will still exist after the switch is closed if the condition βA
= 1 is met: It is The Barkhausen criterion for oscillation 𝜷𝑨 = 𝟏 .

FIG.2.1a. Feedback circuit used as an oscillator. FIG.2.1b. Buildup of steady-state oscillations

In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillator going. Only the condition βA= 1 must be satisfied for self-
sustained oscillations to result. In practice, βA is made greater than 1 and the system is started oscillating by amplifying
noise voltage, which is always present. Saturation factors in the practical circuit provide an “average” value of βA of 1.
The resulting waveforms are never exactly sinusoidal. However, the closer the value βA is to exactly 1. Fig2.1b shows
how the noise signal results in a buildup of a steady-state oscillation condition.
Another way of seeing how the feedback circuit provides operation as an oscillator is obtained by noting the denominator
of the closed-loop gain in the basic feedback (Eq.1.6 of the previous chapter), 𝐴𝑓 = 𝐴⁄(1 + 𝛽𝐴).
When βA= -1 (magnitude is 1 at a phase angle of 180°), the denominator becomes 0 and the gain with feedback Af
becomes infinite. Hence, an infinitesimal signal (noise voltage) can provide a measurable output voltage, and the circuit
acts as an oscillator even without an input signal.

2.2. VARIOUS OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS

2.1. Phase-Shift Oscillator
Phase-shift oscillator is an example of an oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a feedback circuit.
We recall that the requirements for oscillation are that the loop gain βA is greater than unity and that the phase shift
around the feedback network is 180° (providing positive feedback).
 By using Kirchhoff law and applying voltage divider
+
-

The transfer function is: FIG.2.2. Phase-shift oscillator.

1
𝐻 (𝑗𝜔) = [1−5(𝜔𝑅𝐶)2]+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶[6−(𝜔𝑅𝐶)2 ]

√𝟔 1 1
The oscillation frequency is given by: 𝒇 = the attenuation of the network, then 𝐻 (𝑗𝜔) = =−
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪 1−5(𝜔𝑅𝐶)2 29
𝟏 𝟏
therefore = is at the above frequency at the phase shift is exactly 180°.
𝜷 𝟐𝟗

For the loop gain βA to be greater than unity, the gain of the amplifier stage must be greater than 1/β or 29: A>29
The phase shift per section for three sections of the RC is not 60° because each section in the feedback network loads
down the previous one and resulting in a 180° phase shift.
1 1
If we made the following transformation in the Phase-shift oscillator circuit: 𝑅 → 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗𝜔𝐶
→ 𝑅 then we

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
obtain the oscillation frequency 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪√𝟔 the attenuation of the network 𝜷
= 𝟐𝟗 at the phase shift 180°.

 FET Phase-Shift Oscillator

A practical version of a phase-shift
oscillator circuit is shown in Fig.2.3a.
The circuit is drawn to show clearly the
amplifier and feedback network. The
amplifier stage is self-biased with a
capacitor bypassed source resistor RS
and a drain bias resistor RD. The FET
device parameters of interest are gm and
rd. From FET amplifier theory, the
amplifier gain magnitude is calculated
from │A│ = gmRL where RL is the
parallel resistance of RD and rd,
We shall assume as a very good
approximation that the input impedance
of the FET amplifier stage is infinite,
valid for operating frequency is low
enough so FET capacitive impedances
can be neglected. The output impedance
is given by RL should also be small. In
practice, these considerations are not
always negligible FIG.2.3. Practical phase-shift oscillator circuits: (a) FET version; (b) BJT
 Transistor Phase-Shift Oscillator version.
If a transistor is used as the active element of the amplifier stage, the output of the feedback network is loaded
appreciably by the relatively low input resistance (hie) of the transistor. Of course, an emitter-follower input stage
followed by a common-emitter amplifier stage could be used. If a single transistor stage is desired, however, the use of
voltage shunt feedback (as shown in Fig. 2.3b) is more suitable. In this connection, the feedback signal is coupled
through the feedback resistor R’ in series with the amplifier stage input resistance ( Ri).
Analysis of the ac circuit provides the following equation for the above resulting oscillator frequency. For the loop gain
to be greater than unity, the requirement on the current gain of the transistor is found to be
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
ℎ𝑓𝑒 > 23 + 29 +4
𝑅𝐶 𝑅
2.2. Wien Bridge Oscillator
A practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator frequency set by the R and C
components. Fig.2.4 shows a basic version of a Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
Neglecting loading effects of the op-amp input and output
impedances, the analysis of the bridge circuit results
In the feedback network: 𝑍1 is impedance R1 series C1
𝑍2 is impedance of R2 parallel C2 V1 V2
By using voltage divider,
𝑉1 1
𝛽= =
𝑉2 1 + 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 + 𝑗 (𝑅 𝐶 𝜔 − 1 )
𝑅2 𝐶1 1 2 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝜔

𝑉2 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 𝑅4
𝐴= = =1+
𝑉1 𝑅3 𝑅3

The oscillation condition gives: FIG.2.4. Wien bridge oscillator circuit using an op-amp amplifier.

version.1
Modulus 𝐴𝛽 = 1 so forth the frequency oscillation is 𝑓 =
2𝜋√𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶1
𝑅
1+𝑅4 𝑅4 𝑅1 𝐶2
3
And 𝑅1 𝐶2 =1 so = +
1+𝑅 +𝐶 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝐶1
2 1

If, in particular, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the resulting oscillator frequency is

1 𝑅4
𝑓= and =2
2𝜋√𝑅𝐶 𝑅3

Thus a ratio of R3 to R4 greater than 2 will provide sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate at the frequency
calculated above.

2.3. Tuned Oscillator Circuits: Tuned-Input, Tuned-Output Oscillator Circuits

A variety of circuits can be built using that shown in Fig.2.5 by providing tuning in both the input and output sections
of the circuit when the reactance elements are as designated:

FIG.2.5. Basic configuration of resonant circuit oscillator.

version.
2.3.1. Colpitts Oscillator
𝑉0
The transfer function 𝑉1
is given by using Millmann theorem:
𝑉0 1+𝑅𝑓 ⁄𝑅𝑖
Thus = then the oscillator frequency
𝑉1 1+𝑗𝑅(𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜔−1⁄𝐿𝜔)

𝟏
can be found to be 𝒇 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪𝒆𝒒

Other Edwin Henry Colpitts oscillators: FIG.2.6. Op-amp Colpitts oscillator.

version.
(b)
(a)

FIG.2.7. (a) Transistor Colpitts oscillator (b) FET Colpitts oscillator.

2.3.2. Hartley Oscillator

If the elements in the basic resonant circuit of Fig.2.5 are X1 and X2 (inductors) and X3 (capacitor), the circuit is a
Hartley oscillator.
𝟏
The circuit frequency of oscillation is then given approximately by 𝒇 = where Leq equivalent inductor.
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝒆𝒒𝑪

2.3.3. Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The
crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to
operate. Crystal oscillators are used whenever great stability is required, such as in
communication transmitters and receivers.
In Fig.2.8. The inductor L and capacitor C represent electrical equivalents of crystal
mass and compliance, respectively, whereas resistance R is an electrical equivalent
of the crystal structure’s internal friction. The shunt capacitance CM represents the
capacitance due to mechanical mounting of the crystal. Because the crystal losses,
represented by R, are small, the equivalent crystal Q (quality factor) is high.

FIG.2.8 Electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal.

 Since R is small, we can neglect it and the crystal impedance
gives

𝜔 2
𝑗 1− 𝑠2
𝜔
𝑍=− ( 𝜔2
) = 𝑗𝑋
𝐶0 𝜔 𝑝
1− 2
𝜔

where X is a reactance depending to the frequency, with

1 1 1 1
𝜔𝑠2 = and 𝜔2𝑝 = 𝐿 (𝐶 + 𝐶 )
𝐿𝐶 0

FIG.2.9. Crystal impedance versus frequency.

Therefore the crystal can perform as a capacitor (if 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑆 or 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑃 ), as an inductor (if 𝜔𝑆 < 𝜔 < 𝜔𝑃 ),
as a series-resonant impedance [if 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑆 then Z very low (equal to R) ] and as a parallel-resonant impedance or
in antiresonance condition [if 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑃 then Z is very high ( almost infinite) to the external circuit]. Thereby the crystal
version.
can have two resonant frequencies and it must be connected in a circuit so that its low impedance in the series-resonant
operating mode or high impedance in the antiresonant operating mode is selected.

(b) (c)
(a)

To excite a crystal for operation in Since the parallel-resonant impedance The present circuit has a high gain, so
the series-resonant mode, it may be of a crystal is a maximum value, it is that an output square-wave signal
connected as a series element in a connected in shunt and appears as an results. A pair of Zener diodes is
feedback path, its impedance is inductive reactance of largest value. shown at the output to provide output
smallest and the amount of (positive) amplitude at exactly the Zener
feedback is largest. voltage (VZ).

FIG.2.10. (a) Crystal-controlled oscillator using a crystal (XTAL) in a series-feedback path frequency, (b) Crystal-
controlled oscillator operating in parallel-resonant mode and (c) Crystal oscillator using an op-amp.

2.4. Bistable Multivibrators: Schmitt triggers oscillators

Schmitt triggers are commonly implemented using an operational amplifier (comparator). A comparator may be
considered as an analog-digital device having analog inputs and a digital output that extracts the sign of the voltage
difference
version.between its two inputs. The positive feedback is applied by adding a part of the output voltage to the input
voltage in series or parallel manner.
When the circuit input voltage is above the high threshold or below the low threshold, the output voltage has the same
sign as the circuit input voltage (if the circuit is non-inverting).
 It acts like a comparator that switches at a different point depending on
whether the output of the comparator is high or low.
When the circuit input voltage is between the thresholds, the output voltage
is undefined and it depends on the last state (the circuit behaves as an
elementary latch).
The voltage at which the state of the output changes depends on whether
the input voltage increases or decreases. When Vin is between VTU and VTL
the state of V can be either VH or VL two possible states. For this reason this
circuit is also called a Bistable Multivibrators.
The voltage transfer characteristic shows that there is Hysteresis Effect.
The width of the hysteresis region, VTU −VTL, corresponds to the noise
immunity of the trigger circuit.
FIG.2.11. Voltage characteristic of inverting Schmitt.
2.4.1. Non-inverting Schmitt trigger
If the Schmitt trigger is currently in the high state, the output
will be at the positive power supply rail (𝑉0 =+VS). The
voltage V+ of the resistive summer can be found by applying version.
the superposition theorem:
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉0
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Since 𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉+ − 𝑉− ) and 𝑉− = 0 𝑉, the transitions will
occur when V+ =0 then from the above formula 𝑉𝑖𝑛 must drop FIG.2.12. Non-inverting Schmitt trigger.
𝑅1
below − 𝑉 to get the output to switch.
𝑅2 𝑆
𝑅
Once the comparator output has switched to −VS, the threshold becomes + 𝑅1 𝑉𝑆 to switch back to high. So this circuit
2
𝑅
creates a switching band centered on zero, with trigger levels± 𝑅1 𝑉𝑆 . version.
2
 For an Inverting Schmitt Trigger (If the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal) since the output voltage
always has an opposite sign to the input voltage when it is out of the hysteresis cycle (when the input voltage is above
the high threshold or below the low threshold). However, if the input voltage is within the hysteresis cycle (between
𝑅1
the high and low thresholds), the circuit can be inverting as well as non-inverting. The trigger levels± 𝑉.
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑆

2.4.2. Inverting Schmitt trigger with reference voltage

The voltage V+ at the non-inverting terminal is a combination of the output voltage, V0 and the reference voltage, Vref .
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 + 𝑉0
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The location of the transition
voltages is simply shifted by
𝑅2
𝑉𝑘 = 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑅
1 +𝑅2
In this case the transition voltages
are:
𝑅1
𝑉𝑇𝐿 = 𝑉𝑘 + 𝑉𝐿
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 FIG.2.13. Inverting Schmitt trigger with reference voltage. (a) circuit, (b)
𝑉𝑇𝑈 = 𝑉𝑘 + 𝑉𝐻
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 voltage transfer characteristic

 For a non-inverting Schmitt trigger circuit with reference voltage ,the transition voltages are given by:
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑇𝐿 = 𝑉𝑘 − 𝑉𝐻 𝑅1 and 𝑉𝑇𝑈 = 𝑉𝑘 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑅
version.
1
2 2

𝑅1
The location of the transition voltages is simply shifted by 𝑉𝑘 = 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 (1 + ).
𝑅2
2.5. Astable Multivibrators
The circuits that produce an oscillatory output. The frequency and duty cycle of the oscillator can be varied through
the choice of resistors, capacitors, and a control voltage.

2.5.1. Schmitt Trigger Oscillator

By combining negative and positive feedback and a capacitor for energy storage we can design a circuit that generates
a square wave output.
Let’s consider that R1=R2=R et VL and VH are the saturation voltages (a)
with VL= - VH:
1
We start with V0= VH which gives 𝑉+ = 2 𝑉𝐻
1 +
when V− crosses 2 𝑉𝐻 at t=t1, the output 𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉+ − 𝑉− ) will switch
1 -
(will change state) from VH to VL and V− move to 𝑉𝐿 .
2
The form of V− is the standard exponential function of a transient RC
circuit: 𝑽− = 𝑽𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 + (𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 − 𝑽𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 )𝒆−𝒕⁄𝑹𝑪
1
From the above equation 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2 𝑉𝐻 and 𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝐿
3
This satisfies 𝑉− = 𝑉𝐿 − 2 𝑉𝐿 𝑒 −𝑡1⁄𝑅𝐹 𝐶
𝑅1
By solving we obtain 𝑡1 = 𝑅𝐹 𝐶𝑙𝑛(3)=𝑅𝐹 𝐶ln (1 + 2 ).
𝑅2 (b)

Due to the symmetry of the problem (VH = −VL) the time

between t 1 and t2 is also given 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑅𝐹 𝐶ln(3)
And so the period of the square wave is 𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐹 𝐶𝑙𝑛(3)
The general expression for the period of the square wave
𝑅
is 𝑇 = 2𝑅𝐹 𝐶ln (1 + 2 𝑅1 ) FIG.2.14. Astable Multivibrator. (a) circuit,
2
(b) voltage output characteristic
An additional consequence of the frequency is that
𝒕
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝒕𝟏 is 50%. If a higher (>50%) duty cycle is desired then |𝑉𝐻 | > |𝑉𝐿 |.
𝟐

2.5.3. 555 timer IC

version.
One popular application of the 555 timer IC is as an astable multivibrator or clock circuit. The IC is made of a
combination of linear comparators and digital flip-flops as described in Fig. 2.11. The entire circuit is usually housed in
an eight-pin package as specified in Fig.2.11. A series connection of three resistors sets the reference voltage levels to
the two comparators at 2/3VCC and 1/3VCC the output of these comparators setting or resetting the flip-flop unit. The
output of the flip-flop circuit is then brought out through an output amplifier stage. The flip-flop circuit also operates a
transistor inside the IC, the transistor collector usually being driven low to discharge a timing capacitor.

FIG.2.11. Details of 555 timer IC.

frequency.
 FIG.2.12. Astable multivibrator (a) circuit; (b) waveforms.
Capacitor C charges toward VCC through external resistors RA and RB . Referring to Fig. 2.12, we see that the
frequency.
capacitor voltage rises until it goes above 2 VCC /3.This voltage is the threshold voltage at pin 6, which drives comparator
1 to trigger the flip-flop so that the output at pin 3 goes low. In addition, the discharge transistor is driven on, causing
the output at pin 7 to discharge the capacitor through resistor RB. The capacitor voltage then decreases until it drops
below the trigger level (VCC/3). The flip-flop is triggered so that the output goes back high and the discharge transistor
is turned off, so that the capacitor canversion.
again charge through resistors RA and RB toward VCC. Fig. 2.12 a shows the
capacitor and output waveforms resulting from the astable circuit. Calculation of the time intervals during which the
output is high and low can be made using the relations

The total period is T = period = Thigh + Tlow

The frequency of the astable circuit is then calculated using