Quantum

Computing Lect #1

DENİZ TÜRKPENÇE
[email protected]

1
Problem complexity classification Optimization problems:

Factoring large integers problem:

Todays computers can factor a 600 digit integer number in a hundred
thousand years. This gives power to some encryption algorithms (RSA).
A quantum computer can factor this number in minutes (Shor’s
algorithm).

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Quantum computing: A new way of computing that
uses the principles of quantum mechanics.

• The goal is to solve problems that are impossible to solve

with classical computers by exploiting the unique properties
of quantum mechanics.

Quantum superposition Quantum Entanglement

Classic : 0 or 1
Quantum : 0 or 1 or both !
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Quantum Computation
ELK336E –
Week #1

2 Midterms, Final
Evaluation : 0.3*Midterm1+ 0.3*Midterm2+ 0.4*Final

Condition to attend the Final

Attending the Midterm & 20pts Average

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Syllabus
*Linear algebra for quantum computing / Complex vector spaces-base vectors-orthogonality
*Linear algebra for quantum computing / Matrices-Operators-Eigenvalue-eigenvector-qubit-Bloch sphere-commutation
*Linear algebra for quantum computing / Tensor product-composite states
*Quantum measurement and postulates of quantum mechanics
*Quantum circuit components / Single qubit, 2 qubits, multi-qubit logic gates, teleporting a single qubit,
*No cloning, Quantum computational complexity
*Density matrix formalism for composite quantum systems/ Postulates revisited, Entanglement
*Quantum algorithms / Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, Quantum Fourier transform, Quantum Phase estimation.
*Quantum algorithms / Quantum (Grover) search algorithm. Quantum order finding algorithm
*Quantum nonlocality, Bell inequalities, quantum dense coding
*Quantum information / Von Neumann entropy - quantum mutual information, quantum noise
*Quantum secure communications, quantum key distribution, quantum encryption
*Simulating open quantum systems / Computer applications
*Digital quantum simulation by a quantum computer / Computer applications
*Physical Realizations of quantum computers / IBM and Google quantum computers

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Essential Linear Algebra

Linear algebra is the study of vector spaces and of ȁ∗ۧ : Ket (Dirac notation)
linear operators on the vector spaces.
0
The vector space of interest is the ℂ𝑛 𝑛- dimensional 𝟎𝑛 = ⋮ , Zero vector
Complex vector space with 𝕫1 , 𝕫2 , . . 𝕫𝑛 complex 0
scalar numbers.

The elements of a vector space are vectors and they

can be represented by column matrices.

𝕫1
ℂ 𝑛 → ⋮ ≡ ȁ𝛼 ۧ (1)
𝕫𝑛

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Vectors are additive in the same vector space.

ȁ 𝛾 ۧ = ȁ𝛼 ۧ + ȁ𝛽 ۧ

𝛾1 𝛼1 𝛽1 𝛼1 + 𝛽1
⋮ = ⋮ + ⋮ = ⋮ (2)
𝛾𝑛 𝛼𝑛 𝛽𝑛 𝛼𝑛 + 𝛽𝑛

Linear dependence and basis

Let 𝑎𝑖 be a set of complex coefficients and ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ be a set of vectors

spanning the same space. Linear combination of these vectors is given
by

𝑎1 ห𝛼1 ۧ + 𝑎2 ȁ𝛼2 ۧ + … + 𝑎𝑛 ȁ𝛼𝑛 ۧ = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ . (3)

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Definition :

A set of non zero vectors are linearly independent if there exist a

set of complex numbers {𝑎1 .. 𝑎𝑛 } such that σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ = 0 with
at least one of the coefficients is 𝑐𝑖 ≠ 0.

In other words, if one vector of the set can be written as a linear

combination of the other vectors, the set is linearly dependent.

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❑If a set of vectors are linearly independent, then the set is known as a basis.
❑The number of elements in the basis set is known as the dimension of basis.

Recall, Equation (3) with these specifications:

Any vector ȁ𝛼 ۧ can be expanded over a basis set {ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ}.

ȁ𝛼 ۧ = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ (3′ )

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Linear Operators

Consider an operator 𝐴መ maps each vector ȁ𝛼 ۧ ∈ 𝑉 into another vector

ȁ𝛽 ۧ ∈ 𝑉 in the same vector space such that

ȁ𝛽ۧ = 𝐴መ ȁ𝛼 ۧ. (4)

An operator is linear if for any vectors ȁ𝛼 ۧ and ȁ𝛽ۧ,

𝐴መ 𝑎ห𝛼 ۧ + ⋯ 𝑘ȁ𝛾ۧ = 𝑎𝐴መ ቚ𝛼 ۧ + ⋯ 𝑘𝐴መ ȁ𝛾ۧ (5)

satisfies.

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 Inner products:
NOTE-1:
Inner product is a function which takes two vectors ห𝛼 ۧ, ȁ𝛽 ۧ ∈ 𝑉
𝟙 ∶ Identity operator
As an input and produces a complex number as the output.
𝟙ȁ𝛼 ۧ=ȁ𝛼 ۧ
ห𝛼 ۧ, ȁ𝛽 ۧ → ‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ ȁ𝛽 ۧ= 𝛼 𝛽 = c-number (6)
ℕ: Null operator
ℕȁ𝛼 ۧ = 𝟎
Here, ‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ is a vector dual to ȁ𝛼 ۧ.

‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ: Bra

So : 𝛼 𝛽 : Bra(c)ket

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Inner products can also be represented by matrix products :

𝛼1
ȁ𝛼 ۧ = ⋮ , ‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ = 𝛼1 ∗ … 𝛼𝑛 ∗ 1×𝑛
𝛼𝑛 𝑛×1

𝑇 ∗
‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ ≡ ȁ 𝛼 ۧ , 𝑇: Transpose, *: Complex conjugate

𝛽1
𝛼 𝛽 = 𝛼1 ∗ … 𝛼𝑛 ∗ ⋮ = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝛼𝑖 ∗ 𝛽𝑖 (7)
𝛽𝑛

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Linearity also applies to inner product.
One can expand the inner product by using Eq. (3′ )

𝛼 𝛽 = ‫ 𝛼ۦ‬ȁ σ𝑖 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛽𝑖 ۧ
= σ𝑖 𝑎𝑖 𝛼 𝛽𝑖 (8)

Positivity :

𝛼𝛼 ≥0 (9)

Skew symmetry :

∗
𝛼𝛽 = 𝛽𝛼 (10)

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The Norm of a vector ȁ𝛼 ۧ is defined as

ȁ𝛼 ۧ = 𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼1 2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 2 (11)

And a vector is called normalized when it has a unit norm

ȁ𝛼 ۧ =1.

A vector can be normalized by

′ ȁ𝛼 ۧ
ȁ𝛼 ۧ = . (12)
ȁ𝛼 ۧ

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EXAMPLE-1

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EXAMPLE-2 : Normalize ȁ𝑎ۧ and ȁ𝑏ۧ in the previous example.

Solution :

ȁ𝑎 ۧ = 𝑎𝑎
−2
𝑎 𝑎 = −2, −4𝑖, 1 4𝑖 = (−2)2 + 4𝑖 2 +12 = 21
1
ȁ𝑎ۧ = 21

Likewise,
−2
21 1
ȁ𝑎 ۧ 4𝑖 2
ȁ𝑎′ ۧ = = .
ȁ𝑎 ۧ 21 ȁ𝑏 ′ ۧ = 0 .
1 𝑖
21 2

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Orthogonality and orthonormality

Two non-zero vectors ȁ𝛼 ۧ and ȁ𝛽 ۧ are referred to as orthogonal

if their inner product is

𝛼 𝛽 = 0. (13)

A set of vectors ห𝛼1 ۧ, … , ȁ𝛼𝑛 ۧ is said to be orthonormal if each vector is a unit vector and the
inner product of the distinct vectors in the set are

𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 . (14)

❑ Vectors of an orthonormal set is linearly independent.

❑ Dimension of a vector space is given by the maximum number of linearly independent
vectors.

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 Solution :
EXAMPLE-3 :
𝑎1 ȁ𝛼 ۧ = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ (3′ )
Consider, ȁ𝛼 ۧ = 𝑎2 .
𝑎3 𝑎1 0 0
ȁ𝛼 ۧ = 0 + 𝑎 2 + 0
Verify Eq. (3′ ) for ȁ𝛼 ۧ. 0 0 𝑎3

1 0 0
= 𝑎1 0 + 𝑎2 1 + 𝑎3 0
0 0 1

= 𝑎1 ቚ𝛼1 ۧ + 𝑎2 ห𝛼2 ۧ + 𝑎3 ȁ𝛼3 ۧ

= σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ

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Did we verify (3′ ) ? 1 0 0
ȁ𝛼1 ۧ = 0 , ȁ𝛼2 ۧ = 1 , ȁ𝛼3 ۧ = 0
Not yet, we should verify if 0 0 1
ቚ𝛼1 ۧ, ห𝛼2 ۧ, ȁ𝛼3 ۧ are basis 1
vectors? 𝛼1 𝛼1 = 1 0 0 0 =1
0
Or are they orthonormal Likewise,
𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ?
𝛼2 𝛼2 = 𝛼3 𝛼3 =1

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On the other hand,

0
𝛼1 𝛼2 = 1 0 0 1 =0
0
Likewise,

𝛼1 𝛼3 = 𝛼2 𝛼3 = 0

Therefore, 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 verified.

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NOTE-2 : If any vector ȁ𝛼 ۧ can be expanded over an
orthonormal basis {ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ} then the respective complex
coefficients can be extracted by multiplying the dual of ȁ𝛼𝑖 ۧ
from the left.

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EXAMPLE-4
Verify Note-2 of the problem As for Example-3 ;
in Example-3.
𝑎1 0 0
𝛼2 𝛼 = 0 1 0 0 + 𝑎2 + 0
Solution: 0 0 𝑎3
= 𝑎2 .
ȁ𝛼 ۧ = σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑗 ห𝛼𝑗 ൿ

𝛼𝑖 𝛼 = ൻ𝛼𝑖 ห σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑗 ห𝛼𝑗 ൿ

σ𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑗 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗
𝛿𝑖𝑗

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Standard basis

In quantum computation we use ȁ0ۧ, ȁ1ۧ ∈ ℂ2 as

standard
basis where

ȁ0ۧ = 1 0
and ȁ1ۧ = .
0 1

These basis states are orthonormal as they should be.

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 1 1
Question: Are the states , also form a basis in ℂ2 ?
1 −1

Answer : These states are orthogonal but not orthonormal.

1 1
2 2
When we normalize them we obtain 1 and 1 .
−
2 2

Since these can be written in terms of standard basis, we define

1 1
ȁ+ۧ = ห0ۧ + ȁ1ۧ , ȁ−ۧ = ห0ۧ − ȁ1ۧ .
2 2

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Qubit (Quantum Bit)

In traditional binary computing, a bit is the basic information

processing unit that are represented logically by either a 0 (off)
or a 1 (on).

On the other hand a quantum-bit (qubit) can be 0 and 1 at the

same time, a condition known as superposition.

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Definition: A qubit is a vector in a two-dimensional complex vector space.

It can be defined through any orthonormal basis in ℂ2 , but we adopt standard

Basis representation of a qubit.

ȁ𝜓ۧ = 𝑐0 ȁ0ۧ + 𝑐1 ȁ1ۧ (15)

2 2
Here, 𝑐0 and 𝑐1 are complex coefficients and they obey 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 =1
according the normalization condition.

They (square modulus of the coefficients) represent the probabilities being their
respective states.

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Note: A qubit is a vector in a two-dimensional complex vector
space.

ȁ𝜓ۧ = 𝑐0 ȁ0ۧ + 𝑐1 ȁ1ۧ (15)

𝑐0 2 = 𝑝0 : Probability that the system is in the ȁ0ۧ state.

2
𝑐1 = 𝑝1 : Probability that the system is in the ȁ1ۧ state.

2
𝑝0 = 0 𝜓
𝑝1 = 1 𝜓 2

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EXAMPLE

1−𝑖 1 1−𝑖
0𝜓 = 00+ 01 =
3 3 3
2
2
𝑝0 = 0 𝜓 =
3
1
1𝜓 =
3
2
1
𝑝1 = 1 𝜓 =
3

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