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CHAPTER-1
Introduction to Coordinate Geometry
Rene Descarts' greatest contribution to mathematics was the discovery of coordinate
systems and their applications to problems of geometry. Coordinate system used in this book
is referred to as Cartesian coordinate system.
We have seen how coordinate systems work on a line.

x
1

Once we have set up a coordinate system on a line, every number corresponds to a point
on the line and every point on the line corresponds to a number. We shall now extend this
idea to the points in a plane, a point will correspond not to a single number, but to an ordered
pair of numbers. The scheme works like this.
First we take two perpendicular lines, a horizontal line X'OX (the X- axis) and a vertical
line Y'OY (the Y- axis), they intersect at zero point in the XY-plane. The zero point which is
the intersection of these two lines is called the origin, normally labeled O. On the X-axis,
values to the right are positive and those to the left are negative. On the Y-axis, values above
the origin are positive and those below are negative.

X X
 3  2 1 O0 1 2 3
1

 2

 3

Y

We can now describe any point P of the plane by an ordered pair of numbers, as follows.
Draw PM and PN, perpendicular to the X-axis and Y-axis. Let x be the coordinate of M on
the line X'OX and y be the coordinate of N on the line Y'OY.
 (2)
Y

N P ( x , y)
y

M
X X
O (0,0) x

Y

The number x and y are called the x-coordinate and y-coordinate of P respectively. In
short, we indicate that P has these coordinates by writing P (x, y). In particular, the origin O
has coordinates (0, 0).
Just as single line separates the plane into two parts (each of which is a half-plane), so the
two axes separate the XY-plane into four parts, called quadrants. The four quadrants are
identified by the Roman numerals, I, II, III, IV.

second quadrant first quadrant

II I

X X
O
III IV
third quadrant fourth quadrant

Y
We have shown that under the scheme, every point P determines an ordered pair of real
numbers. Does it work in reverse? That is, does every ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers
determine a point? It is easy to see that the answer is "Yes ".
Y

P
b

X a X
O

Y
 (3)
Mark a point on the X-axis, so that the x-coordinate of that point is a. Draw a
perpendicular line passes through that point. Then draw another perpendicular line at the
point in which the y-coordinate is b. The point where these perpendiculars intersect is the
point with coordinates (a, b).
Thus we have a one-to-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the
ordered pairs of real numbers. Such a correspondence is called a rectangular coordinate
system.
To describe such a coordinate system , we need to choose
(1) a line X'OX to be the X-axis ,
(2) a line Y'OY perpendicular to X'OX to be the Y-axis , and
(3) a positive direction on each of the axes.
Once we have made these choices, the coordinate systems on both axes are determined,
and they in turn determine the coordinates of all points of the plane. This plane is referred as
XY-plane. With reference to a coordinate system, every point P determines an ordered pair
(a, b) and every ordered pair (a , b) determines a point.

1.1 Midpoint and Length of a Line Segment

Every line segment has a midpoint. Both the midpoint and length of a line segment can be
found by using the coordinates of the endpoints.

Midpoint of a Line Segment in XY- plane

The midpoint M of a line segment is the halfway point between the two endpoints.
To find the coordinates of the midpoint of a non-horizontal, non-vertical line segment
joining the two given points in the XY- plane.
Y
S B
y2 (x2, y2)
X
T M
y (x, y)

U A
y1 (x1, y1)

P Q R X
O x1 x x2

Let A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) be two given points and M (x, y) be the midpoint of AB. We
will now find the coordinates of M in terms of x1, x2, y1 and y2.
Draw the perpendicular lines AP, MQ, BR to the X-axis as shown. Draw the
perpendicular lines AU, MT, BS to Y-axis. Clearly AU, MT, BS are horizontal lines while
AP, MQ, BR are vertical lines. The points M and Q have the same x-coordinates and M and
T have the same y-coordinates.
 (4)

Q is the midpoint of PR, the x-coordinate of Q is .

T is the midpoint of SU, the x-coordinate of T is .

 x-coordinate of midpoint M = x = and

y-coordinate of midpoint M = y = .

Midpoint Formula:
The coordinate of midpoint of A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are

M (x, y) = .

Example 1.
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of PQ with endpoints P (2, 5) and Q (6, 1).

Solution
If M is the midpoint of PQ, then

M= = (4, 3).

The length of a Line Segment in XY-plane.

Y

B
(x2, y2)

(y2-y1)

(x1, y1)
(x2, y1)
A (x2-x1) C

X
O x1 x2

Let AB be a non-horizontal, non-vertical line segment with A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2).
Complete a right-angled triangle ABC as shown.
The line segment is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. You may use Pythagoras’
theorem to find the length of a straight line segment.
 (5)
Horizontal distance AC = x2 – x1
Vertical distance BC = y2 – y1
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
AB =
Therefore, the length of line segment AB is .

Distance Formula:
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
.

Example 2.
Find the length of PQ with endpoint P (1, 5) and Q (4, 1).

Solution
Let (1, 5) = (x1, y1) and (4, 1) = (x2, y2).
Length of PQ =
=
= = = 5.

Example 3.
A is the point (5, -3) and B is the point (-2, 1).
(a) Find the midpoint of AB. (b) Find the length of AB.

Solution
(a) Let (5, -3) = (x1, y1) and (-2, 1) = (x2, y2).

Midpoint of AB = = = (1.5, -1)

(b) Length of AB = = =

Example 4.
The point M (a, 4) is the midpoint of the line segment with endpoints at A (1, 3) and B (5, b).
Find the value of a and of b.

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Solution
Let (x1, y1) be (1, 3) and (x2, y2) be (5, b).

Midpoint of AB =

(a, 4) = .

Equating of the x-coordinates and y-coordinates respectively, we get

a= ,4=

a=3 , b = 5.

Example5.
The distance between two points R (9, a) and S (a+1, 2) is 6. Find the two possible values of
a.

Solution
Let (x1, y1) be (9, a) and (x2, y2) be (a + 1, 2).
Using distance formula and RS = 6, we get
=6
(a – 8)2 + (2 – a)2 = 62
a2 – 16a + 64 + 4 – 4a + a2 = 36
2a2 – 20a + 32 = 0
a2 – 10a + 16 = 0
(a – 8) (a – 2) = 0
a – 8 = 0 or a – 2 = 0
a = 8 or a = 2.

Example 6.
In a parallelogram ABCD, three vertices are A (-3, 1), B (2, 4) and C (3, 1).
(a) Find the midpoint of the diagonal AC. (b) Find the coordinates of D.

Solution

(a) Midpoint of AC = = (0, 1).

(b) Let the coordinates of D be (x, y).

Midpoint of AC = Midpoint of BD ( ABCD is a parallelogram.)

(0, 1) =

(7)
Equating the x-coordinates and y-coordinates respectively, we have
 =0 and =1

2+x =0 and 4+y =2

x = -2 and y = -2
 D (x, y) = (-2, -2).

Exercise 1.1
1. Draw a set of coordinate axes. Locate the points, A (2, 3), B (2, -4) and C (-4, 3). Label
each point with its coordinates. Determine whether each of the line segments AB, BC
and CA is horizontal or vertical.

Solution :

AB is a vertical line.

BC is neither horizontal nor vertical line.

AC is a horizontal line.

2. Find the missing coordinates in the following table if M is the midpoint of points P and Q.

P Q M
(2, 6) (3, 3)
(3, 2) (-3, -1)
(0, -1) (-3, 2)
(1, 5) (2.5, 3.5)

Solution :
(i) Let the coordinate of the point Q be (x, y).
Since M is the midpoint of P and Q,

(3, 3) =

 =3 and =3

2+x =6 and 6+y =6

x =4 and y =0
 Q (x, y) = (4, 0)

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(ii) Let the coordinate of the point M be (x, y).
 Since M is the midpoint of P and Q,

(x, y) =

(x, y) =

 M (x, y) =

(iii) Let the coordinate of the point P be (x, y).

Since M is the midpoint of P and Q,

(-3, 2) =

 = -3 and =2

x = -6 and y–1 =4
x = -6 and y =5
 P (x, y) = (-6, 5)

(iv) Let the coordinate of the point Q be (x, y).

Since M is the midpoint of P and Q,

(2.5, 3.5) =

 = 2.5 and = 3.5

1+x =5 and 5+y =7

x =4 and y =2
 Q (x, y) = (4, 2)

3. Find the coordinates of the midpoint and the length of the line segment joining these pairs
of points.
(a) (0, 0) and (4, -4) (b) (1, 5) and (3, 1) (c) (-3, -3) and (0, 0)

(d) (-1, 3) and (5, 1) (e) (-1, 6) and (2, -2) (f) (-3, -4) and (3, -1)

Solution :
(a) (0, 0) and (4, -4)

the midpoint between (0, 0) and (4, -4) =

= (2, -2)

(9)
length of segment =
=
 =
=4

(b) (1, 5) and (3, 1)

The midpoint between (1, 5) and (3, 1) =

= (2, 3)

length of segment =
=
=
=2

(c) (-3, -3) and (0, 0)

The midpoint between (-3, -3) and (0, 0) =

length of segment =
=
=
=3

(d) (-1, 3) and (5, 1)

The midpoint between (-1, 3) and (5, 1) =

= (2, 2)

length of segment =
=
=
=2

(10)
(e) (-1, 6) and (2, -2)

the midpoint between (-1, 6) and (2, -2) =

=
 length of segment =
=
=

(f) (-3, -4) and (3, -1)

the midpoint between (-3, -4) and (3, -1) =

length of segment =
=
=
=3

4. If (1, 0) is the midpoint of the line passing through the points A (-5, 2) and B(x, y), find the
value of x and of y.

Solution :
(1, 0) is the midpoint of A (-5, 2) and B (x, y),

(1, 0) =

 =1 and =0

-5+x =2 and 2+y =0

 x =7 and y = -2

5. Calculate the perimeter of given polygons correct to one decimal place.

(a) A triangle with vertices P (-2, 3), Q (5, -4) and R (1, 8).

(b) A parallelogram with vertices A (-10, 1), B (6, -2), C (14, 4) and D (-2, 7).

(c) A trapezium with vertices E (-6, -2), F (1, -2), G (0, 4) and H (-5, 4).

(11)
Solution :
(a) P (-2, 3), Q (5, -4) and R (1, 8).
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
PQ =
=
= = 9.9
QR =
 =
= = 12.7
PR =
=
= = 5.8

 The perimeter of PQR = PQ + QR + PR

= 9.9 + 12.7 + 5.8
= 28.4 units.

(b) A (-10, 1), B (6, -2), C (14, 4) and D (-2, 7).

the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
ABCD is a parallelogram,
AB = CD and BC = AD
AB = CD =
=
= = 16.3
BC = AD =
=
= = 10.0

 the perimeter of a parallelogram ABCD = AB + BC + CD + AD

= 2 (16.3) + 2 (10)
= 52.6 units.

(c) E (-6, -2), F (1, -2), G (0, 4) and H (-5, 4).

the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,

(12)
EF =
=
= 7.0
FG =
=
= = 6.1
GH =
=
= 5.0
EH =
 =
= = 6.1

 the perimeter of a trapezium EFGH = EF + FG + GH + EH

= 7.0 + 6.1 + 5.0 + 6.1
= 24.2 units.

6. A circle has centre (2, 1). Find the coordinates of the endpoint of a diameter if one
endpoint is (7, 1).

Solution :
Let the other endpoint be (x, y).
(2, 1) is the midpoint between (x, y) and (7, 1)

(2, 1) =

 =2 and =1

x+7 =4 and y+1 =2

 x = -3 and y =1
the other endpoint is (-3, 1).

7.  KLM has vertices K (-5, 18), L (10, -2) and M (-5, -10).
(a) Find the length of each side.

(b) Find the perimeter of  KLM.

(c) Find the area of  KLM.

(13)
Solution :
K (-5, 18), L (10, -2) and M (-5, -10).
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
KL =
=
= = 25
LM =
=
= = 17
KM =
=
= 28
 The perimeter of  KLM = KL + LM + KM
= 25 + 17 + 28
= 70 units

K and M have the same x-coordinate,

KM is a vertical line.
Draw LN  KM,
the x-coordinate of N is -5,
LN is a horizontal line.
the y-coordinate of N is -2,
the coordinates of N is (-5, -2)
 LN =
= = 15

The area of  KLM = . KM . LN

= . 28 . 15

= 210 sq-units

8. Prove that the triangle whose vertices are P (2, 3), Q (-1, -1), R (3, -4) is isosceles.

Solution :
P (2, 3), Q (-1, -1), R (3, -4)
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,

(14)
PQ =
=
= =5
QR =
=
= =5
PR =
=
= =5
PQ = QR = 5
 PQR is isosceles.

9. A triangle has vertices E (0, 7), F (5, -5) and G (10, 7). Find the length of the altitude to
the shortest side.

Solution :
 E (0, 7), F (5, -5) and G (10, 7).
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
EF =
=
= = 13
FG =
=
= = 13
EG =
= = 10
the shortest side is EG

E and G have the same y-coordinate,

EG is a horizontal line.
Draw FH  EG,
the y-coordinate of H is 7,
FH is a vertical line.
the x-coordinate of H is 5,
the coordinates of H is (5, 7)

(15)
 FH =
= = 12
the length of the altitude to the shortest side is 12 units.

10. The vertices of a quadrilateral are A (4, -3), B (7, 10), C (-8, 2) and D (-1, -5). Find the
length of each diagonal.

Solution :
A (4, -3), B (7, 10), C (-8, 2) and D (-1, -5).
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
AC =
=
= = 13
BD =
=
= = 17
the length of each diagonal are 13 units and 17 units.

11. The distance between the two points M (15, a) and N (a, -5) is 20. Find the value of a.
Solution :
the distance between M (15, a) and N (a, -5) is 20.
= 20
2 2
(a – 15) + (-5 –a) = 202
a – 30a + 225 + 25 + 10a + a2 = 400
2

2a2 – 20a - 150 = 0

2
a – 10a - 75 = 0
(a – 15) (a + 5) = 0
a – 15 = 0 or a+5 = 0
a = 15 or a = -5

12. In a parallelogram PQRS, three of vertices are P (1, 1), Q (2, 6) and R(5, 3). Find the mid-
point of PR and use it to find the fourth vertex S. Find also the lengths of the diagonals.

Solution :
P (1, 1), Q (2, 6) and R (5, 3).

the midpoint of PR =

= (3, 2)
(16)
the fourth vertex S be (x, y),
PQRS is a parallelogram,
the midpoint of PR = the midpoint of QS

(3, 2) =

 =3 and =2

2+x =6 and 6+y =4

 x =4 and y = -2
the fourth vertex S is (4, -2).
the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,
PR =
=
= =
QS =Y
= B
(x2, y2)
= =
the lengths of the diagonals are units
(y2-y1and
) rise units.
(x1, y1)
(x2, y1)
1.2 Slope of a Straight
run
Line
A (x -x ) C 2 1

X
O x1 x2
The slope of the line passing through any two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is a measure of
the steepness of the line AB. Simply it is the ratio of the vertical change (rise) divided by the
horizontal change (run). To determine rise and run, select any two points on the line. The
horizontal distance between these two points is called the run and the vertical distance is
called the rise.

Slope m = = = =

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Slope Formula:
The slope of the line passing through any two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is

Slope m =

For example, to find the slope of a slanting line, select any two points on a line to
determine the rise and run.

(i) Positive Slope

Create a right-angled triangle to

determine rise and run
increase in x, run = 3
increase in y, rise = 3

Slope = = =1

(ii) Negative Slope

increase in x, run = 3
decrease in y, rise = -2
 Slope = = =

(iii) Zero Slope

increase in x, run = 3
decrease in y, rise = 0

Slope = = = =0

Note that the slope of the horizontal line is zero.

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(iv) Undefined Slope

increase in x, run = 0
decrease in y, rise = 3

Slope = = = = (undefined)

Since the denominator is zero.

So the ratio is undefined.

Note that the vertical line has undefined slope.

As shown in the examples, slope can be positive, negative, zero or undefined. By

looking at the graph of a line, you may know these cases without calculation. The following
table will help you.

Positive Slope Negative Slope Zero Slope Undefined Slope

Y
Y Y Y
m>0 m=0

O X
O X X X
O O
m<0 m(undefined)

Example 7.
Find the slope of the line AB that passes through the points A (4, -2) and B (-1, 2).

Solution
Let (x1, y1) be (4, -2) and (x2, y2) be (-1, 2).

Slope m = = =- .

The slope of the line AB is - .

Example 8.
Find the slope of the given line.

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Solution
Let (3, 3) be (x1, y1) and (-2, -1) be (x2, y2).

Slope m = = = = .

Example 9.
Find the slope of the line that passes through the following points.

x 0 1 2 3
y 5 5 5 5

Solution
Let us choose any two points on the line from the table.
Let (0, 5) be (x1, y1) and (2, 5) be (x2, y2).

Slope m = = = = 0.

Exercise 1.2
1. Complete each sentence.
(a) The slope of the line passing through two points (-6, 0) and (2, 3) is ________.
(b) The slope of the line joining the point (1, 2) and the origin is ________.
(c) A vertical line has ________ slope.
(d) A horizontal line has ________ slope.
Solution :
(a) Let (- 6, 0) be (x1, y1) and (2, 3) be (x2, y2).

Slope m =

= =

(b) the coordinate of the origin is (0, 0),

Let (1, 2) be (x1, y1) and (0, 0) be (x2, y2).

Slope m =

= = =2

(c) undefined

(d) zero
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2. For each graph state whether the slope is positive, negative, zero or undefined,
then find the slope if possible.

(a)

(c)

(e)
 (g)

Solution :
(a) The slope of the line is undefined.

(b) The slope of the line is undefined.

(c) The slope of the line is zero.

(d) The slope of the line is zero.

(21)
(e) The slope of the line is positive.
(0, 0) and (3, 3)

slope m =

= =1

(f) The slope of the line is positive.

(0, 0) and (3, 2)

slope m =

= =

(g) The slope of the line is negative.

(0, 3) and (4, 0)

slope m =

= =-

(h) The slope the line is negative.

(0, 2) and (3, 0)

slope m =
 = =-

3. Which pairs of points given below will determine horizontal lines? Which ones vertical
lines? Determine the slope of each line without calculation.
(a) (5, 2) and (-3, 2) (b) (0, 5) and (-1, 5) (c) (2, 3) and (2, 6)

(d) (0, 0) and (0, -2) (e) (1, -2) and (-3, -2) (f) (a, b) and (a, c)

Solution :
(a) (5, 2) and (-3, 2)
They have the same y-coordinate, (the horizontal line.)
The slope of the horizontal line is zero.

(b) (0, 5) and (-1, 5)

They have the same y-coordinate, (the horizontal line.)
The slope of the horizontal line is zero.

(c) (2, 3) and (2, 6)

They have the same x-coordinate, (the vertical line.)
The slope of the vertical line is undefined.
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(d) (0, 0) and (0, -2)
They have the same x-coordinate, (the vertical line.)
The slope of the vertical line is undefined.

(e) (1, -2) and (-3, -2)

They have the same y-coordinate, (the horizontal line.)
The slope of the horizontal line is zero.

(f) (a, b) and (a, c)

They have the same x-coordinate, (the vertical line.)
The slope of the vertical line is undefined.

4. Find the slope of each line which contains each pair of points listed below.
(a) A (0, 0) and B (8, 4) (b) C (10, 5) and D (6, 8)

(c) E (-5, 7) and F (-2, -4) (d) G (23, 15) and H (18, 5)

(e) I (-2, 0) and J (0, 6) (f) K (15, 6) and L (-2, 23)

Solution :
(a) A (0, 0) and B (8, 4)

slope of AB = mAB =

=
 = =

(b) C (10, 5) and D (6, 8)

slope of CD = mCD =

=-

(c) E (-5, 7) and F (-2, -4)

slope of EF = mEF =

=-

(23)
(d) G (23, 15) and H (18, 5)

slope of GH = mGH =

= =2

(e) I (-2, 0) and J (0, 6)

slope of IJ = mIJ =

= =3

(f) K (15, 6) and L (-2, 23)

slope of KL = mKL =

=
 = = -1

5. Find the slope of each line which contains each pair of points listed below.

(a) E and F (b) G (-a, b) and H (3a, 2b)

(c) L ( ) and M ( ) (d) P (0, a) and Q (a, 0)

Solution :

(a) E and F

slope of EF = mEF =

= = =

(24)
(b) G (-a, b) and H (3a, 2b)

slope of GH = mGH =

(c) L ( ) and M ( )

slope of LM = mLM =

= = =-

(d) P (0, a) and Q (a, 0)

slope of PQ = mPQ =

=
 = = -1

6. Find p, q, r in the followings:

(a) The slope joining the points (0, 3) and (1, p) is 5.

(b) The slope joining the points (-2, q) and (0, 1) is -1.

(c) The slope joining the points (-4, -2) and (r, -6) is -6.

Solution :
(a) the slope joining the points (0, 3) and (1, p) is 5.

=5
p-3 =5
p =8

(b) the slope joining the points (-2, q) and (0, 1) is -1.

= -1
1-q = -2
q =3

(25)
(c) the slope joining the points (-4, -2) and (r, -6) is -6.

=-6
-4 = -6r – 24
6r = -20
r =- = -

7. Find the slope corresponding to the following events.

(a) A man climbs 10m for every 200 meters horizontally.

(b) A motorbike rises 3m for every 10 meters horizontally.

(c) A plane takes off 1 km for every 5 kilometers horizontally.

(d) A submarine descends 120m for every 15 meters horizontally.

Solution :
(a) rise = 10 m, run = 200 m
slope =

= =
 (b) rise = 3 m, run = 10 m
slope =

(c) rise = 1 km, run = 5 km

slope =

(d) rise = -120 m, run = 15 m

slope =

= = -8

8. A train climbs a hill with slope 0.05. How far horizontally has the train travelled after
rising 15 meters?

(26)
Solution :
m = 0.05, rise = 15m
slope m =

0.05 =

run =
= 300
the horizontal distance travelled by the train is 300 m.

9. The vertices of a triangle are the points A (-2, 3), B (5, -4) and C (1, 8). Find the slope of
each side.

Solution :
A (-2, 3), B (5, -4) and C (1, 8).

slope m =

mAB =

= = -1

mBC =
 = = -3

mAC =

the distance between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) = ,

AB =
=
= = 9.9
BC =
=
= = 12.7
AC =
=
= = 5.8

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10. The vertices of a parallelogram are the points P (1, 4), Q (3, 2), R (4, 6) and S (2, 8). Find
the slope of each side.

Solution :
P (1, 4), Q (3, 2), R (4, 6) and S (2, 8).

slope m =

slope of PQ = m =

= = -1

slope of QR = m =

= =4

slope of RS = m =

= = -1

slope of PS = m =

= =4

11. A line having a slope of – 1 contains the point (-2, 5). What is the y-coordinate of the
point on that line whose x-coordinate is 8?
Solution :
slope m = – 1,
the point (x1, y1) is (-2, 5).
Let the required point be (8, y).

slope m =

-1 =
- 10 = y–5
 y = - 5.

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1.3 Lines in the Coordinate Plane

Graph of a Linear Equation

A linear equation is an algebraic equation, in which each term has an exponent of one. To
draw the graph of a linear equation y = mx + c, you need to plot the coordinates of the points
on the line. Construct a table of values of x and y. Choose any two or more values of x
within the given interval. If the interval is not given you may choose any values of x. To find
the value of y, substitute each value of x in the given linear equation. x and y are the variables
in the equation, which means you may take any values. Then plot the points. You will get a
straight line graph.
For example, we consider the graph of y = 2x + 1.
To draw the given graph, you may choose any the real values of x. Work out the y values
and put them in a table.

x -2 -1 0 1 2
y -3 -1 1 3 5

Plot the points in the coordinate plane.

 To find the slope of given linear equation y = 2x + 1, taken any points on the line.
If you choose (x1, y1) be (1, 3) and (x2, y2) be (2, 5), then

Slope m =

= = = 2.

If you choose (x1, y1) be (-2, -3) and (x2, y2) be (1, 3), then

Slope m =

= = = 2.

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Now you can see how the slope of this straight line is related to the equation y = 2x + 1.
Notice that the slope of the line is equal to the coefficient of x in the given linear equation
y = mx + c. The point where the line cuts the Y- axis (y-intercept) has a y coordinate that is
equal to the constant term in the equation.

Slope-Intercept Form
The equation of the form y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line with slope m and
y- intercept c, which is called the slope-intercept form.

Point-Slope Form
We can also find the equation of a line if we are given a point on the line and its slope.
Consider a line with slope m, and passes through the known point A (x1, y1). Let P (x, y) be
any point on the line. Then,

m=

y – y1 = m (x – x1)

This is the equation of a straight line, with slope m, and passes through the point (x 1, y1)
which is called the point-slope form.

Example 10.
Find the y-intercept and the slope of each line.
(a) y – 3x + 4 = 0 (b) y + 5x = 1 (c) x + y = 8

Solution
 equation y = mx+ c slope y-intercept
y – 3x + 4 = 0 y = 3x – 4 3 -4

y + 5x = 1 y = -5x + 1 -5 1

x+y=8 y = -x + 8 -1 8

Example 11.
Find the equation of the line with slope -5 and passes through the point (2, 0) and draw the
graph.

Solution
The equation of the line is y = -5x + c, where c is a constant.
Since the point (2, 0) is on the line, substituting x = 2 and y = 0 in the equation.
3 = -5 (2) + c
c = 10.
Thus the equation of the line is y = -5x +10.
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Alternative Method:
Since the point (2, 0) is on the line, substituting x1 = 2 and y1 = 0, and slope m = -5 in
point-slope from,
y – y1 = m(x – x1)
y – 0 = -5(x – 2)
y = -5x + 10.
Thus the equation of the line is y = -5x + 10.

Example 12.
Find the equation of the line passing through the points A (1, 3) and B (4, 9). Find also the
y-intercept.

Solution
Let (x1, y1) be (1, 3) and (x2, y2) be (4, 9).

Slope m = = = 2.

 the equation of the line is y = 2x + c, where c is y-intercept.

Since the line passing through (1, 3), substituting x = 1 and y = 3 in the equation.
y = 2x + c
3 = 2(1) + c
c=1
Thus the equation of the line is y = 2x + 1 and the y-intercept is 1.

Alternative Method:
Let (x1, y1) be (1, 3) and (x2, y2) be (4, 9).
 Slope m = = = 2.

Since the point (1, 3) is on the line, substituting x = 1 and y = 3, and slope m = 2 in
point-slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y – 3 = 2(x – 1)
y = 2x + 1.
Thus the equation of the line is y = 2x + 1 and the y-intercept is 1.

Example 13.
The coordinates of the points A and B are (2, 5) and (-1, 5) respectively. Find the equation of
the line AB.

Solution
Equation of AB is of the form y = 0x + c. Since the point (2, 5) is on the line, substituting
x = 2 and y = 5 into the equation.
5 = (0) x + c
c=5
Thus the equation of the line is y = 5.
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Alternative Method:
Let (x1, y1) be (2, 5) and (x2, y2) be (-1, 5).

Slope m = = = = 0.

The point (2, 5) is on the line. Substituting x = 2 and y = 5 and slope m = 0 in point-slope
form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y – 5 = 0 (x – 2)
y = 5.
Thus the equation of the line is y = 5.

Note that the equation of the horizontal line is y = a, a = constant and the equation of the
vertical line is x = b, b = constant. On a line, all segments have the same slope. All the points
on the same straight line are said to be collinear.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Any two horizontal lines are parallel. Any two vertical lines are parallel. Vertical line and
horizontal line are perpendicular. Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they
have the same slope. Two non-vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of
their slope is -1. (i.e, one is the negative reciprocal of the other).
For example, in the following figure, the lines l1 and l2 are parallel, and the lines l1 and l2
are perpendicular to the line l3.
 slope of line l1 = m1 = = = =2

slope of line l2 = m2 = = = =2

slope of line l3 = m3 = = = =

 m1 = m2, m1m3 = m2m3 = -1.

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Exercise 1.3
1. Sketch the following lines.

(a) y = 3 (b) x = -2 (c) y = 5x (d) y = -3x (e) y = x

Solution :
(a) y = 3
y = 3 is a horizontal line.

(b) x = -2
x = -2 is a vertical line.
 (c) y = 5x

x … -1 0 1 …
y = 5x … -5 0 5 …

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(d) y = -3x

x … -1 0 1 …
y = -3x … 3 0 -3 …

(e) y = x

x … -2 0 2 …

y= x … -1 0 1 …

2. Graph each line in the coordinate plane.

(a) y = x + 2 (b) y = x + 3 (c) y = x + 5

(d) y = x – 1 (e) y = x – 2 (f) y = x – 4

Solution :
 (34)
3. Graph each line.

(a) y = 2x + 2 (b) y = x+2 (c) y = - x + 2

Solution :
(a) y = 2x + 2

x ... 0 -1 ...

y = 2x + 2 ... 2 0 ...

(b) y = x+2

x ... 0 -4 ...
... ...
y= x+2 2 0

(c) y = - x+2

x ... 0 4 ...
... ...
y=- x+2 2 0
 4. Find the slope and y-intercept for the following equations and sketch their graphs.

(a) y = x – 2 (b) y = -3x – 3 (c) y = x+1

(d) y = - x + 1 (e) y + 3x = 3 (f) x – y = 3

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Solution :
(a) y = x – 2
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m = 1, y-intercept c = -2,

x ... 0 2 ...
y=x–2 ... -2 0 ...

(b) y = -3x – 3
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m = -3, y-intercept c = -3,

x ... 0 -1 ...
y = -3x – 3 ... -3 0 ...

(c) y = x+1
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m = , y-intercept c = 1,
 x ... 0 -2 ...
... ...
y= x+1 1 0

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(d) y = - x + 1
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m = - , y-intercept c = 1,

x ... 0 2 ...
... ...
y=- x+1 1 0

(e) y + 3x = 3
y = -3x + 3
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m= -3, y-intercept c = 3,

x ... 0 1 ...
y = -3x + 3 ... 3 0 ...

(f) x - y = 3
y =x-3
compare with y = mx + c,

slope m= 1, y-intercept c = -3,

 x ... 0 3 ...
y = -3x – 3 ... -3 0 ...

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5. Find the equation of the straight line with the given slope and y-intercept.
(a) slope 3, y-intercept 4 (b) slope 2, y-intercept 0

(c) slope 0, y-intercept 2 (d) slope 0, y-intercept 0

Solution :
(a) slope = 3, y-intercept = 4
m = 3, c = 4,

slope- intercept form,

y = mx + c,

the equation of the line is y = 3x + 4.

(b) slope = 2, y-intercept = 0

m = 2, c = 0,

slope- intercept form,

y = mx + c,

the equation of the line is y = 2x.

(c) slope = 0, y-intercept = 2

m = 0, c = 2,

slope- intercept form,

y = mx + c,

the equation of the line is y = 2.

(d) slope = 0, y-intercept = 0

m = 0, c = 0,

slope- intercept form,

y = mx + c,

the equation of the line is y = 0.

 6. Find the equation of the line which has a slope m of - and passes through the point (9, 4).

Solution :

m=-
Let (x1, y1) be (9, 4) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.

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point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y–4 = - (x – 9)
3y – 12 = -2x + 18
3y = -2x + 30
y = - x + 10

7. A line has slope -2 and y-intercept 6, find its x-intercept.

Solution :
slope m = -2 and y-intercept c = 6,
slope - intercept form,
y = mx + c,

the equation of the line is y = -2x + 6.

For x-intercept, y = 0,
0 = -2x + 6
2x =6
x =3
 x- intercept = 3.

8. Find the equation of the line which:

(a) has a slope of 5 and passes through the point (2, 9)

(b) has a slope of 1 and passes through the point (1, -2)

(c) has a slope of -3 and passes through the point (-1, 6)

(d) has a slope of -2 and passes through the point (-1, 4).

Solution :
(a) m = 5
Let (x1, y1) be (2, 9) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
 point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y - 9 = 5 (x - 2)
y - 9 = 5x - 10
y = 5x - 1

(b) m=1
Let (x1, y1) be (1, -2) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y + 2 = 1 (x - 1)
y+2 =x-1
y =x–3
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(c) m = -3
Let (x1, y1) be (-1, 6) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y - 6 = -3 (x + 1)
y - 6 = -3 x -3
y = -3x+3

(d) m = -2
Let (x1, y1) be (-1, 4) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y - 4 = -2 (x + 1)
y - 4 = -2 x - 2
y = -2x + 2

9. Find the slope and equation of the line joining the following pairs of points.
(a) (2, 4) and (6, 8) (b) (-3, 5) and (6, -1) (c) (-2, 1) and (-4, -2)

Solution :
(a) (2, 4) and (6, 8)

Slope m =

= =1

Let (x1, y1) be (2, 4) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point - slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y - 4 = 1 (x - 2)
y-4 =x-2
y =x+2

(b) (-3, 5) and (6, -1)

 Slope m =

= =-

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Let (x1, y1) be (-3, 5) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point- slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y–5 =- (x + 3)
3y – 15 = - 2x - 6
3y = - 2x + 9
y =- x+3

(c) (-2, 1) and (-4, -2)

Slope m =

= =

Let (x1, y1) be (-2, 1) and (x, y) be any other point on the line.
point- slope form,
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y-1 = (x + 2)
2y - 2 = 3x + 6
2y = 3x + 8
y = x+4

10. Determine which of the pairs of lines in each case with given equations are parallel or
perpendicular or neither.

(a) y = 3x – 2 and y = 3x + 9 (b) y = x – 5 and y = x–5

(c) y = 3x – 2 and y = - x + 9 (d) y = x – 5 and y = - x – 5

Solution :
(a) y = 3x – 2 and y = 3x + 9
L1; y = 3x – 2
m1 = 3
L2; y = 3x + 9
m2 = 3
m1 = m2
L1 is parallel to L2

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(b) y = x – 5 and y = x–5

L1; y = x–5

m1 =

L2; y = x–5

m2 =
m1  m2
L1 is not parallel to L2
m1 . m2 = . = 1  -1
L1 is not perpendicular to L2

(c) y = 3x – 2 and y = - x + 9
L1; y = 3x – 2
m1 = 3
L2; y = - x + 9

m2 = -

m1 . m2 = 3 = -1
L1 is perpendicular to L2.

(d) y = x – 5 and y = - x – 5

L1; y = x–5

m1 =
 L2; y = - x – 5

m2 = -

 m1 . m2 = = -1
L1 is perpendicular to L2.

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11. Find the equation of the line which is parallel to the line.
(a) with equation y = 4x + 2 and passes through (0, 8)

(b) with equation y = -x + 3 and passes through (0, 5)

(c) with equation y = -2x - 3 and passes through (0, -7)

(d) with equation y = - x - 3 and passes through (0, )

Solution :
(a) y = 4x + 2
m = 4,
Since, the two lines are parallel, they have the same slope.
the slope of the required line is 4.

the line passes through (0, 8),

y-intercept c = 8,

The required line is y = mx + c

y = 4x + 8.

(b) y = -x + 3
m = -1,
Since, the two lines are parallel, they have the same slope.
the slope of the required line is -1.

the line passes through (0, 5),

y-intercept c = 5,

The required line is y = mx + c

y = -x + 5.

(c) y = -2x - 3
m = -2,
Since, the two lines are parallel, they have the same slope.
 the slope of the required line is -2.

the line passes through (0, -7),

y-intercept c = -7

The required line is y = mx + c

y = -2x - 7.

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(d) y =- x-3

m =- ,
Since, the two lines are parallel, they have the same slope.
the slope of the required line is - .

the line passes through (0, ),

y-intercept c =

The required line is y = mx + c

y =- x- .

12. Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to the line.
(a) with equation y = 5x - 4 and passes through (0, 7)

(b) with equation y = -x + 7 and passes through (0, 4)

(c) with equation y = -2x + 3 and passes through (0, - 4)

(d) with equation y = x - and passes through (0, )

Solution :
(a) y = 5x – 4
m = 5,
Since, the two lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the
other.
the slope of the required line is - .
 the line passes through (0, 7),
y-intercept c = 7.

The required line is y = mx + c

y = - x + 7.

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(b) y = -x + 7
m = -1,
Since, the two lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the
other.
the slope of the required line is 1.

the line passes through (0, 4),

y-intercept c = 4

The required line is y = mx + c

y =x+4

(c) y = -2x + 3
m = -2 ,
Since, the two lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the
other.
the slope of the required line is .

the line passes through (0, - 4),

y-intercept c = -4

The required line is y = mx + c

y = x–4

(d) y =x-

m =1,
Since, the two lines are perpendicular, the slope of one is the negative reciprocal of the
other.
the slope of the required line is -1.

the line passes through (0, ),

y-intercept c =
 The required line is y = mx + c
y =-x+

13. Show that the line through (3n, 0) and (0, 7n) is parallel to the line through (0, 21n) and
(9n, 0).

(45)
Solution :
(3n, 0) and (0, 7n)

Slope m =

m1 =

= =-

(0, 21n) and (9n, 0).

Slope m =

m2 =

= =-
 m1 = m 2
L1 || L2
14. Prove that the triangle whose vertices are H (-12, 1), K (9, 3) and M (11, -18) is a right
triangle.

Solution :
H (-12, 1), K (9, 3) and M (11, -18)

Slope m =

mHK =

mKM =

=-
 mHM =

=-

mHK . mKM = = -1
HK  KM
  HKM is a right triangle.

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15. Given the points P (1, 2), Q (5, -6) and R (b, b), determine the value of b so that angle
PQR is a right angle.

Solution :
P (1, 2), Q (5, -6) and R (b, b),
 PQR is a right angle.
PQ  QR
mPQ  mQR = -1
 = -1

 = -1

=
2b + 12 =b-5
b = - 17

16. A right-angled isosceles triangle has vertices at (0, 5), (5, 0) and (-5, 0). Find the
equation of each of the three sides.

Solution :
(0, 5) and (5, 0)

Slope m =

= = = -1
the line passes through (0, 5),
y-intercept c = 5,
The required line is y = mx + c
y = -x + 5.

(-5, 0) and (5, 0)

They have the same y-coordinate 0, (the horizontal line.)
the equation of the horizontal line is y = 0

(0, 5) and (-5, 0)

 Slope m =

= =1
the line passes through (0, 5),
y-intercept c = 5,
The required line is y = mx + c
y = x + 5.

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17. Determine the slope of each side of the quadrilateral whose vertices are A (5, 6),
B (13, 6), C (11, 2) and D (1, 2). Can you tell what kind of a quadrilateral it is?

Solution :
A (5, 6), B (13, 6), C (11, 2) and D (1, 2).

Slope m =

mAB =

= =0 (horizontal line)

mBC =

= =2

mCD =

= =0 (horizontal line)

mAD =

= =1
mAB = mCD,
AB || CD.
the quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezium.

18. Given the points D (-4, 6), E (1, 1), and F (4, 6), find the slopes of DE and EF. Are the
points D, E and F collinear, explain why?

Solution :
D (-4, 6), E (1, 1), and F (4, 6),

Slope m =
 mDE = = = -1

mEF =

=
mDE  mEF,
D, E and F are not collinear.

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19. Prove that the quadrilateral with vertices A (-2, 2), B (2, -2), C (4, 2) and D (2, 4)
is a trapezoid with perpendicular diagonals.

Solution :
A (-2, 2), B (2, -2), C (4, 2) and D (2, 4)

Slope m =

mAB =

= = -1

mBC =

= =2

mCD =

= = -1

mAD =

= =
mAB = mCD,
AB || CD.
ABCD is a trapezium.

mAC =

= =0 (horizontal line)

mBD =

= = undefined (vertical line)

AC is a horizontal line.
 BD is a vertical line.
 AC  BD,
the quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid with perpendicular diagonals.

20. Find the slopes of the six lines determined by the points A (-5, 4), B (3, 5), C (7, -2),
D (-1, -3). Prove that ABCD is a rhombus.

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Solution :
A (-5, 4), B (3, 5), C (7, -2), D (-1, -3).

Slope m =

mAB =

mBC =

mCD =

= =

mAD =

mAC =

= =-

mBD =

= =2
mAB = mCD
AB || CD
mBC = mAD
BC || AD
mAC × mBD =- ×2
= -1
 AC  BD,
ABCD is a rhombus.
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Midpoint Formula:
The coordinate of midpoint of A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are

M (x, y) = .

Distance Formula:
The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is
.

Slope Formula:
The slope of the line passing through any two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is

Slope m =

Slope-Intercept Form
The equation of the form y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line with slope m and
y- intercept c, which is called the slope-intercept form.

Point-Slope Form
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
This is the equation of a straight line, with slope m, and passes through the point (x 1, y1)
which is called the point-slope form.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope. Two non-
vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their slope is -1. (i.e, one is the
negative reciprocal of the other).

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