ANCIENT-MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND INDIAN CULTURE

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (PART-2)

EARLY MEDIEVAL ART & ARCHITECTURE
The early medieval period was marked by remarkable developments in the spheres of art and
architecture. Distinct regional architectural and sculptural styles emerged in different areas. In
contrast to previous centuries, when a great proportion of the major architectural remains were
Buddhist, in this period, the remains are dominated by Hindu temples.
Nagara, Dravida and Vesara Styles of Temple Architecture
Three major styles of temple architecture developed during this period: Nagara, Dravida, and
Vesara.

Nagara Dravida Vesara

Location b/w Himalayas and Vindhyas b/w Krishna & Kaveri rivers b/w Vindhyas &
Krishna river

Plan Square with projections in the middle Small garba-griha, within Hybrid style.
(Cruciform shape) large pillared halls
(mandapams)

Elevation curvilinear or convex Shikhara, crowned pyramidal Vimana,

by amalaka (ring stone) surmounted by a small
dome (stupika), gopurams.

e.g. Dashavatara temple at Deogarh, brick Temples of South India Temples in Deccan
temple at Bhitargaon (both in UP); under Pallavas, Cholas. under Rashtrakutas,
Mahadeva temple at Nachna Kuthara, Chalukyas&
Lakshman temple at Sirpur (both in MP) Hoysalas

Nagara School of Architecture

• Successor of third stage of Gupta Architecture, so has all features of it.
o Pillared approach
o Assembly hall
o Covered ambulatory passage-way
o Shikhar
o Garbha-grih – Sanctum Sanctorum
o Upraised platform
o Panchayatan Style
o Square temples
o Crucified ground
• Absence of tanks in the temple (Unlike Dravidian style)
• Division of each wall into 3 vertical planes called rathas.
• Three sub-schools developed under Nagar Style – 1. Odisha school, 2. Chandela school,
3. Solanki School
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 Odisha/Kalinga School
• Developed under Ganga rulers of Odisha.
• E.g. Sun Temple at Konark (13th century), also called Black Pagoda (gate of black
sandstone).
• Other examples: Jagannath Temple at Puri, Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar(1100AD)
• Unique features of Odisha School:
o Exterior walls are lavishly decorated through intricate cravings but interior walls are
plain
o No use of pillars – Instead of pillars, iron gridders were used to support roof.
o Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical till the top when it suddenly curves
sharply inwards
Chandela School/ Khajuraho School
• Developed by Chandela Rulers. – 10th -11th Century
• Features:
o Both interior and exterior is lavishly decorated with intricate carving
o Sculptures based on erotic themes on the walls of temple (based on Kamasutra)
o Do not have boundary walls
o Graceful grouping of roofs: Shikharas also present in the subsidiary shrines( Gives
impression of a mountain range)
o Platform relatively high
o 6 Shaiva, 8 Vaishnava & 3 Jaina shrines
o Ex. Kandariya Mahadeva temple
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 Deccan – Vesara style of Architecture
Chalukyan Art
• Developed under Chalukyas of Badami (5th-8th centuries) in Karnataka.
• Style originated in Aihole, and was perfected at Badami & Pattadakal
• Earlier rock-cut temples, but later structural temples.
• Show influence of both Nagara and Dravida style.
• Like dravidian style, temples had a vimana, a mandapa and in some cases an additional
open mandapa. Like nagar style the vimana was heavily sculpted & circumambulatory path
was open.
• Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal shows Dravidian influence while majority temples show
Northern influence and are richly decorated.
• Examples are Durga & Lad-Khan Temple Aihole, Papanatha temple Pattadakal, Bhutanatha
temple Badami.
Rashtrakuta Art
• Developed around 8th-10th centuries under Rashtrakutas who were successors of Chalukyas
• Cave architecture was more emphasized on; examples include Ellora and Elephanta Caves.
• Ellora Caves
o There are 34 caves in Ellora. Unlike Ajanta, these caves are associated with all three
religions: 17 caves – Hinduism, 12 – Buddhism and 5 – Jainism.
o These are excavated or craved out on sloping side of hill, hence most temples have
courtyard.
o Cave 10 is a chaiyta dedicated to lord Vishwakarma, indicating its dedication to
patron-saint of craftsmen. Cave 14 is called Ravan ki Khai & Cave 15 is Dashavtaram
cave.
o However, the most famous of Ellora Caves is Cave 16 – the monolithic Kailash
Temple built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna carved out of a single rock.
• Elephanta caves
o Built in second half of 8th century
o They are cave temples on island of Elephanta near Mumbai dedicated to Lord Shiva
o Sculpture of trimurati representing 3 faces – Shiva, Vishnu & Brahma
• The famous monolithic Kailash Temple at Ellora dedicated to Shiva.
Hoysala Architecture
• Developed in southern region of Karnataka, especially around Mysore
• Period: 11th – 12th centuries
• Multpile shrines are grouped around a central pillared hall and laid out in shape of intricately
designed star. Thus the ground plan is known as ‘stellate’ plan
• The temples are made up of soft soap stone – a good material for intricate carving
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• Both interior and exterior of the temple have intricate carving (Particularly the jewellery of
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God in temple walls)

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 • Temples were built upon an upraised platform about 1 meter high called Jagati. Jagati follows
a star shaped design, and the walls of the temple follow zig-zag design
• Most characteristic example is the Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid (Dorasamudra).
• Other impotant temples are Chennikeshava temple at Belur, Kedareshwara temple at
Halebid, Keshava temple at Somnathpur.

Dravida Style of Architecture

Pallava Architecture
• Pallavas were pioneers of South Indian Temple architecture.
• Flourished 7th – 9th centuries
• Pallava architecture evolved through 3 stages:
1. Rock Cut Temples
2. Monolithic Rathas & Sculptural Mandapas
3. Structural temples
Rock-cut temples:
• Mahendravarman’s style. Temple was carved into the cave.
• Mahendravarman was known as Vichitra-chita b’coz he evolved innovative techniques of
rock-cutting and entire temples were carved into caves using no other building material.
• Small sanctum-sanctorum & beautifully carved walls & pillars (standing on heads of lions).
Monolithic rathas & Sculptural mandapas:
• Mamalla style of architecture (Narsimhavarman I Mamalla).
• Mamallapuram as beautiful city of art & architecture.
• Pancha-Pandava monolithic Rathas: depict five different forms of temple architecture.
• Monolithic ‘Mandapas’ with beautifully sculpted walls depicting Puranic stories e.g.
Mahishasuramardini, Thirumurthi & Varaha mandapas.
• ‘Open art gallery’ at Mamallapuram: Several miniature sculptures on wall of a high rock. E.g
fall of river Ganges from Shiva’s head, Arjuna’s Penance.
Structural temples / Rajsimha Style:
• Earliest Pallava structural temples. e.g. Shore temple at Mamallapuram.
• Kailashanatha or Rajasimheshwara temple at Kanchipuram
• Nandivarman II built Vaikunthaperumal temple.
Features of Dravidian Style of Architecture
• Pyramidical shikhara above the garbhgriha, with a dome at the top. This entire structure was
called Vimana.
• Unlike Nagara where there could even be multiple shikharas, in Dravida style there is only
one Vimana.
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• In front of Vimana, Pillared halls with elaborately carved pillars and flat roof called mandapas.

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 • An enclosed circumambulatory path was provided around the garbhgriha, with carvings of
images of multiple gods.
• Tank attached to the temple (unlike Nagar style)
• Subsidiary shrines within the temple complex.
• The entire structure was walled and had lofty gates called gopuram.
Chola Architecture
• Gradual evolution of Chola architecture
• Earliest phase
o Vijayalaya Chola: stone Shiva temple at Narttamalai.
• 2nd phase
o Aditya I: Balasubramaniya temple of Kannanur, Nageshwara temple at
Kumbakonam.
o Parantaka I: Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur.
• Mature phase
o Raja Raja I: Brihadeshwara/Big temple at Thanjavur, dedicated to Shiva. One of
the Largest & tallest temple in TN (60 m tall Vimana & towering Pyramidal Shikhara).
o Rajendra Chola I: Shiva temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• Last phase
o Kulothunga I: temple for Sun god at Kumbakonam.
• Followed Pallava style of architecture, with certain new features.
o Both circular & square sanctums.
o Beautifully carved walls & sanctum.
o Special Vimanas over sanctums.
o Dome shaped Shikhara and Kalasa on top of gopurams.
o Sculptured Pillared Mandapams e.g. Arthamandapa, Mahamandapa &
Nandimandapa.
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 Chola Metal Sculpture: Nataraja
• Thanjavur: a major production centre.
• Famous Nataraja known not only for aesthetic beauty but also spiritual meaning:
o Upper right hand – holding drum: The drum represents sound, great sound from
which all creations spring
o Upper left hand- Eternal Fire: Represents destruction which is inevitable counterpart
of creation – First destruction and then creation not vice verse
o Lower right hand Raised in gesture of benediction (Abhaya Mudra) which reassures
the devotee not to be afraid
o Lower left hand points towards his upraised foot as the path of salvation
• He dances on a small dwarf which represents ignorance and the individual ego
• Mattled Locks indicate river Ganga which flows down to irrigate the earth
• One ear has a male ring and another ring a female, symbolizing ardhanarishwar ( Fusion of
male and female)
• A snake is twisted around his arm representing Kundalini power. Kundalini power reaches in
the human spine and when aroused represents consciousness
• The Nataraj is surrounded by nimbus of light symbolising vast unending cycles of time.
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 Administration of the Cholas
• The Chola inscriptions generally refer to the king as ko, perumal, perumal adigal (the great one),
raja-rajadhiraja and ko-konmai kondan (king of kings). The king had all the authority rested in him
and had a council of ministers to advise him.
• The kings were often compared with the gods. For instance, the Chola king Rajaraja was referred
to as Ulakalanada Perumal, that is, the great one who measured the earth like the God Vishnu
who according to a famous myth encompassed the universe with his three strides.
• The Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the 13th century writes that on the death
of the monarch, all his body guards burnt themselves in the funeral pyre.
• The empire known as Rajyam or Rastrayam was divided into eight mandalams (provinces) each
governed by a governor/Viceroys, who were generally princes of the royal blood or of noble
families.
• Officials were generally paid by giving them assignments of revenue-bearing lands.
• The provinces were further divided into Kottams or Valanadus which were again divided into
Nadus (districts), each of which again consisted of a number of autonomous villages that played
a key role in the Chola administration system.
Chola Local Administration
This is one of the most remarkable aspects of the Chola period. There existed various corporate
bodies at various levels – Nadus, Cities, Villages that had admininstrative functions.
• Nattar was the assembly at Nadu or district level.
• Nagarattar was the assembly at city/nagaram level.
The village administration was very systematic and well developed.
• Ur was the general assembly of the local residents of non-brahmadeya villages (or vellanvagai
villages).
• Sabha was the exclusive assembly of Brahmans in the brahmadeya/devedana villages which
enjoyed a large measure of autonomy.
• Utteramerur inscription gives details about Chola Village administration, especially the Sabhas.
The membership of Sabha was governed by different criteria such as property ownership, family
antecedents, learning and good conduct.
• The Mahasabha possessed the propriety rights over communal lands and controlled the private
lands within its jurisdiction. It could raise loans for the village and levy taxes with the right to realise
the revenue in cases of default by selling the lands in question by public auction.
• Election of members (Kuduvalai System): The members of the sabha were elected by drawing
lots. A list of qualifications & disqualifications for the membership was prescribed. These members
had to retire every three years.
• There were different committees (Variyams) which looked after different activities like law and
order, justice, tank committee.

Contact with SE Asia

• In 1025 CE, a successful naval expedition was dispatched by Rajendra Chola against the Sri
Vijaya empire (the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java under Sailendras and the neighbouring
islands and controlled the overseas trade route to China).
• Chola Trade with China and desire to control the trade routes ➔ Expeditions against Sri Vijaya-
Sailendra Empires.
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 • The Sailendra kings were followers of Buddhism and had close contact with the Indian rulers.
• A monastery at Nalanda in 9th century (During Pala Rule in Bengal)
• In 11th century, Cholas permitted another king to build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattam on
the Tamil Coast.
• The Sailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at Borobodur in Java.
• Besides Buddhism, the worship of Vishnu and Shiva was also quite popular.
• Various temples - distinct traces of Indian influence and inspiration.
• One of the most famous temples dedicated to Vishnu is the Angkorvat temple built in the 12th
century by Surya Varman II, the king of Kambuja (Cambodia). It is the largest religious complex
in the World.
South Indian Bhakti: The Alvars and Nayanmars
In the early medieval period, the Alvar and Nayanmar saints of South India gave a new emphasis
and expression to Vaishnava and Shaiva devotionalism, one that was deeply rooted in the Tamil
land, language, and ethos.
The roots of South Indian bhakti can be traced to certain features in late Sangam poetry, especially
the akam poems. In context of bhakti, however, the focus shifts from the king to the god, praising
the latter and beseeching him to bestow deliverance on his devotee.
According to tradition, there were 12 Alvars (Vaishnava) and 63 Nayanmars (Shaiva). The hymns of
these saints are still sung in temples. The saints themselves are worshipped, a practice that goes
back to the Chola period.
The male saints lived their lives as a part of society and most of them were married. The case with
the female saints was different.
In Alvar Bhakti, the relationship between the devotee and Krishna was often expressed in terms of
the lover−beloved or mother −child relationship, whereas in Nayannar Bhakti, the relationship
between the god and the devotee was similar to that between master and slave.
Alvar and Nayanmar poetry reflects a devotion that is at once intimate, intense and ecstatic. The
poets visualized their god in various ways as friend, mother, father, master, teacher, and bridegroom.
Many male saints took on feminine voice of a lover or bride when expressing their longing for union
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with god.
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 These saints rejected austerities and spoke and wrote in local languages such as Tamil and Telugu,
which not only made them popular but also allowed common people to join the Bhakti movement.
They looked upon religion not as matter of cold, formal worship but based on a living bond between
the god and the worshipper. These saints went from place to place carrying their message of love
and devotion. They belonged to both upper castes and lower castes and also included women saints.
The bhakti saints came from varied social backgrounds. In order to assess the social significance
and impact of the bhakti tradition, it is necessary to look beyond the leadership. Although its
leadership was dominated by elite groups, especially Brahmanas, and although it did not overturn
existing social relations, bhakti did create a religious community within which traditional social
distinctions could be transcended, at least with regard to the relationship between the bhakta and
his/her god.
• The Nayanmar canon was put together in the books Periyapuranam & the Tirumurai.
• The Alvar canon was put together by Nathamuni in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.
The Temple as an Institution
There is a striking increase in the number of temples built in Early Medieval period. Apart from the
religious functions, the temples performed other functions as well.
Temples built from royal donations were not only closely connected to the court, but were also
perceived almost as surrogate courts. They could draw on resources from anywhere within the
kingdom. E.g. the Thanjavur temple received revenue from villages in Sri Lanka.
The hymns of Alvars & Nayanmars underlined the parallels between deity & kingship, and by
endorsing the one they endorsed the other. Temples were visualized as palaces and rituals marking
the daily routine of the deity imitated those of the king.
Temples evolved into complex institutions, related not only to religious requirements but also to
fiscal, political and cultural needs. This can be seen more easily in the functioning of the larger
temples. As an institution, the temple became
• the location for exchange of goods,
• focal point for many professions to whom the temple gave employment either directly or indirectly,
• a symbol of authority - as a landlord who could intervene in the lives of rural people,
• a rural bank,
• not the least, the focus of a particular sectarian religion.
• In rural areas, temples were locations of village assemblies & of education for upper-caste boys.
The income of the temple came from the wealth and land acquired as donation, from contributions
by the village assemblies, from taxes that it was permitted to collect as part of the grant, from
offerings of devotees and from its function as a banker in rural areas.
The temple maintained the priests who performed rituals, as well as the record-keepers, accountants
and administrators who looked after management. There were others who serviced & guarded the
buildings. And those involved at a lesser level were the cooks, garland-makers, musicians, dancers
and devadasis. Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur had over 600 employees.
Patronage to Temples
Early medieval kings tried to buttress their authority by extending patronage to major pilgrimage
places, large-scale grants to temples & construction of imperial temples. Royal grants were a form
of distributing wealth and acquiring supporters, even if the ostensible purpose of donations was to
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please the deity. Patronage to temples was a major means of acquiring, proclaiming and maintaining
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political legitimacy.

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 Royal patronage reflected the close relationship that kings sought to establish with certain deities
and temples. E.g. Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur. Such temples were built at the directions of
the king, and donations by the king played an important role in their maintenance.
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND BELIEFS IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
This period is marked by the revival and expansion of Hinduism and a continued decline of Buddhism
and Jainism. Buddhism was merely confined to eastern India, specially patronised by the Palas.
However, Buddhism during this era assumed forms which made it indistinguishable from Hinduism.
Jainism continued to be popular, especially among the trading communities.
The revival and expansion of Hinduism took many forms. Shiva and Vishnu became chief gods and
magnificent temples were built to proclaim their supremacy. This also ushered an era of cultural
synthesis. A typical and important characteristic of this period was the growth of the Bhakti
movement in South India which was led by popular saints called Nayannars (worshippers of Shiva)
and Alvars (worshippers of Vishnu).
Another popular movement which arose during the 12th century was the Lingayat or Vir Shaiva
movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew Channabasava, who lived at the court of the
Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. The Lingayats were worshippers of Shiva and established their faith
after bitter disputes with the Jainas. They strongly opposed the caste system and child marriage,
and rejected feasts, fasts, pilgrimage and sacrifices. They supported widow remarriage.
It is also pertinent to mention the Siddhas (or Sittars) of Tamil Nadu. Their attitude against idol
worship and their stress on yoga and right conduct distinguished them from the Bhakti cults. They
believed in the oneness of the transcendental being (monotheism) in the world as well as in charity
towards men. The Siddha saints were mostly Shaiva, who professed and practised an unorthodox
type of sadhana (spiritual practices) to attain liberation. A siddha obtains yogic powers called siddhi
by constant practice of certain yogic disciplines and tapasya. Along with that, they also used
rasayanas, which were substances that were said to transform the body to make it potentially
deathless, and a particular type of pranayama (breathing practice).
In the period that the Bhakti movement was gaining popularity in south India, Tantra was gaining
traction in northern India. They too denounced the caste system and the privileges claimed by the
Brahmanas. Tantra, like Bhakti, was open to all. The most famous Hindu Yogi who adopted these
practices was Goraknath and his followers came to be called Nath Panthis.
Philosophical Developments in Early Medieval India
Many schools of philosophy came into existence in this period. Particularly, there were divergent
interpretations of Vedantic philosophy. There are three sub-branches for Vedanta:
Absolute Monism or Advaita/non-dualist Vedanta of Shankara:
Shankara was a major proponent of Vedanta in the 8th/9th century. He considers brahman to be
without any attributes and considers knowledge or jnana to be the chief means of salvation.
Shankara argues that the atman is completely identical with brahman. He believed in only one reality.
According to Shankara, the atman experiences a false sense of plurality and individuality under the
influence of the delusive power of maya (illusion). According to him, God and the created world are
one and differences arise due to ignorance. For instance, he explains that a person looks at a coiled
rope and thinks that it is a snake. The rope seems like a real snake but it is not. Thus, ignorance is
the reason for this mistake of taking conventional reality for absolute reality. The way for salvation is
devotion to God and understanding the oneness of the atman with the brahman.
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 Visistadvaita Advaita or qualified monism/nondualism of Ramanuja:
Ramanuja wrote a commentary on Vedanta in 12th century and combined Vaishnava bhakti with
Upanishadic monism. He identifies the brahman with Vishnu, holding that brahman is saguna
(possesses attributes), in contrast to Sankara’s attributeless or nirguna brahman. The road to
salvation lies in practising devotion or loving faith. Ramanuja asserts that the relationship between
brahman and the atman is similar to relationship of a red rose and redness. Just as the red rose
cannot exist without redness, similarly brahman cannot exist without the atman. Hence, according
to Ramanuja, atman and brahman are distinct but inseparable.
Dvaita of Madhva:
The Dvaita or dualist school of Hindu Vedanta philosophy originated in 13th century South India with
Sri Madhvacharya (Madhva). Madhva wrote commentaries on the Brahmasutra and Upanishads,
and a work called the Bharatatatparyanirnaya, based on the Puranas and the epics. He considers
God to be completely different from the individual soul and the world. The reality in Madhva’s system
consists of three basic elements: God, the souls (jivasi), and insentient matter (jada). He asserts that
the individual soul has many defects, but it can attain near perfection by worshipping God. According
to him, the relationship between God and the soul can best be described as a relationship between
the master and servant. Madhva and his followers call their system tattvavada (the realist viewpoint).

Practice Questions Mains

Q. Give a brief account of the early medieval temple architcture.

Practice Questions Prelims

Q. With reference to the cultural history of medieval India, consider the following statements: (2016)
1. Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil region were monotheistic and condemned idolatry.
2. Lingayats of Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste
hierarchy.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. i only
B. ii only
C. Both i and ii
D. Neither i nor ii
Ans. (C)

Q. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(2014)
A. Mimamsa and Vedanta
B. Nyaya and Vaisheshika
C. Lokayata and Kapalika
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D. Samkhya and Yoga

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Ans. (C)

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 Q. Consider the following pairs: (2016)
Famous place Region
i. Bodhgaya Baghelkhand
ii. Khajuraho Bundelkhand
iii. Shirdi Vidarbha
iv. Nasik Malwa
v. Tirupati Rayalaseema
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
A. i, ii and iv
B. ii, iii, iv and v
C. ii and v only
D. i, iii, iv and v
Ans. (C)
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