FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

 In first order circuits, we will discuss about two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and
a capacitor; and a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor.

 These are called R-C and R-L circuits, respectively.

 Analysis of R-C and R-L circuits is done by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as is done for resistive circuits.

 Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws
to R-C and R-L circuits produces differential equations, more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.

 The differential equations resulting from analyzing R-C and R-L circuits are of the first order. Hence, the
circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.

 A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

 FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
 In first order circuits, we will discuss about two types of simple circuits: a circuit comprising a resistor and
a capacitor; and a circuit comprising a resistor and an inductor.

 These are called R-C and R-L circuits, respectively.

 Analysis of R-C and R-L circuits is done by applying Kirchhoff’s laws, as is done for resistive circuits.

 Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuits results in algebraic equations, while applying the laws
to R-C and R-L circuits produces differential equations, more difficult to solve than algebraic equations.

 The differential equations resulting from analyzing R-C and R-L circuits are of the first order. Hence, the
circuits are collectively known as first-order circuits.

 A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

Two ways to excite the first-order circuits

 First way:
 To excite the circuit by using initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits.
 These types of circuits are called as source-free circuits
 Here, it is assumed that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or inductive element.
 The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the resistors.
 Although source free circuits are free of independent sources, they may have dependent
sources.
 Second way:
 Exciting first-order circuits by independent sources.
Two ways to excite the first-order circuits

 First way:
 To excite the circuit by using initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits.
 These types of circuits are called as source-free circuits
 Here, it is assumed that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or inductive element.
 The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the resistors.
 Although source free circuits are free of independent sources, they may have dependent
sources.
 Second way:
 Exciting first-order circuits by independent sources.
Two ways to excite the first-order circuits

 First way:
 To excite the circuit by using initial conditions of the storage elements in the circuits.
 These types of circuits are called as source-free circuits
 Here, it is assumed that energy is initially stored in the capacitive or inductive element.
 The energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated in the resistors.
 Although source free circuits are free of independent sources, they may have dependent
sources.
 Second way:
 Exciting first-order circuits by independent sources.
THE SOURCE-FREE R-C CIRCUIT

 A source-free R-C circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.

 The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as shown in Fig. 1 (The
resistor and capacitor may be the equivalent resistance and equivalent capacitance of combinations of
resistors and capacitors). The objective is to determine the circuit response.

A circuit response is the manner in which the

circuit reacts

Fig. 1
THE SOURCE-FREE R-C CIRCUIT

 A source-free R-C circuit occurs when its dc source is suddenly disconnected.

 The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.
Consider a series combination of a resistor and an initially charged capacitor, as shown in Fig. 1 (The
resistor and capacitor may be the equivalent resistance and equivalent capacitance of combinations of
resistors and capacitors). The objective is to determine the circuit response.

A circuit response is the manner in which the

circuit reacts

Fig. 1
Assume a voltage v(t) across capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is

𝑣 0 =𝑉 (1)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

w(0)= C𝑉0 (2)

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 1,

𝑖 +𝑖 =0 (3)

By definition, 𝐶 and 𝑅 . Thus,

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝐶 + =0 (4a)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Assume a voltage v(t) across capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can
assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is

𝑣 0 =𝑉 (1)

with the corresponding value of the energy stored as

w(0)= C𝑉0 (2)

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig. 1,

𝑖 +𝑖 =0 (3)

By definition, 𝐶 and 𝑅 . Thus,

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝐶 + =0 (4a)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
This is a first-order differential equation, since only the first derivative of 𝑣 is involved. To
solve it, we rearrange the terms as

𝑑𝑣 1
=− 𝑑𝑡 (5)
𝑣 𝑅𝐶

Integrating both sides, we get

ln 𝑣 = − + ln 𝐴

where ln A is the integration constant. Thus,

𝑣 𝑡
ln =− (6)
𝐴 𝑅𝐶
 Taking powers of 𝑒 on both sides produces

/
𝑣 t = A𝑒

But from the initial conditions, 𝑣(0) = 𝐴 = 𝑉0. Hence,

/
𝑣 t = Vo𝑒 (7)

• This shows that the voltage response of the R-C circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
• Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit; and
not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
 Taking powers of 𝑒 on both sides produces

/
𝑣 t = A𝑒

But from the initial conditions, 𝑣(0) = 𝐴 = 𝑉0. Hence,

/
𝑣 t = Vo𝑒 (7)

• This shows that the voltage response of the R-C circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
• Since the response is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit; and
not due to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
• The natural response is illustrated graphically in the figure below. Note that, value at t = 0 is the
initial condition.
• As t increases, the voltage decreases toward zero. The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is
expressed in terms of the time constant, denoted by the lower case Greek letter tau, τ .
• The value of τ is 𝑅𝐶 for the R-C circuit
The natural response depends on the nature of the circuit alone, with no external sources. In fact, the
circuit has a response only because of the energy initially stored in the capacitor.

Fig. 2
We can also say that the time constant of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay
by a factor of 1/𝒆 or 36.8 percent of its initial value.

/
As, 𝑣 t = Vo𝑒

This implies that at t = τ ,

/
Vo𝑒 = Vo 𝑒 = 0.368Vo

Here, τ = RC

In terms of the time constant, above equation can be written as

/τ
v t = Vo𝑒 (9)
 The value of 𝑣(𝑡)/𝑉0 is as shown in the Table. From Table, it can
Table 1
be verified that the voltage v(t) is less than 1 percent of V0 after 5τ
(five time constants).
 Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor is fully
discharged (or charged) after five time constants.
 It takes 5τ for the circuit to reach its final state or steady state
when no changes take place with time.
 For every time interval of τ , the voltage is reduced by 36.8
percent of its previous value -
𝑣(𝑡 + 𝜏) = 𝑣(𝑡)/𝑒 = 0.368𝑣(𝑡), regardless of the value of t .
 Smaller the time constant, more rapidly the voltage decreases; that means, faster the response.
 A circuit with a small time constant gives a fast response and reaches the steady state (or final state)
quickly due to quick dissipation of energy stored
 whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives a slow response because it takes longer time to reach
the steady state.

Fig. 3.
 Smaller the time constant, more rapidly the voltage decreases; that means, faster the response.
 A circuit with a small time constant gives a fast response and reaches the steady state (or final state)
quickly due to quick dissipation of energy stored
 whereas a circuit with a large time constant gives a slow response because it takes longer time to reach
the steady state.

Fig. 3.
 At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches at steady state in
five time constants.

Using voltage 𝑣(𝑡), we can find the current 𝑖𝑅(𝑡),

/τ
iR t = 𝑒 (10)

The power dissipated in the resistor is

/τ
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣 × 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑒 (11)

So, the energy absorbed by the resistor up to time 𝑡 is

1
𝑤𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = C𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 τ ) (12)
2
 At any rate, whether the time constant is small or large, the circuit reaches at steady state in
five time constants.

Using voltage 𝑣(𝑡), we can find the current 𝑖𝑅(𝑡),

/τ
iR t = 𝑒 (10)

The power dissipated in the resistor is

/τ
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣 × 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑒 (11)

So, the energy absorbed by the resistor up to time 𝑡 is

1
𝑤𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = C𝑉 (1 − 𝑒 τ ) (12)
2
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑤𝑅(∞) → C𝑉𝑜 , which is the same as 𝑤𝐶 (0), i.e. the energy initially stored in the

capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

The Key to Working with a Source - free RC Circuit -

1. Find the initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ .

The time constant is the same regardless of what the output is defined to be.

In finding the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, 𝑅 is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the
terminals of the capacitor; that means, take out the capacitor C and find 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ at its terminals.
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑤𝑅(∞) → C𝑉𝑜 , which is the same as 𝑤𝐶 (0), i.e. the energy initially stored in the

capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

The Key to Working with a Source - free RC Circuit -

1. Find the initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ .

The time constant is the same regardless of what the output is defined to be.

In finding the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, 𝑅 is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the
terminals of the capacitor; that means, take out the capacitor C and find 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ at its terminals.
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑤𝑅(∞) → C𝑉𝑜 , which is the same as 𝑤𝐶 (0), i.e. the energy initially stored in the

capacitor. The energy that was initially stored in the capacitor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.

The Key to Working with a Source - free RC Circuit -

1. Find the initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the capacitor.
2. The time constant τ .

The time constant is the same regardless of what the output is defined to be.

In finding the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, 𝑅 is often the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the
terminals of the capacitor; that means, take out the capacitor C and find 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ at its terminals.
EXAMPLE:
In the Figure shown below, let 𝑣𝐶 (0) = 15 V. Find the values of 𝑣𝐶 , 𝑣𝑥 , and 𝑖𝑥 for t > 0?
 Find the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals.
 First obtain capacitor voltage 𝑣𝐶 . From this, determine 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑖𝑥 .

The 8Ω and 12 Ω resistors in series can be combined to give a 20 Ω resistor. This 20 Ω resistor in
parallel with the 5 Ω resistor can be combined so that the equivalent resistance is

20 ∗ 5
Req = = 4Ω
20 + 5
Hence, the equivalent circuit is as shown in the Figure. The time constant
is -
𝜏 = 𝑅 𝐶 = 4(0.1) = 0.4 𝑠
Thus,
/τ /0.4
𝑣 = 𝑣(0)𝑒 = 15𝑒 𝑉

.
So, 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣 = 15𝑒 𝑉

use voltage division to get 𝑣𝑥; so -

. .

.
Finally, 𝑥= =
THE SOURCE-FREE R-L CIRCUIT

• A series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in the Figure below.

• The goal is to determine the circuit response, which is the current 𝑖(𝑡) through the inductor.
• Select the inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea that the
inductor current cannot change instantaneously.

At t = 0, the inductor has an initial current I0 , or

𝑖 0 =𝐼 (1)
THE SOURCE-FREE R-L CIRCUIT

• A series connection of a resistor and an inductor, as shown in the Figure below.

• The goal is to determine the circuit response, which is the current 𝑖(𝑡) through the inductor.
• Select the inductor current as the response in order to take advantage of the idea that the
inductor current cannot change instantaneously.

At t = 0, the inductor has an initial current I0 , or

𝑖 0 =𝐼 (1)
with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as

w(0)= 𝐿𝐼𝑜 (2)

Applying KVL around the loop in Figure,

But 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 and 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅. Thus,

L + Ri = 0

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ i=0 (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
with the corresponding energy stored in the inductor as

w(0)= 𝐿𝐼𝑜 (2)

Applying KVL around the loop in Figure,

But 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 and 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅. Thus,

L + Ri = 0

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ i=0 (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
 Rearranging terms and integrating gives

( )
𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑡 (5)

Taking the powers of e, we have

i(t) = 𝐼 𝑒 (6)

This shows that the natural response of the R-L circuit is an

exponential decay of the initial current.

The current response is shown in the Figure.

 Rearranging terms and integrating gives

( )
𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑡 (5)

Taking the powers of e, we have

i(t) = 𝐼 𝑒 (6)

This shows that the natural response of the R-L circuit is an

exponential decay of the initial current.

The current response is shown in the Figure.

So, from Equation i(t) = 𝐼 𝑒 , we can say that the time constant for the R-L circuit is

The time constant τ has the unit of seconds. Thus above equation may be written as

/τ
i t = I o𝑒 (7)

The voltage across the resistor can be given as -

/τ
𝑣 t = iR = 𝐼 𝑅𝑒 (8)
So, from Equation i(t) = 𝐼 𝑒 , we can say that the time constant for the R-L circuit is

The time constant τ has the unit of seconds. Thus above equation may be written as

/τ
i t = I o𝑒 (7)

The voltage across the resistor can be given as -

/τ
𝑣 t = iR = 𝐼 𝑅𝑒 (8)
The power dissipated in the resistor is

/τ
𝑝 = 𝑖𝑣𝑅 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑒 (9)

The energy dissipated by the resistor is

𝑤𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = L𝐼 (1 − 𝑒 τ ) (10)

As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑤𝑅(∞) → L𝐼

Which is the same as 𝑤𝐿(0), i.e. the initial energy stored in the inductor

So, the energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
The power dissipated in the resistor is

/τ
𝑝 = 𝑖𝑣𝑅 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑒 (9)

The energy dissipated by the resistor is

𝑤𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = L𝐼 (1 − 𝑒 τ ) (10)

As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑤𝑅(∞) → L𝐼

Which is the same as 𝑤𝐿(0), i.e. the initial energy stored in the inductor

So, the energy initially stored in the inductor is eventually dissipated in the resistor.
• Smaller the time constant, τ, of a circuit, faster the rate of decay of the response.
• Larger the time constant, slower the rate of decay of the response.
• At any rate, the response decays to less than 1 percent of its initial value (i.e., reaches at
steady state) after 5τ .
While Working with a Source - free R-L Circuit:
1. Find the initial current 𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.
3. When a circuit has a single inductor and several resistors and dependent sources, the
Thevenin equivalent can be found at the terminals of the inductor to form a simple R-L
circuit. Also, one can use Thevenin’s theorem when several inductors can be combined to
form a single equivalent inductor.
• Smaller the time constant, τ, of a circuit, faster the rate of decay of the response.
• Larger the time constant, slower the rate of decay of the response.
• At any rate, the response decays to less than 1 percent of its initial value (i.e., reaches at
steady state) after 5τ .
While Working with a Source - free R-L Circuit:
1. Find the initial current 𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.
3. When a circuit has a single inductor and several resistors and dependent sources, the
Thevenin equivalent can be found at the terminals of the inductor to form a simple R-L
circuit. Also, one can use Thevenin’s theorem when several inductors can be combined to
form a single equivalent inductor.
• Smaller the time constant, τ, of a circuit, faster the rate of decay of the response.
• Larger the time constant, slower the rate of decay of the response.
• At any rate, the response decays to less than 1 percent of its initial value (i.e., reaches at
steady state) after 5τ .
While Working with a Source - free R-L Circuit:
1. Find the initial current 𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant τ of the circuit.
3. When a circuit has a single inductor and several resistors and dependent sources, the
Thevenin equivalent can be found at the terminals of the inductor to form a simple R-L
circuit. Also, one can use Thevenin’s theorem when several inductors can be combined to
form a single equivalent inductor.
EXAMPLE:

Assuming that 𝑖(0) = 10 𝐴, calculate 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) in the circuit shown below.
 There are two ways to solve this problem.

 One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at the inductor terminals.

 The other way is to start from scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the inductor current.

METHOD 1 : The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor
terminals. Because of the dependent source, a voltage source is inserted with
𝑣 = 1 𝑉 at the inductor terminals a-b, as shown in the Figure in next slide.
(We can also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.)
 There are two ways to solve this problem.

 One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at the inductor terminals.

 The other way is to start from scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the inductor current.

METHOD 1 : The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor
terminals. Because of the dependent source, a voltage source is inserted with
𝑣 = 1 𝑉 at the inductor terminals a-b, as shown in the Figure in next slide.
(We can also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.)
 There are two ways to solve this problem.

 One way is to obtain the equivalent resistance at the inductor terminals.

 The other way is to start from scratch by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Whichever approach is taken, it is always better to first obtain the inductor current.

METHOD 1 : The equivalent resistance is the same as the Thevenin resistance at the inductor
terminals. Because of the dependent source, a voltage source is inserted with
𝑣 = 1 𝑉 at the inductor terminals a-b, as shown in the Figure in next slide.
(We can also insert a 1-A current source at the terminals.)
2𝑖 − 2𝑖 + 1 = 0

𝑖 −𝑖 =− (a)
 6𝑖 − 2𝑖 − 3𝑖 = 0

𝑖 = 𝑖 (b)

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) gives

𝑖1 = −3 𝐴, 𝑖𝑜 = −𝑖1 = 3 A

Hence,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑣𝑜 / 𝑖𝑜 = 1/3 Ω
The time constant is

Thus, the current through the inductor is

⁄
𝑖 t = 𝑖 0 𝑒 τ = 10𝑒 A, t>0
METHOD 2 : Apply KVL to the circuit as shown in the Figure below. For loop 1,

1 𝑑𝑖
+ 2(𝑖 − 𝑖 ) = 0
2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
+4 𝑖 −𝑖 =0 (a)
𝑑𝑡
For Loop 2, the current flowing through inductor, i.e. 𝑖 , decides the value of dependent sources:

6𝑖 − 2𝑖 − 3𝑖 = 0

𝑖 = 𝑖 (b)

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) gives

𝑑𝑖 2
+ 𝑖 =0
𝑑𝑡 3
Rearranging terms,
𝑑𝑖 2
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 3
Since 𝑖1 = 𝑖 in figure, replace 𝑖1 with 𝑖 and integrate:

( )
𝑙𝑛 =−
( )

Taking the powers of e, we finally obtain

⁄
i t = 𝑖 0 𝑒 τ = 10𝑒 A, t>0

which is the same as by Method 1.

The voltage across the inductor is

⁄ ⁄
v=L =0.5(10) − 𝑒 = − 𝑒 V

Since the inductor and the 2 Ω resistor are in parallel,