SCIENCE REVSION

CHAPTERS;

Chapter 4
4.3 Groups in the periodic table have properties in common

4.4 Non-Metals have properties in common

Chapter 5 (YR 9 book)

5.1 All matter is made up of atoms

5.2 Atoms are made up of subatomic particles

5.3 Atoms have mass

5.4 Electrons are arranged in shells

5.5 Ions have more or less electrons

5.6 Isotopes have more or less neutrons

Chapter 5 (YR 10 book)

5.2 Matter cycles through the Earth’s Spheres (Only Nitrogen Cycle)

5.4 Human activity affects the carbon cycle

5.5 Evidence supports the greenhouse effect

5.6 Climate change has widespread effects

Chapter 6 (YR 10 BOOK)

6.2 The Earth is in the Milky Way

6.3 Stars have a life cycle

6.4 The galaxies are moving apart

6.5 Evidence supports the Big Bang Theory

4.3 Groups in the periodic table have properties in

common

Summary:
Metals are a key group of elements found in the periodic table. Most metals are solid at
room temperature due to their high melting points, except for mercury, which is liquid at
22°C. Metals share several common properties:

 Lustrous: They are shiny.

 Conductive: They conduct heat and electricity well.
 Malleable: They can be shaped by beating.
 Ductile: They can be drawn into wires.
 Hard and Solid: They are generally hard and solid at room temperature.

Group 1: Alkali Metals

 Examples: Sodium and potassium.

 Characteristics: These metals have one electron in their outer shell, making them
highly reactive. They are soft, have low melting points, and react violently with water
to produce hydrogen gas and an alkaline solution. Their reactivity increases down the
group.

Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

 Examples: Magnesium and calcium.

 Characteristics: These metals have two electrons in their outer shell. They are also
reactive and soft, with low melting points, but generally less reactive than alkali
metals. They also react with water, becoming more reactive down the group.

Transition Metals

 Located in the center of the periodic table (groups 3-12).

 Special Properties:
o Some are magnetic.
o Gold and copper are not silvery in color.
o They often form colored compounds.
o They can form multiple compounds with non-metals, like iron forming FeCl₂
and FeCl₃.
o Precious metals like platinum and gold are used in jewelry and are transition
metals.
4.4 Non-metals have properties in common

Summarry:
Non-Metals

 General Properties: Non-metals do not conduct electricity or heat well, are

brittle, and have a dull appearance. They are not shiny or ductile.
 States at Room Temperature: Many non-metals are gases, one is a liquid
(bromine), and a few are solids.
 Occurrence: Although there are only 18 non-metals, they make up most of
Earth's crust, atmosphere, and living organisms.

Group 17: Halogens

 Examples: Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.

 Properties: Halogens have seven electrons in their outer shell and react
with metals to form salts. They can also bleach substances.
 States and Reactivity: Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid,
and iodine and astatine are solids at room temperature. Reactivity decreases
down the group, with fluorine being the most reactive.

Group 18: Noble Gases

 Examples: Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

 Properties: Noble gases are very unreactive and stable, with full outer
electron shells (helium has two, others have eight).
 Reactivity: Most do not form compounds, but krypton and xenon can react
with fluorine under certain conditions. Radon is radioactive and dangerous.

Metalloids

 Location: Found along the "staircase" line between metals and non-metals
on the periodic table.
 Properties: Metalloids have a mix of properties from both metals and non-
metals. They can conduct electricity like metals, with some acting as
semiconductors.
 Examples: Boron and silicon, used in products like borosilicate glass (Pyrex),
which is tough and heat-resistant.
5.1
ALL U NEED TO KNOW IN THIS CHAPTER IS ALL MATTER IS MADE OUT OF ATOMS

1. Early Theories:
a. In 450 BCE, Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that everything is
made of small, indivisible particles he called "atoms" and the void (empty
space). Although he didn't experiment, his ideas laid a foundation for
atomic theory.

2. Experimental Discoveries:
a. In the 1780s, Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, demonstrated that
matter cannot be created or destroyed, supporting the idea that
substances are made of distinct components. He burned hydrogen with
oxygen, producing water, which he discovered to be a compound (H₂O)
rather than a single atom.

3. Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

a. English scientist John Dalton, inspired by Lavoisier’s work, proposed in
1810 that matter is composed of indivisible atoms, each with a specific
weight. Dalton assigned relative weights to atoms of different elements,
using compounds such as water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). His
theory introduced the concept that elements combine in simple whole-
number ratios, such as:
i. Water (H₂O): 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom.
ii. Methane (CH₄): 1 carbon atom to 4 hydrogen atoms.
iii. Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃): 2 aluminium atoms to 3 oxygen atoms.

4. Evidence for Atomic Theory:

a. Since Dalton's time, evidence has continued to support atomic theory,
including:
i. Elements combining in fixed ratios to form compounds.
ii. Consistency in the mass of gases and their different properties.
iii. Microscopic observations (like pollen grains moving in water) that
indicate the presence of invisible particles.
iv. Modern tools like scanning tunneling microscopes allow scientists to
"see" bumpy surfaces on a microscopic level, consistent with the
existence of atoms.
CHAPTER 5

Topic 5.2: Atoms and Subatomic Particles

Key Points:

+ Atoms are composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and

electrons.

+ Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, while electrons orbit
around it.

+ atoms have no overall charge due to the equal number of protons

(positive) and electrons (negative).

Subatomic Particles:

1. Proton:

- Positively charged

- Located in the nucleus

- Mass: approximately 1 unit on the relative atomic scale

2. Neutron:

- No charge (neutral)

- Located in the nucleus

- Mass: approximately 1 unit on the relative atomic scale

3. Electron:

- Negatively charged

- Orbits the nucleus

- Mass: very small compared to protons and neutrons

Models of the Atom:

1. Thomson's Plum Pudding Model:

-Positively charged material with negatively charged electrons scattered

throughout.

-Disproved by Rutherford's gold foil experiment.

2. Rutherford's Model:

- Small, positively charged nucleus with electrons orbiting at a distance.

- Supported by the gold foil experiment's results.

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment:

+ Key Findings:

- Most alpha particles passed through the gold foil with minimal
deflection.

- Some alpha particles were deflected at large angles.

- A few alpha particles bounced back.

+ Conclusion:

- Atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.

- Most of the atom is empty space.

Topic 5.2B (MADE UP): Rutherford Model of the Atom & Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure:

+ Nucleus:

- Contains protons and neutrons.

- Determines the atom's mass (with the mass of protons and neutrons).

+ Electron Shells:

- Electrons move around the nucleus in defined areas (shells).

- Huge parts of atoms are empty space.

Atomic Number and Mass Number:

+ Atomic Number:

- Number of protons in an atom's nucleus.

- Defines the element (e.g., Oxygen always has 8 protons).

+ Mass Number:

- Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

- Represents the atom's mass on the relative atomic scale.

Topic 5.3: Atoms Have Mass

Key Points:

+ The mass of an atom is primarily due to protons and neutrons.

+ Electrons contribute negligibly to the atom's mass.

+ Atoms are named based on the number of protons (atomic number).

Relative Measurement and Atomic Mass:

+ Relative Atomic Scale:

- Protons and neutrons have a mass of approximately 1 unit.

- Electrons' mass is significantly smaller.

+ Atomic Mass in the Periodic Table:

- Represents the average mass of an element's naturally occurring

isotopes.

- Often not a whole number due to the mixture of isotopes.

Topic 5.3 (Continued): Periodic Table and Element Representation

Periodic Table:

+ Organization:

-Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number.

-Grouped by similar chemical properties (vertical columns - groups,

horizontal rows - periods).

+ Element Representation:
Symbol: Unique abbreviation for each element.

Atomic Number: Number of protons, defining the element.

Atomic Mass: Average mass of the element's isotopes.

Topic 5.4: Electron Configuration

Key Points:

Electron Shells:

- Defined areas around the nucleus where electrons are found.

- Each shell has a limited electron capacity.

Bohr Model:

- Electrons occupy specific energy levels (shells) around the nucleus.

- Energy is required for electrons to move to higher shells.

Electron Configuration and Valency:

Electron Configuration:

- A numerical representation of electrons in each shell.

- Example: 2,8,8,2 for an Oxygen atom.

+ Valency (Valence Shell):

- The outermost shell containing electrons.

- Determines an element's chemical properties.

Topic 5.5: Ions

Key Points:

+ Ion Formation:

Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions.

Results in a net positive (cation) or negative (anion) charge.

+ Ion Types:

Cation: Positively charged ion (loses electrons).

Anion: Negatively charged ion (gains electrons).

Calculating Ion Charge:

+ Process:

1. Determine the number of electrons gained or lost.

2. Apply the change to the atom's original electron configuration.

+ Examples:

- Sodium (Na) losing an electron to form Na+.

- Chlorine (Cl) gaining an electron to form Cl-.

Topic 5.6: Isotopes

Key Points:

+ Isotope Definition:

- Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

+ Isotope Characteristics:

- Same atomic number (number of protons).

- Different mass numbers (due to varying neutron numbers).

Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes:

+ Relative Atomic Mass:

- The average mass of an element's naturally occurring isotopes.

- Often not a whole number due to the mixture of isotopes.

+ Examples: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, and Carbon-14 are isotopes of Carbon

Chapter 5 ( part 2 yr from year 10

book)
5.2 Matter cycles through the Earth’s spheres

Nutrients cycle through the earths spheres to sustain life, plants can absorb
carbon dioxide and turn it into oxygen.
Cycling nitrogen Nitrogen is necessary for the synthesis (to make) of proteins
and nucleic acids, vital building blocks for all organisms. Although nitrogen
makes up 78% of the gases in the atmosphere, making it the most abundant
gas, itis not in a form that can be used by living Organisms. Bacteria play an
important role in changing nitrogen into usable forms — nitrate, nitrite and
ammonium ions — and returning it 10 or the armosphere. Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria are able to i’ convert nitrogen (N,) from the atmosphere into nitrate
(NO;) ions, nitrite (NO,) ions and ammonium (NH +) jons. Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria live in the root nodules of legumes — Pl.ants such as peas and
beans (Figure 5.7). The nitrogen compounds produced by the bacteria Are
used by the plant to synthesise proteins. In Teturn, the plant provides
protection and other
Word Definitions:
CHAPTER 4
4.3:
metals: elements on the left- hand side of the periodic table; they are malleable,
lustrous, ductile and highly conductive.

Alkali metal: an element in group 1 of the periodic table alkaline earth metals
elements with similar properties found in group 2 of the periodic table.

transition metals: the elements in groups 3-12 of the periodic table

4.4
metalloids: a small collection of elements that have characteristics of metals and
non-metals

non-metals: elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table

noble gases: the stable gaseous elements in group 18 of the periodic table e

halogens: the group of elements in group 17 of the periodic table

CHAPTER 5 (YR 9)

subatomic particles: particles that are smaller than atoms

electron a negatively charged atom particle in the nucleus of an

Thomson plum pudding model an early model of the atom in which the
positively charged nucleus has negatively charged electrons scattered through it,
like a plum pudding.

nucleus the centre of an atom, containing protons (positive charge) and neutrons
(no charge)

proton appositively charged subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom

neutron a neutral (no charge) subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom

mass number a number that represents the total number of protons and neutrons
in the centre of an atom
group: a vertical list of elements in the periodic table that have characteristics in
common
period (in list chemistry) a horizontal of elements in the periodic table

electron shell: a in defined area of space which electrons move around an atom's
nucleus

Bohr model: a model of the atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus in a series of
defined orbits known as shells

electron configuration: a a numerical way of showing the number of electrons in

cach electron shell around particular atomic nucleus

shell diagram: a diagram that shows the number of electrons in cach electron
shell around a particular atomic nucleus

valence shell the outermost electron shell in an atom that contains electrons

emission spectrum: the pattern of wavelengths (or frequencies) that appear as

coloured lines in aspectroscope; it is unique to each element

ion: an atom that is charged because it has an unequal number of electrons and
protons|

anion: a negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains clectrons

cation: a positively charged ion that results from an atom losing electrons

isotope: an atom of a particular clement that has more or fewer neutrons in its
nucleus than another atom of the same element

relative atomic mass the average mass of an element, including the mass and
prevalence of its different isotope