Unit 1

Introduction

● Renewable Energy Source: Solar energy is a renewable energy source, derived from the
Sun's radiation.

● Abundant and Free: It is abundant and freely available, making it a sustainable option for
energy generation.

● Solar Radiation: The energy from the Sun reaches the Earth as solar radiation, which can
be harnessed for various uses.

● Solar Energy Applications: It can be used for heating, electricity generation, and
powering devices using solar thermal and photovoltaic systems.

● Environmental Impact: Solar energy has a minimal environmental impact compared to

fossil fuels, contributing to cleaner energy.

Solar energy as an energy alternative

● Sustainable Energy Source: Solar energy is a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels,

available for billions of years.

● Reduces Fossil Fuel Dependency: It helps reduce dependency on depleting fossil fuels
like coal, oil, and natural gas.

● Clean Energy: Solar energy produces no pollution during use, making it a cleaner energy
alternative.

● Economic Benefits: Once installed, solar systems require minimal maintenance and
reduce long-term energy costs.

● Versatile Applications: Solar energy can be used in homes, industries, and power plants,
providing flexibility across sectors.

Devices for thermal collection and storage

● Solar Collectors: Devices like flat-plate and concentrating collectors capture solar energy
and convert it into heat.
 ● Flat-Plate Collectors: These are commonly used for heating water by absorbing sunlight
and transferring heat to a fluid.

● Concentrating Collectors: These devices focus sunlight onto a smaller area using mirrors
or lenses, generating higher temperatures for industrial use.

● Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto receivers,
generating high temperatures for electricity production.

● Heat Storage Units: Thermal energy is stored in materials like water, molten salts, or
phase change materials for use when sunlight is unavailable.

● Thermal Storage Systems: These systems store collected heat for later use, often using
materials like water, rocks, or phase change materials.

● Applications: Thermal collection and storage devices are used in solar water heaters,
solar power plants, and space heating systems.

● Uses in Heating and Power: These systems provide heating, cooling, and electricity in
homes, industries, and power plants.

Thermal Applications

Solar Water Heating: Solar energy is used to heat water for residential and industrial purposes,
reducing reliance on conventional energy.

Space Heating: Solar thermal systems are used for heating spaces, especially in colder regions,
through passive or active methods.

Solar Cookers: Solar cookers use sunlight to cook food, providing an eco-friendly alternative to
traditional cooking methods.

Industrial Process Heat: Solar thermal energy is applied in industries to generate

high-temperature heat for processes like drying, pasteurization, and steam production.

Solar Power Generation: Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants use solar heat to generate
electricity by driving steam turbines.
Solar Radiation

● Energy from the Sun: Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the Sun that reaches the
Earth in the form of light and heat.

● Electromagnetic Spectrum: It includes visible light, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and

infrared (IR) radiation, which carry energy to Earth.

● Solar Constant: The average solar radiation received outside the Earth's atmosphere is
called the solar constant, about 1367 W/m².

● Absorption and Reflection: Some solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface, while
the rest is reflected back into space.

● Measurement: Solar radiation is measured using instruments like pyranometers and

pyrheliometers to assess potential solar energy utilization.

Solar Radiation Geometry

● Solar radiation geometry refers to the relationship between the Earth's position, the Sun,
and how solar energy is received at various points on Earth. Here’s a more detailed
explanation:

● Earth’s Tilt and Rotation: The Earth is tilted at a 23.5° angle relative to its axis, and this
tilt affects how much solar radiation different parts of the Earth receive throughout the
year. The Earth’s rotation around the Sun creates daily and seasonal variations in solar
energy.

● Solar Declination: This is the angle between the Sun’s rays and the equator. It changes
throughout the year as the Earth orbits the Sun. During the equinoxes, the Sun is directly
over the equator (0° declination). At the solstices, it’s either over the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5°N) or the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S).

● Hour Angle: The hour angle measures the time relative to solar noon, when the Sun is at
its highest point in the sky. It is expressed in degrees, with each hour corresponding to
15° (since 360° corresponds to 24 hours). This angle helps in calculating the Sun's
position during the day.
● Solar Zenith Angle: This angle represents the distance between the Sun’s position and the
point directly overhead (zenith).
 Unit 2
Types of Angles

Declination Angle (δ):

● Definition: The angle between the sun’s rays and the equatorial plane.
● Variation: Changes throughout the year due to Earth's tilt.
● Range: Varies between +23.45° (summer solstice) and -23.45° (winter solstice).
● Importance: Affects the amount of solar radiation reaching different latitudes.
● Application: Used in solar collector orientation calculations.

2. Hour Angle (H):

● Definition: The angle the Earth must rotate to bring a specific point directly under the
sun.
● Calculation: Changes by 15° for each hour away from solar noon.
● Reference: At solar noon, the hour angle is 0°.
● Importance: Helps determine the sun’s position throughout the day.
● Usage: Important for tracking systems in solar power plants.

3. Solar Altitude Angle (α):

● Definition: The angle between the sun and the horizon.

● Maximum Value: Highest at solar noon when the sun is directly overhead.
● Variation: Changes with latitude, time of day, and season.
● Significance: Affects the intensity of solar radiation received.
● Application: Essential for calculating solar panel tilt.

4. Surface Azimuth Angle (γ):

● Definition: The angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the horizontal plane and
the direction due south.
● Range: Varies between -180° to +180°.
● Purpose: Indicates the direction a surface is facing relative to the sun.
● Usage: Critical for aligning solar panels for maximum efficiency.
● Optimization: Helps determine the best orientation for solar collectors.
5. Zenith Angle (θz):

● Definition: The angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface.
● Relation: Complementary to the solar altitude angle (θz = 90° - α).
● Minimum Value: At solar noon, when the sun is directly overhead, zenith angle is
minimum.
● Importance: Helps determine the solar radiation received by a surface.
● Application: Essential in estimating solar insolation at any location.

6. Solar Azimuth Angle (γs):

● Definition: The angle between the sun’s position and due south, measured along the
horizontal plane.
● Range: Between -180° and +180°, depending on the sun’s position.
● Significance: Indicates the direction of the sun relative to the observer.
● Usage: Important for positioning solar tracking systems.
● Impact: Helps optimize the orientation of solar panels for capturing maximum sunlight.

7. Tilt Angle (β):

● Definition: The angle between the plane of the solar collector and the horizontal ground.
● Optimization: The ideal tilt angle depends on latitude and season.
● Effect: Impacts the amount of solar radiation received by the collector.
● Importance: Crucial for maximizing energy capture from solar panels.
● Application: Helps in the design of fixed and adjustable solar panel systems.

8. Slope Angle (S):

● Definition: The angle between the collector surface and the horizontal plane.
● Relation: Similar to the tilt angle but applied to inclined surfaces.
● Importance: Determines the angle at which the solar panels should be installed.
● Impact: Affects energy production efficiency in solar energy systems.
● Use: Critical in designing roof-mounted solar collectors.
Flat Plate Solar Collector

1. Definition:
● A flat plate solar collector is a device designed to absorb solar radiation and convert it
into thermal energy. It is primarily used for heating applications, such as water heating in
residential and commercial settings.

2. Construction:
● The collector consists of several key components, including a flat absorber plate that
absorbs solar radiation, a transparent cover (usually glass) to reduce heat loss, insulation
to minimize thermal losses, and tubes to carry the heating fluid.

3. Working Principle:
● When sunlight strikes the transparent cover, it passes through and heats the absorber
plate. The plate then transfers heat to the fluid circulating in the tubes, which is typically
water or air, efficiently delivering heated fluid for use.

4. Advantage:
● One significant advantage of flat plate solar collectors is their simplicity and low
maintenance requirements. They are effective in converting solar energy into heat,
making them ideal for domestic applications like water heating without complex systems.
5. Disadvantage:
● However, flat plate collectors have limitations. They are less efficient at higher
temperatures and can experience heat losses through convection and radiation,
particularly during colder weather, which affects overall performance.

6. Usage:
● Flat plate solar collectors find widespread use in various applications, including
residential water heating systems, space heating in buildings, and low-temperature
industrial processes, providing a sustainable and renewable energy source for heating
needs.

Components of Flat Plate Collector

1. Absorber Plate:
● The absorber plate is a key component that absorbs solar radiation. Made of materials
like copper or aluminum, it is often coated with a selective surface to maximize heat
absorption and minimize heat loss.

2. Transparent Cover:
● The transparent cover, typically made of glass or plastic, allows sunlight to enter while
reducing heat loss. It protects the absorber plate from environmental factors like wind and
rain, enhancing overall efficiency.

3. Insulation:
● Insulation is placed on the back and sides of the collector to minimize heat loss. Common
materials include fiberglass or foam, ensuring that the absorbed heat remains within the
collector and is effectively transferred to the fluid.

4. Fluid Tubes:
● Fluid tubes carry the heating fluid, usually water or air, through the collector. They are
often placed in contact with the absorber plate to ensure efficient heat transfer, allowing
the heated fluid to be used in various applications.

5. Support Structure:
● The support structure holds the collector in place at the desired angle for optimal solar
exposure. It can be fixed or adjustable, ensuring stability while allowing for adjustments
based on seasonal changes in sun angle.
Heat Distribution in FPC

1. Upper Section
● The upper section of a flat plate solar collector receives the most direct solar radiation,
resulting in the highest temperatures. It absorbs significant solar energy, leading to
efficient fluid heating. However, this area also experiences rapid heat loss due to
convection, necessitating effective insulation to maintain efficiency. It is particularly
effective for energy collection during early morning and late afternoon.

2. Middle Section
● The middle section acts as a transitional zone with moderate heat distribution. It retains
heat from both the upper and lower sections, aiding in overall temperature balance. This
area is critical for heat transfer to the circulating fluid, ensuring efficient energy
collection and contributing significantly to the collector's performance.

3. Lower Section
● The lower section generally has the lowest temperature, receiving less direct solar
radiation due to shading from the upper parts. Although it absorbs less heat, it minimizes
heat loss through insulation. This section is crucial for returning the fluid to the heating
process, supporting the overall efficiency of the solar collector.
 Unit 3

Solar air heaters.

● Definition: Solar air heaters are devices that use solar energy to heat air for various
applications.

● Working Principle: They absorb solar radiation and convert it to heat, warming the air
flowing through them.

● Construction: Solar air heaters consist of an insulated box with a transparent cover, an
absorber plate, and air channels.

● Advantages: They are cost-effective, eco-friendly, require low maintenance, and have no
fuel costs.

● Disadvantages: Efficiency depends on sunlight; less effective in cloudy weather and

needs a large area.

● Applications: Commonly used for drying crops, space heating, and industrial heating
processes.

Performance analysis of conventional air heater

Other types of Air heaters
Concentrating collectors

● Definition: Concentrating collectors focus sunlight onto a small area to increase energy
intensity for heating or power.

● Working Principle: They use mirrors or lenses to concentrate solar radiation onto an
absorber, generating high temperatures.

● Types: Common types include parabolic troughs, parabolic dishes, heliostats, and Fresnel
lenses.

● Applications: Used in solar power plants, industrial heating, and for generating steam and
electricity.

● Advantages: High efficiency, can achieve very high temperatures, suitable for large-scale
power generation.

● Construction: Made of reflective surfaces (mirrors or lenses) with a receiver at the focal
point to collect concentrated energy.

● Disadvantages: High initial cost, complex tracking systems, and reduced efficiency on
cloudy days.
 Unit 4

Thermal Energy Storage Methods

1. Sensible Heat Storage

● Stores thermal energy by increasing the temperature of materials like water, rocks, or
molten salts.
● Energy storage depends on the material's specific heat and the temperature difference.
● Widely used due to its simplicity and availability of storage materials.
● Requires insulation to minimize heat loss during storage.
● Commonly applied in solar water heaters and large-scale heat storage systems.

2. Latent Heat Storage

● Utilizes phase change materials (PCMs) to store energy during melting or solidification.
● Offers high energy density within a small temperature range.
● Materials like paraffin, salts, and eutectic alloys are commonly used.
● Requires proper encapsulation to prevent material leakage during phase change.
● Suitable for applications needing constant temperature heat supply.

3. Thermochemical Storage
● Stores energy via reversible chemical reactions, like dissociation and recombination of
compounds.
● High energy density due to chemical bond energy storage.
● Ideal for long-duration energy storage without significant heat loss.
● Complex systems require precise control of reaction conditions and materials.
● Used in advanced solar energy systems for electricity generation or industrial heat.

Solar Distillation

Introduction:
● Solar distillation is a process that uses solar energy to purify water. It works by
evaporating impure or saline water using sunlight and then condensing the vapor to
produce clean, potable water. This technique is particularly useful in areas with water
scarcity and abundant sunlight.

Working Principle:
● Solar radiation heats water in a transparent enclosure, causing it to evaporate. The water
vapor rises, leaving impurities, salts, and contaminants behind. The vapor then condenses
on a cooler surface, usually a sloped transparent cover, and the condensed water is
collected as clean, distilled water.
Advantages:
● Uses renewable solar energy, making it eco-friendly and sustainable.
● Simple and cost-effective setup with low operational and maintenance requirements.
● Can function without electricity, ideal for remote and off-grid locations.
● Produces high-quality, mineral-free distilled water.
● Reduces reliance on external energy sources and expensive purification systems.

Disadvantages:
● The process is slow and may not meet high water demands.
● Efficiency depends heavily on the intensity of sunlight and weather conditions.
● Large surface areas are required to achieve significant water output.
● Initial installation costs for large-scale systems can be high.
● Limited capacity makes it unsuitable for industrial-scale applications.

Applications:
● Produces potable water in arid and coastal regions.
● Used in disaster relief for providing clean drinking water.
● Supports agriculture and livestock by supplying fresh water.
● Used in small-scale laboratories and industries requiring distilled water.
● Ideal for households in areas with contaminated or saline water sources.

Conventional Solar Stills

● Definition: Conventional solar stills are simple water purification systems that use solar
energy for evaporation and condensation to produce potable water.

● Components: They consist of a basin to hold impure water, a transparent sloping cover
for condensation, and a collection channel for distilled water.

● Working: Solar radiation heats the water in the basin, causing it to evaporate. The vapor
condenses on the inner surface of the cover and flows into the collection channel.

● Efficiency: These stills have a low output, typically producing 3–4 liters of water per
square meter per day, making them suitable for small-scale use.

● Applications: Commonly used in arid regions, disaster relief operations, or areas with
limited access to clean water.
Passive Solar Stills

● Definition: Passive solar stills rely entirely on solar energy to heat water for evaporation
and condensation, without requiring external power.

● Design: They often incorporate black surfaces or coatings in the basin to enhance solar
absorption and increase efficiency.

● Advantages: These systems are simple to construct, cost-effective, and require minimal
maintenance, making them ideal for rural and remote areas.

● Limitations: They have lower water output compared to active systems, as their
performance depends solely on solar intensity and ambient conditions.

● Suitability: Passive solar stills are perfect for individual households or small communities
where clean water and electricity are scarce, and abundant sunlight is available.

Top Loss Coefficient

● Represents the heat loss from the top surface of a solar collector.
● Caused by radiation, convection, and conduction from the collector surface.
● Influenced by the temperature difference between the collector and the surrounding
environment.
● Can be reduced by using insulating covers or double glazing.
● Affects the overall efficiency of solar thermal systems, especially in open systems.

Bottom and Side Loss Coefficient

● Refers to heat loss from the bottom and side surfaces of a solar collector.
● Typically smaller than the top loss coefficient but still contributes to overall losses.
● Affected by the type of insulation used and the thermal conductivity of the collector's
materials.
● Can be minimized with proper insulation of the collector's bottom and sides.
● Important for improving the efficiency of solar collectors, especially in large systems.

Radiative Loss Coefficient

● Describes heat lost from the solar collector through radiation.

● Depends on the temperature of the collector surface and its emissivity.
 ● Higher temperature differences between the collector and the environment increase
radiative losses.
● Minimizing radiative losses is crucial for improving solar collector performance.
● Can be reduced by using low-emissivity materials for the collector surface.

Evaporative Loss Coefficient

● Refers to heat loss due to the evaporation of water from the collector surface.
● More significant in systems where the collector operates with water or similar liquids.
● Evaporative loss increases with higher temperatures and lower humidity.
● Reduced by using non-evaporative surfaces or sealing systems.
● Important in solar stills and water-based solar thermal systems.
 Unit 5

Photovoltaic Systems

● 1. Introduction
● Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor
materials like silicon.
● They operate on the principle of the photovoltaic effect, where light energy excites
electrons in the material.
● PV systems include solar panels, inverters, batteries, and charge controllers for electricity
generation and storage.
● They are a clean, renewable energy source, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering
greenhouse gas emissions.
● Photovoltaic systems can range from small rooftop installations to large-scale solar
power plants for grid supply.

2. Doping

● Doping is the process of introducing controlled amounts of impurities into a

semiconductor to alter its electrical properties.
● It creates regions with different electrical charge carriers—n-type (excess electrons) and
p-type (electron deficiencies or holes).
● Doping enhances the electrical conductivity of semiconductors, making them efficient for
solar cell applications.
● The type and level of doping determine the material’s ability to generate and separate
charge carriers in PV cells.
● The efficiency of a photovoltaic system depends largely on the precise doping of
semiconductor materials, creating effective p-n junctions.

3. Fermi Level

● The Fermi level is the energy level at which the probability of an electron being present is
50% at absolute zero temperature.
● In semiconductors, it determines the distribution of electrons within the material’s energy
bands.
● The position of the Fermi level affects the concentration of charge carriers (electrons or
holes) in the material.
● Doping materials shift the Fermi level, creating the conditions necessary for the
formation of the p-n junction in solar cells.
 ● In photovoltaic materials, a well-controlled Fermi level ensures efficient charge
separation and collection of electrical current.

4. PN Junction Characteristics

● The p-n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductor materials,
creating an electric field at the interface.
● This electric field separates the electrons and holes generated by absorbed light, driving
them in opposite directions.
● The junction allows the flow of current in one direction, forming the basis for generating
usable electricity in a solar cell.
● The efficiency of the p-n junction depends on the quality of the materials and the precise
control of doping.
● The built-in electric field of the p-n junction is crucial for the photovoltaic effect, helping
to convert solar energy into electrical energy.

5. Photovoltaic Effect

● The photovoltaic effect is the phenomenon where light energy (photons) excites electrons
in a semiconductor, generating electron-hole pairs.
● When photons hit the semiconductor material, they transfer energy to electrons, freeing
them to move and create a current.
● The energy from light must exceed the material’s band gap to generate free charge
carriers capable of creating electricity.
● The separation of electron-hole pairs at the p-n junction allows for the movement of
electrons, creating direct current (DC) electricity.
● The photovoltaic effect is the fundamental principle behind solar cells, directly
converting sunlight into electrical energy.

6. Photovoltaic Material

● Photovoltaic materials are semiconductors that absorb sunlight and convert it into
electricity. Common materials include silicon, cadmium telluride, and thin-film
semiconductors.
● The most widely used material in PV cells is silicon, which is efficient and has
well-understood manufacturing processes.
● Materials for PV cells must have a suitable band gap that allows absorption of sunlight
and efficient conversion to electricity.
● Emerging materials, such as perovskite solar cells, offer higher efficiency and lower
production costs compared to traditional silicon-based cells.
 ● The choice of photovoltaic material influences the performance, cost, and efficiency of
the solar cell, driving innovation in the field.

Solar Cell

● A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts sunlight directly into electricity
through the photovoltaic effect.
● The most common material used in solar cells is silicon, which absorbs photons and
generates electron-hole pairs.
● A single solar cell typically produces a small amount of electricity, usually between 0.5 to
0.6 volts.
● Solar cells are typically encapsulated in protective materials like glass to increase
durability and efficiency.
● The efficiency of a solar cell depends on factors like material, temperature, and the angle
of sunlight.

Solar Module

● A solar module (or panel) is a group of interconnected solar cells wired together to
produce a higher voltage and current.
● Solar modules typically contain 60 or 72 solar cells, with each module generating about
300-400 watts of power.
● Modules are encapsulated in protective layers like glass, resin, and backsheet for
durability and weather resistance.
● The electrical output of a module is dependent on the efficiency of the individual solar
cells and their arrangement.
● Modules are used in various applications, from residential rooftops to large-scale solar
farms, to generate renewable electricity.

Solar Array

● A solar array is a collection of multiple solar modules connected in series or parallel to

generate higher electrical power.
● Arrays are designed to meet specific energy demands, from small home systems to large
utility-scale solar power plants.
● The size of a solar array is determined by factors like desired energy output, available
space, and location.
● Arrays are often connected to inverters to convert the direct current (DC) produced by the
modules into alternating current (AC).
 ● The performance of a solar array depends on the alignment, shading, and maintenance of
the individual modules within the array.

1st Generation Solar Cell Materials (Crystalline Silicon)

● The first generation of solar cells uses crystalline silicon as the primary material.
● Silicon-based cells are the most commercially established, with high efficiency and
reliability.
● They are typically made using monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafers.
● These cells are highly efficient (15-22%) but are expensive to produce due to complex
manufacturing processes.
● Crystalline silicon solar cells dominate the solar market due to their long-term
performance and stability.

2nd Generation Solar Cell Materials (Thin-Film Solar Cells)

● Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing thin layers of semiconductor materials on
substrates like glass or plastic.
● These cells are lightweight, flexible, and less expensive to produce than crystalline
silicon cells.
● Common materials used include cadmium telluride (CdTe), amorphous silicon (a-Si), and
copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS).
● Thin-film cells generally have lower efficiency (10-12%) but are more versatile for
various applications.
● The production of thin-film solar cells is more energy-efficient and cost-effective
compared to crystalline silicon cells.

3rd Generation Solar Cell Materials (Emerging and Advanced Materials)

● Third-generation solar cells include newer technologies, such as organic photovoltaic

(OPV), perovskite, and quantum dot solar cells.
● These materials are still under research but show promise for high efficiency and low
production costs.
● Perovskite solar cells have gained attention due to their high efficiency, reaching up to
25% in lab settings.
● Organic photovoltaic cells are flexible, lightweight, and potentially lower in cost, but they
currently suffer from low efficiency.
● Quantum dots and other nanomaterials offer opportunities for tunable light absorption,
potentially increasing efficiency and lowering manufacturing costs.