OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY

QUEZON CITY

CHEM113

BIOCHEMISTRY

Fatima Aira S. Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 MIDTERM
Week 9

Metabolism 1
Week 7

Nucleic Acids 1
Week 10

Metabolism 2
Week 8

Nucleic Acids 2

Week 11

Carbohydrate
Metabolism

Fatima Aira S. Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

NUCLEIC ACIDS

the biomolecules that are used to

accomplish the transfer of genetic
information to new cells.

TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

found mainly in the cytoplasm of
Sugar and Phosphate
living cells
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) In RNA, the sugar component is D-
found mainly in the nucleus of living ribose, and in DNA the sugar is D-
deoxyribose. (Note that both sugars are
cells
in the b-anomeric form.)

NUCLEOTIDES

DNA & RNA are polymers consisting of

repeating subunits called nucleotides,
which are made of three components: The phosphate group in nucleotides is
- a heterocyclic base derived from phosphoric acid, H3PO4 ,
- a sugar and at physiological pH exists in the ionic
- phosphate form:

HETEROCYCLIC BASES
A ring that contains elements other than
carbon is called a heterocyclic ring.
The bases found in RNA and DNA
contain two types of heterocyclic rings:
pyrimidine and purine.
- pyrimidine bases: uracil (U), thymine
(T), cytosine (C)
- purine bases: adenine (A), guanine (G)
- DNA contains A, G, T, C; RNA
replaces T with U

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

The nucleic acid backbone then is a

NUCLEOTIDES
sequence of sugar-phosphate groups,
Nucleotides are formed from the which differ only in the sequence of
combination of a sugar with a phosphate bases attached to the sugars along the
group at the 5′ position and a backbone (the primary structure of
heterocyclic base at the 1′ position. (′ is DNA):
used to indicate the carbon number in
the sugar to distinguish them from the
atoms in the bases.)
Secondary Structure of DNA

The bases hydrogen bond to each other

in a specific way: A hydrogen bonds to T,
and G hydrogen bonds to C, forming a
set of complementary base pairs:

GENERAL NUCLEOTIDE
STRUCTURE

This allows two separate strands of

sugar-phosphate backbones to run
alongside each other, held together by
the hydrogen bonds between the
Primary Structure of DNA complementary base pairs:

DNA is one of the largest molecules

known, containing between 1 and 100
million nucleotide units.
The nucleotides in DNA are linked by
phosphate groups that connect the 5′
carbon of one nucleotide to the 3′ carbon
of the next.
- Because these connections occur on
two oxygen atoms of the phosphate group,
they are called phosphodiester bonds.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

The Double Helix Discovery of DNA Structure

The "ladder-like" structure folds in on DNA was discovered in 1869 by the

itself to form a double helix, with the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in
bases on the inside and the sugar- the pus of discarded surgical bandages;
phosphate backbone on the outside: he named it “nuclein” because it was
located in the nucleus of the cell.
In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the
pure nucleic acid, and later isolated the
five nitrogenous bases.
Many scientists believed that nucleic
acids were far too simple to be the
agent that carried genetic information
from one generation to the next, and
that the genetic material would turn out
to be a protein.
The two intertwined polynucleotide
In 1943, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod,
chains run in opposite (antiparallel)
and MaclynMcCarty identified DNA as
directions, with the 5′ end of one chain
the carrier of genetic information.
on the same side as the 3′ end of the
The race was on to determine the
other.
structure of DNA, and how it was able
– The base sequence of a DNA strand
to transmit genetic information.
is always written from the 5′ end to the 3′
In 1952, Rosalind Franklin obtained an
end.
X-ray crystal structure (“Photo 51”) of a
The sugar-phosphate backbone runs
sample of DNA which contained
along the outside of the helix, with the
structural features which lead James D.
bases pointing inwards, where they form
Watson and Francis H. C. Crick to
hydrogen bonds to each other.
deduce the double helix structure of
The two strands of DNA are
DNA (Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1962).
complementary to each other, because of
the specific pairing of G to C and A to T.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

CHROMOSOMES DNA Replication

A normal human cell contains 46 Step 1: Unwinding of the double helix.

chromosomes, each of which contains a – The enzyme helicase catalyzes the
molecule of DNA coiled tightly around a separation and unwinding of the
group of small basic proteins called nucleic acid strands at a specific
histones. point called a replication fork.
– The hydrogen bonds between the
GENES base pairs are broken, and the bases
are exposed.
Individual sections of DNA molecules
– An RNA primer attaches to the DNA
make up the genes, which are the
at the point where replication begins.
fundamental units of heredity that direct
the synthesis of proteins. Step 2: Unwinding of the double helix.
– Viruses contain a few to several – DNA replication takes place from the
hundred genes. 3′ end towards the 5′ end of the
– Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains exposed strands (the template).
~1000 genes. – Because the strands are antiparallel,
– Humans cells contain ~25,000 genes. the synthesis of new nucleic acid
strands proceeds:
REPLICATION • toward the replication fork on
one strand (the leading strand)
Individual sections of DNA molecules • away from the replication fork on
make up the genes, which are the the other strand (the lagging
fundamental units of heredity that direct strand).
the synthesis of proteins. – Nucleotides complementary to the
– Two strands of DNA separate, and ones on the exposed strands are
each one serves as the template for attached to the growing chain, and
the construction of its own are linked together by the enzyme
complement, generating new DNA DNA polymerase to form a new
strands that are exact replicas of the daughter strand..
original molecule.
– The two daughter DNA molecules
have exactly the same base
sequences of the parent DNA.
– Each daughter contains one strand of
the parent and one new strand
that is complementary to the parent
strand. This type of replication is
called semiconservative replication.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

Step 2: Unwinding of the double helix. Summary of DNA Replication

– As the replication fork moves down
the DNA backbone, the leading
Step 1
strand grows smoothly towards the – The DNA is unwound by helicase
5′ end. and a replication fork forms.
– Since the lagging strand was
growing away from the first fork, Step 2
new segments grow from the new – With the help of the enzyme DNA
location of the replication fork, until polymerase, DNA is replicated
they meet the areas where the RNA smoothly along the leading strand
primers are located. which grows towards the replication
– This daughter strand is thus fork. DNA segments (Okazaki
synthesized as a series of fragments fragments) are synthesized by DNA
that are bound together in Step 3. polymerase along the lagging strand
The gaps or breaks between as the replication fork moves.
segments in this daughter strand
Step 3
are called nicks, and the DNA
– The Okazaki fragments are joined by
fragments separated by the nicks
DNA ligase, resulting in two new
are called Okazaki fragments (after
DNA molecules.
Reiji Okazaki).

Step 3: Closing the nicks. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION

– The daughter strand along the
leading strand is synthesized An important laboratory technique
smoothly, without any nicks. called the polymerase chain reaction
– The Okazaki fragments along the (PCR) mimics the natural process of
lagging strand are joined by an replication.
enzyme called DNA ligase, which – A small quantity of target DNA, a
removes the RNA primer and buffered solution of DNA
replaces it with the correct polymerase, the cofactor MgCl2 ,
nucleotides. the four nucleotide building blocks,
– The result is two DNA double-helix and primers are added to a test
molecules of DNA that are tube.
identical to the original DNA – Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains
molecule, each of which contains The primers are short polynucleotides
one old strand from the parent DNA that bind to the DNA strands and serve
and one new daughter strand as starting points for
(semiconservative replication). new chain growth.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

– The mixture goes through several RIBONUCLEIC ACID -RNA

three-step replication cycles:
– Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains RNA is a long unbranched polymer
Heat (94-96°C) is used for one to consisting of nucleotides joined by 3′ to
several minutes to unravel DNA into 5′ phosphodiester bonds.
single strands. RNA strands consist of from 73 to
The tube is cooled to 50-65°C for one many thousands of nucleotides.
to several minutes to allow primers to Whereas DNA is only found in the
hydrogen bond to the separated nucleus, RNA is found throughout cells:
strands of target DNA. in the nucleus, in the cytoplasm, and in
The tube is heated to 72°C for one to the mitochondria.
several minutes while DNA polymerase Differences in RNA and DNA primary
synthesizes new strands. structures: –In RNA the sugar is ribose
– Each cycle doubles the amount of instead of deoxyribose. –In RNA, the
DNA; following 30 cycles, a base uracil (U) is used instead of
theoretical amplification factor of 1 thymine (T).
billion is attained.
PCR is a standard research technique SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF RNA
that:
– detects all manner of mutations Most RNA molecules are single-
associated with genetic disease. stranded, although many contain
– is used to detect presence of regions of double-helical structure
unwanted DNA (bacterial or viral where they form loops. (A::U, G:::C)
infection).
– is a fast and simple alternative to KINDS OF RNA
lengthy procedures involving
sample cultures that can take weeks. There are three kinds of RNA:
– can be used on degraded DNA messenger RNA (mRNA)
samples: ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• forensic analysis, DNA transfer RNA (tRNA).
fingerprinting.
• Recovery of DNA from extinct
mammals, Egyptian mummies,
and ancient insects trapped in
amber to be amplified and
analyzed.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 7
Nucleic Acids 1

Messenger RNA (mRNA) tRNA has regions of hydrogen bonding

functions as a carrier of genetic between complementary base pairs,
separated by loops where there is no
information from the DNA in the cell
hydrogen bonding.
nucleus to the site of protein Two regions of tRNA have important
synthesis in the cytoplasm. functions:
The bases of mRNA are in a • the anticodon is a three-base
sequence which allows tRNA to
complementary sequence to the
bind to mRNA during protein
base sequence of one of the strands synthesis. (It is complementary to
of nuclear DNA. one of the codons in mRNA.)
mRNA has a short lifetime (usually • the 3′ end of the molecule binds to
less than one hour); it is synthesized an amino acid with an ester bond
and transports it to the site of
as it is needed, then rapidly
protein synthesis. An enzyme
degraded to the constituent matches the tRNA molecule to the
nucleotides. correct amino acid, “activating” it
for protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
the main component of ribosomes
that are the site of protein synthesis.
rRNA accounts for 80-85% of the
total RNA of the cell.
rRNA accounts for 65% of a
ribosome’s structure (the remaining
35% is protein).

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

delivers individual amino acids to the
site of protein synthesis.
tRNA is specific to one type of amino
acid; cells contain at least one
specific type of tRNA for each of the
20 common amino acids.
tRNA is the smallest of the nucleic
acids, with 73-93 nucleotides per
chain.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

The Central Dogma GENETIC CODE

of Molecular Biology
The communicative relationship
The central dogma of molecular biology between mRNA nucleotides and amino
states that genetic information contained acids in a protein.
in the DNA is transferred to RNA
molecules and then expressed in the TRANSCRIPTION: RNA
structure of synthesized proteins. SYNTHESIS
Genes are segments of DNA that contain
the information needed for the synthesis Under the influence of the enzyme
of proteins. RNA polymerase, the DNA double
Each protein in the body corresponds to helix unwinds at a point near the gene
a DNA gene. that is being transcribed (the initiation
sequence). Only one strand of the
DNA is transcribed.
Ribonucleotides are linked along the
DNA strand in a sequence determined
by the base pairing of the DNA and
ribonucleotide bases (A::U, G:::C).
mRNA synthesis occurs in the 3′ to 5′
2 STEPS IN FLOW OF direction along the DNA strand (in the
GENETIC INFORMATION 5′ to 3′ direction along the RNA
strand) until the termination sequence
is reached.
Transcription The newly-synthesized mRNA strand
moves away from the DNA, which
In eukaryotes, the DNA containing the
rewinds into the double helix.
stored information is in the nucleus of the
Synthesis of tRNA and rRNA is similar
cell, and protein synthesis occurs in the
to this.
cytoplasm. The information stored in the
DNA must be carried out of the nucleus
by mRNA.

Translation

mRNA serves as a template on which

amino acids are assembled in the
sequence necessary to produce the
correct protein. The code carried by
mRNA is translated into an amino acid
sequence by tRNA.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

Introns and Exons The genetic code uses a sequence of

three bases (a triplet code) to specify
In prokaryotes, each gene is a continuous each amino acid. (A triplet code gives
segment along a DNA molecule. 43=64 possible combinations, which is
Transcription of the gene produces more than enough to specify the 20
mRNA that is translated into a protein amino acids.)
almost immediately, because there is no Each base triplet sequence that
nuclear membrane separating the DNA represents a code word on mRNA
from the cytoplasm. molecules is called a codon.
In eukaryotes, the gene segments of DNA
that code for proteins (exons) are
interrupted by segments that do not
carry an amino acid code (introns).
– Both exon and intron segments are
transcribed, producing heterogenous
nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
– A series of enzymes cut out the
intron segments and splice the exon
segments together to produce
mRNA.

Characteristics of the
Genetic Code

The genetic code applies almost

universally: with minor exceptions, the
same amino acid is represented by the
same codon(s) in all species.
Most amino acids are represented by
GENETIC CODE
more than one codon (a feature known
Once the 3D structure of DNA was as degeneracy).
known, it was clear that the sequence of – Only methionine and tryptophan
the bases along the backbone in some are represented by a single codon.
way directed the order in which amino – Leucine, serine, and arginine are
acids were stacked to make proteins. represented by six codons.
In 1961, Marshall Nirenberg and his – No codon codes for more than one
coworkers began to unravel the amino acid.
connection between the base sequence
in DNA and the amino acid sequence in
proteins.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

Only 61 of the 64 possible triplets The “empty” tRNA released, and the
represent amino acids. The other three whole ribosome moves one codon along
are used as signals for chain termination the mRNA towards the 3’ end
(a “stop” signal). (translocation).
The AUG codon (which also codes for Another tRNA attaches to the A site,
methionine) functions as a “start” signal, and the elongation process is repeated.
but only when it occurs as the first codon
in a sequence.

Step 3: Termination of polypeptide

synthesis.
– Elongation continues until the
ribosome complex reaches a stop
Translation and Protein codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA).
Synthesis – A termination factor protein binds to
Step 1: Initiation of the polypeptide the stop codon, andseparates
chain. the protein from the final tRNA.
– mRNA and a small ribosomal subunit – The ribosome can then synthesize
join; the initiating codon (AUG) another protein molecule.
is aligned with P (peptidyl) site of
the subunit.
– tRNA brings in methionine
(eukaryotes) or N-formylmethionine
(prokaryotes).
– The resulting complex binds to the Polyribosomes
large ribosomal subunit to form a
unit called the initiation complex. Several ribosomes can move along a
Step 2: Elongation of the chain. single strand of mRNA, producing
– The next incoming tRNA with an several identical proteins
anticodon that is complementary to simultaneously. These complexes are
the mRNA codon bonds at the A called polyribosomes or polysomes.
(aminoacyl) site on the mRNA.
– A peptide bond is formed between
the amino acid segments, (catalyzed
by peptidyl transferase), which
releases the amino acid chain from
the P site.
Fatima Aira Legaspi
ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

Mutations Recombinant DNA

Mutations are any changes resulting Recombinant DNA is produced when

in an incorrect base sequence on segments of DNA from one organism
DNA. are introduced into the genetic
Even though the base-pairing material of another organism.
mechanism provides a nearly perfect “Genetic engineering” of E. coli to
way of copying DNA, on average one include the gene for the production of
out of every 1010 bases are copied human insulin enables large quantities
incorrectly. of insulin to be made available for the
– This leads to a change in the treatment of diabetes.
amino acid sequence in a protein,
or causes the protein not to be
made at all.
Mutations occur naturally during
replication. They can also be induced
by environmental factors:
– ionizing radiation (X-rays, UV,
gamma rays). Restriction Enzymes
–mutagens, which are chemical
agents. Restriction enzymes, found in a wide
Mutations may be beneficial to an variety of bacterial cells, catalyze the
organism by making it more capable cleaving of DNA molecules, except for
of surviving in its environment, a few specific types.
ultimately (over millions of years of –These enzymes are normally part
accumulating changes) leading to the of a mechanism that protects
evolution of new species. certain bacteria from invasion by
Since much of an organisms DNA foreign DNA (such as that in
does not code for anything, mutations viruses).
in these regions are neutral. –In these bacteria, some of the
Other mutations can be harmful, bases in their DNA have methyl
either producing genetic diseases or groups attached. The methylated
other debilitating conditions. DNA of these bacteria is left
untouched by the restriction
enzymes, but foreign DNA that
lacks these bases
undergoes rapid
cleavage, and is
rendered
nonfunctional.
Fatima Aira Legaspi
ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

Restriction enzymes act at sites on Restriction enzymes act at sites on

DNA called palindromes, where two DNA called palindromes, where two
strands have the same sequence but strands have the same sequence but
run in opposite directions: run in opposite directions:

The Formation of
Recombinant DNA
Restriction enzymes are used to
break DNA up into fragments of The breaks in the strands are joined
known size and nucleotide using DNA ligase, and the plasmid
sequence, which can then be becomes a circular piece of double-
spliced together with DNA ligases. stranded, recombinant DNA.

Plasmids

The introduction of a new DNA

segment (gene) into a bacterial cell
requires a DNA carrier called a vector,
which is often a circular piece of
double stranded DNA called a
plasmid.
– Plasmids range from 2000 to When the bacteria reproduce, they
several hundred thousand replicate all of the genes, including
nucleotides, and are found in the the new recombinant DNA plasmids.
cytoplasm of bacterial cells. Because bacteria multiply quickly,
– Plasmids function as accessories there are soon a large number of
to chromosomes by carrying bacteria containing the modified
genes for the inactivation of plasmid, which are capable of
antibiotics and the production of manufacturing the desired protein.
toxins. They are also able to
replicate independently of
chromosomal DNA.
When the circular DNA is cut, two
“sticky ends” are produced, which
have unpaired bases.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 8
Nucleic Acids 2

Production of Insulin Applications of

Recombinant DNA

Preparation of gene maps.

In revealing details of various
infections, diseases such as "inborn
errors of metabolism."
Finding out the complete nucleotide
sequence of genome of an organism
and identification of genes.
Viruses Detecting cytogenetic abnormalities
e.g. Down's syndrome, multifactorial
Basic virus particle is called a “virion” disorders, atherosclerosis, coronary
–intact and infective virus particle artery disease etc.
Components: Nucleic Acid (DNA or Preventing various genetic disorders
RNA), Protein coat (capsid) made of e.g. inherited haemoglobin disorders,
individual protein subunits called phenylketonuria, retinoblastoma etc.
capsomeres. Some may have and Understand a molecular event is
outer envelope, a membrane, derived biological processes like growth,
from the host cell. The envelope can differentiation, ageing etc.
have specific spikes of protein (H and Replacement or correction of
N spikes of Influenza) that aid in deleterious mutation by transfer of
attachment and makes them sensitive clone gene in a patient.
to chemical actions of disinfectants. Production of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) or transgenic
Types of viruses based on “morphology” organisms for providing particular
–shape; structure product and nutrient.
Helical (like TMV or Ebola) Gene Therapy: Removal and
Polyhedral (adeno and polio) replacement of defective genes with
Enveloped (flu) normal healthy functional genes is
Complex (bacteriophage) known as gene therapy e.g. Sickle cell
anemia, Severe Combined Immuno-
Deficiency (SCID). SCID is due to a
defect in the gene for the enzyme
adenosine deaminase (ADA) in 25 per
cent of the cases.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

METABOLISM
Cellular Respiration
Metabolism is the sum of all reactions
During cellular respiration, plants and occurring in an organism:
animals combine energy-rich compounds
with oxygen from the air, producing CO2 Catabolism
and releasing energy.
he reactions involved in the breakdown
Cellular respiration can be represented
of biomolecules.
as:
Anabolism

the reactions involved in the synthesis

A portion of the energy released during
of biomolecules.
respiration is captured in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which
In general, energy is released during
stores energy for use in other processes.
catabolism and required during
– The remainder of the energy from
anabolism.
respiration is released as heat.

Energy Production Metabolic Pathway

A metabolic pathway is a sequence of

reactions used to produce one product
or accomplish one process.
–Each pathway consists of a series of
chemical reactions that convert a
starting material into an end
Energy Flow in Biosphere
product (e.g., the citric acid cycle
and the electron transport chain).

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

CATABOLISM OF FOOD

The catabolism of food is a three stage

process.
Stage I: The digestion of large, complex
molecules into simpler ones.
The most common reaction in digestion
is hydrolysis:

ATP AS PRIMARY
Stage II: The small molecules from ENERGY CARRIER
digestion are broken down into
even simpler units, usually the two-carbon Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, consists
acetyl portion of acetyl coenzyme A of:
(acetyl CoA): – the heterocyclic base adenine
Some energy is produced at this stage, – the sugar ribose
but much more is produced during the – a triphosphate group
oxidation of the acetyl units in Stage III.

At physiological pH, the protons on

Stage III: This is referred to as the common the triphosphate group are removed,
catabolic pathway because the reactions giving ATP a charge of -4.
are the same regardless of the type of – In the cell, it is complexed with
food being degraded. Mg2+ in a 1:1 ratio, giving it a net
– citric acid cycle charge of -2.
– electron transport
– oxidative phosphorylation
Energy released in Stage III appears in
the form of energy-rich molecules of
ATP.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

HYDROLYSIS OF ATP • ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + H+ , ΔG o’=

-7.3 kcal/mol
The triphosphate group is the part of Other phosphate-containing
the molecule that is important in the compounds also liberate energy on
transfer of biochemical energy. The hydrolysis:
key reaction is the transfer of a
phosphoryl group, —PO3 2- , from
ATP to another molecule.
- During the hydrolysis of ATP in
water, a phosphoryl group is
transferred from ATP to a water
molecule:
Compounds that liberate a large
amount of free energy on hydrolysis
are called high-energy compounds.
– The products are adenosine The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is the
diphosphate (ADP) and a principal energy-releasing reaction for
phosphate ion, often referred to as ATP. Some other hydrolysis reaction
an inorganic phosphate, Pi , or just occur under some conditions, such as
phosphate. the hydrolysis of ATP to adenosine
The transfer of a phosphoryl group monophosphate, AMP, and
from ATP to water is accompanied by pyrophosphate, PPi:
a release of energy.
Free energy, ΔG, is used as a measure
of the energy change.
– When energy is released, ΔG is
negative.
– When energy is absorbed, ΔG is
positive. This is usually followed by immediate
– When ΔG is measured under hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate,
standard conditions, it is which releases even more energy:
represented by ΔG o.
– When ΔGo is measured under body
conditions, it is represented by
ΔG o’.
The liberated free energy is available
for use by the cell to carry out
processes requiring an input of
energy:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

The hydrolyses of ATP and related MITOCHONDRIA

compounds are summarized below:
The mitochondrion is the powerhouse
of the cell.
It is the organelle where many of the
reactions of the common catabolic
pathway occur.
It consists of an outer membrane,
which surrounds a inner membrane.
– The folds of the inner membrane
are called cristae.
– The space that surrounds them is
the matrix.
ATP-ADP CYCLE

ATP functions as an immediate donor

of free energy rather than as an
energy storage medium.
– The turnover rate of ATP is very
high: typically, an ATP molecule is The enzymes for ATP synthesis
hydrolyzed within 1 minute after (electron transport and oxidative
its formation. phosphorylation) are located on the
– At rest, a human body hydrolyzes cristae. The enzymes for the citric acid
ATP at the rate of about 40 kg cycle are found within the matrix, near
every 24 hours. the surface of the inner membrane.
– During strenuous exertion, this
rate may be as high as 0.5 kg per COENZYMES
minute.
Coenzymes are weakly-bound organic
groups that participate in enzyme-
catalyzed reactions, often by acting as
shuttle systems for the transfer of
chemical groups (e.g., hydrogen
transport). Many important
coenzymes are formed from vitamins.
ATP must be continuously
regenerated from ADP if cellular work
is to occur.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

Coenzyme A is a central compound in Acyl groups are linked to coenzyme A

metabolism. It is part of acetyl through the sulfur atom in a thioester
coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), the bond:
substance formed from all foods as
they pass through Stage II of
catabolism.

COENZYME A ELECTRON
TRANSPORTERS
Components of coenzyme A:
– vitamin B5 , pantothenic acid, in the Most of energy for ATP synthesis is
center. released when the oxygen we breathe
– a phosphate derivative of ADP is reduced.
– b-mercaptoethylamine, which puts – Oxygen accepts electrons and H+ ,
a reactive sulfhydryl group (—SH) producing water.
at the end of the molecule (CoA— – The electrons come from the
SH). oxidation of fuel molecules, but
are are not transferred directly to
the oxygen.
– These substrates first transfer the
electrons to special coenzyme
carriers.
The reduced forms of these
coenzymes transfer the electrons to
The letter A is included in the name oxygen through the reactions of the
Coenzyme A to signify its participation electron transport chain.
in the transfer of acetyl groups, but ATP is formed from ADP and Pi as a
Coenzyme A transfers all acyl groups. result of this flow of electrons.
This is important in fatty acid
oxidation and synthesis.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE In this reaction, one hydrogen atom of

DINUCLEOTIDE (NAD+ ) the alcohol substrate is directly
transferred to NAD+ , whereas the
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide other appears in solution as H+ . Both
(NAD+ ), is an electron transporter electrons lost by the alcohol have been
which is a derivative of ADP and the transferred to the nicotinamide ring in
vitamin nicotinamide (B3 ). NADH.
Biochemical reactions involving
coenzymes are often written more
concisely:

– This notation emphasizes the

oxidation reaction and the
involvement of the coenzyme.
The reactive site of NAD+ is in the
nicotinamide portion. –When oxidizing
a substrate, the nicotinamide ring FLAVIN ADENINE
DINUCLEOTIDE (FAD)
accepts two electrons and one proton,
forming the reduced coenzyme NADH:
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is
another major electron carrier. It is a
derivative of ADP and the vitamin
riboflavin.

A typical cellular reaction in which

NAD+ serves as an electron acceptor
is the oxidation of an alcohol:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 9
Metabolism 1

The active site is located within the

riboflavin ring system. Unlike NAD+ ,
FAD accepts both of the hydrogen
atoms lost by the substrate, forming
the reduced species FADH2

The substrates for reactions involving

FAD are often those in which a —CH2
—CH2—portion of the substrate is
oxidized to a double bond:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

End Products of digestion:

• Glucose and monosaccharides from
carbohydrates
• Amino acids from proteins
• Fatty acids and glycerol from fats
and oils
• The digestion products are absorbed
into the blood and transported
to body’s cells

Stage 2 : Acetyl Group Formation

The small molecules from Stage 1 are
further oxidized.
End product of these oxidations is
Overview of Biochemical acetyl CoA
Energy Production Involves numerous reactions:
• Reactions occur both in cytosol
(glucose metabolism) as well as
Energy needed to run human body is mitochondria (fatty acid
obtained from food metabolism) of the cells.
Multi-step process that involves
several different catabolic pathways Stage 3 : Citric Acid Cycle
There are four general stages in the Stage 3 in the oxidation of fuel
biochemical energy production molecules begins when the two-carbon
process: acetyl units of acetyl CoA enter the
• Stage 1: Digestion citric acid cycle.
• Stage 2: Acetyl group formation, –The citric acid cycle is also known as
• Stage 3: Citric acid cycle the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA
• Stage 4: electron transport chain cycle) because of the three
and oxidative phosphorylation carboxylic acid groups in citric acid,
and the Krebs cycle after Hans A.
Stage 1: Digestion Krebs, who deduced the reaction
Begins in mouth (saliva contains starch sequence in 1937.
digesting enzymes), continues in the
stomach (gastric juice), completed in
small intestine:
• Results in small molecules that can
cross intestinal membrane into the
blood

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

A two-carbon acetyl group enters the

REACTIONS OF THE CITRIC cycle (Step 1) and two carbon atoms are
ACID CYCLE liberated as CO2 molecules (Steps 3 and
4) • This series of reactions begins and
ends with a C4 compound, oxaloacetate
(hence the term cycle).

The reactions of the citric acid cycle can

be added to give the net equation:
• acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP
+ Pi + 2H2O 2CO2 + CoA-S-H +
3NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + GTP

Some important features of the citric acid

cycle:
1. Acetyl CoA is the fuel of the citric acid
CITRIC ACID CYCLE cycle.
2. The operation of the cycle requires a
The citric acid cycle is the principal supply of the oxidizing agents NAD+ and
process for generating the reduced FAD from the electron transport chain.
coenzymes NADH and FADH2 , which – Because oxygen is the final acceptor
are necessary for the reduction of of electrons in the electron transport
oxygen and ATP synthesis in the chain, the continued operation of the
electron transport chain. cycle depends ultimately on an
– The citric acid cycle also functions adequate supply of oxygen.
as a source of intermediates for 3. Two carbon atoms enter the cycle as an
biosynthesis of other important acetyl unit, and two carbon atoms leave
molecules (e.g., some amino acids). the cycle as two molecules of CO2
The reactions of the citric acid cycle However, the carbon atoms leaving the
occur within the matrix of the cycle correspond to carbon atoms that
mitochondria. entered in the previous cycle; there is a
There are eight reactions in the cycle. one-cycle delay between the entry of two
Of particular importance are the carbon atoms as an acetyl unit and their
reactions where NADH (Steps 3, 4, and release as CO2 .
8) and FADH2 (Step 6) are produced.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

4. In each complete cycle, four oxidation-

reduction reactions produce
three molecules of NADH (Steps 3, 4,
and 8) and one molecule of FADH2
(Step 6).
5. One molecule of the high-energy
phosphate compound guanosine
triphosphate (GTP) is generated (Step
5).

REGULATION OF THE
CITRIC ACID CYCLE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The rate at which the citric acid cycle
The reduced coenzymes NADH and
operates is precisely adjusted to meet
FADH2 are end products of the citric
cellular needs for ATP. –Citrate
acid cycle.
synthetase (Step 1) is an allosteric
In the final stage of food oxidation, the
enzyme that is inhibited by ATP and
hydrogen ions and electrons carried by
NADH and activated by ADP. –
these coenzymes combine with oxygen
Isocitrate dehydrogenase (Step 3) is an
to form water:
allosteric enzyme that is inhibited by
NADH and activated by ADP. –The a-
4H+ + 4e− + O2 → 2H2O
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
–This series of reactions is called the
(Step 4) is a group of allosteric
electron transport chain. It involves
enzymes that is inhibited by succinyl
a number of enzymes and cofactors
CoA, NADH, the products of the
located within the inner membrane
reaction that it catalyzes, and ATP.
of the mitochondria.
The rate at which the citric acid cycle
– Electrons from the reduced
operates is reduced when cellular ATP
coenzymes are passed from one
levels are high, and stimulated when
electron carrier to another within the
ATP supplies are low (and ADP levels
membrane in assembly-line fashion,
are high).
until they are combined with the
final electron acceptor, O2 .

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

The electron transport chain is found A summary of the reactions of the

in the inner membrane of the ETC, cont.:
mitochondria. – Four of the five remaining electron
A summary of the reactions of the carriers are cytochromes (cyt),
ETC: which are iron-containing enzymes.
– The first electron carrier is an – In the final step, an oxygen atom
enzyme similar to FAD called flavin accepts the electrons and combines
mononucleotide (FMN). with two H+ ions to form water.
– Two electrons and one H+ from
NADH pass to FMN, then to an
iron-sulfur protein, and then to
coenzyme Q (CoQ).

A summary of the reactions of the

ETC, cont.:
– CoQis also the entry point for the
two electrons and two H+ ions
from FADH2 . As NADH and
FADH2 release their H+ and
electrons, NAD+ and FAD are
regenerated for reuse in the citric
acid cycle.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

OXIDATIVE During oxidative phosphorylation:

PHOSPHORYLATION – the conversion of NADH to NAD+
generates 2.5 molecules of ATP
As electrons move along the electron from ADP.
transport chain, about 52.6 kcal/mol of – the conversion of FADH2 to FAD
free energy is released. generates 1.5 molecules of ATP.
Some of this energy is conserved by Every molecule of acetyl CoA entering
the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi . the citric acid cycle produces:
Because this synthesis of ATP (a
– 3 molecules of NADH
phosphorylation reaction) is linked to
– 1 molecule of FADH2
the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 , it
– GTP (equivalent to ATP)
is called oxidative phosphorylation. It
Thus, over the entire catabolic
takes place at three different locations
pathway (citric acid cycle, electron
along the electron transport chain (see
next slide). transport chain, and oxidative
phosphorylation), 10 ATP molecules
are formed per molecule of acetyl CoA
ENERGY CHANGES IN THE catabolized:
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN

THE CHEMIOSMOTIC
HYPOTHESIS
The mechanism by which the cell
couples the oxidations of the electron
transport chain and the synthesis of
ATP involves a flow of protons (H+ ).

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

The chemiosmotic hypothesis NON ETC OXYGEN-

proposes that the flow of electrons CONSUMING RXNS
through the electron transport chain
causes H+ ions to be “pumped” from >90% of inhaled oxygen via respiration
the matrix across the inner membrane is consumed during oxidative
and into the space between the inner phosphorylation.
and outer mitochondrial membranes, Remaining O2 are converted to several
creating a difference in H+ highly reactive oxygen species (ROS)
concentration and electrical potential with in the body.
across the membrane. Examples of ROS:
– As a result, protons flow back • Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
through the membrane through a • Superoxide ion (O2-) and
channel formed by the enzyme F1 -
• Hydroxyl radical (OH)
ATPase.
• Superoxide ion and hydroxyl
– The flow of protons through this
radicals have unpaired electron and
enzyme is believed to drive the
are extremely reactive
phosphorylation reaction, and
ROS can also be formed due to
provides energy for ATP synthesis.
external influences such as polluted
air, cigarette smoke, and radiation
exposure.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are
both beneficial as well a problematic
within the body
Beneficial Example: White blood cells
produce a significant amount of
superoxide free radicals via the
following reaction to destroy the
invading bacteria and viruses.
• 2O2 + NADPH 2O2- + NADP+ + H+
> 95% of the ROS formed are quickly
converted to non toxic species in the
following reactions:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 10
Metabolism 2

> 95% of the ROS formed are quickly

converted to non toxic species in the
following reactions:

About 5% of ROS escape destruction

by superoxide dismutase and catalase
enzymes.
Antioxidant molecules present in the
body help trap ROS species
• Antioxidants present in the body:
• Vitamin K
• Vitamin C
• Glutathione (GSH)
• Beta-carotine
Plant products such as flavonoids are
also good antioxidants –Have shown
promise in the management of many
disorders associated with ROS
production

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

BLOOD SUGAR LEVELS

Digestion of
Carbohydrates Glucose is the most plentiful
monosaccharide in blood. The term
blood sugar usually refers to glucose.
Carbohydrates, especially glucose,
In adults, the normal blood sugar level
play major roles in cell metabolism.
measured after a fast of 8-12 hours is
The major function of dietary
70-110 mg/100 mL (in clinical reports
carbohydrates is to serve as a source
the units are in mg/dL). – The blood
of energy.
sugar level reaches a maximum of
– In a typical diet, 2/3 of daily energy
about 140-160 mg/100 mL about 1
needs are furnished by
hour after a carbohydrate-containing
carbohydrates.
meal, and returns to normal after 2-2.5
– During carbohydrate digestion,
hours.
disaccharides and polysaccharides
Hypoglycemia occurs when blood
are hydrolyzed to form
sugar levels are below the normal
monosaccharides, primarily
fasting level.
glucose, fructose, and galactose:
– Mild hypoglycemia leads to
dizziness and fainting as brain
cells are deprived of energy.
– Severe hypoglycemia can result in
convulsions and shock.

Hyperglycemia occurs when

– After digestion is completed, blood sugar levels are above
glucose, fructose, and galactose the normal fasting level.
are absorbed into the bloodstream – If blood glucose levels are
through the lining of the small above about 180 mg/100
intestine and transported to the mL, the sugar is not
liver. completely reabsorbed by
– In the liver, fructose and galactose the kidneys, and glucose is
are rapidly converted to glucose or excreted in the urine.
to compounds that are
metabolized by the same pathway
as glucose.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

– The blood glucose level at which

this occurs is the renal threshold,
and the condition when glucose
appears in the urine is called
glucosuria.
– Prolonged hyperglycemia at a
glucosuric level indicates a
problem with the body’s normal
ability to control blood sugar levels.
The liver is the key organ involved in
regulating blood glucose levels.
– When blood glucose levels rise
after a meal, the liver removes
glucose from the bloodstream, and REGULATION OF
converts it to glycogens or GLYCOLYSIS
triglycerides for storage.
– When blood glucose levels are low, All of the enzymes in the glycolysis
the liver converts stored glycogen pathway are found in cellular
to glucose, and synthesizes new cytoplasm.
glucose from noncarbohydrate The net result of adding all of these
sources (gluconeogenesis) reactions together gives the equation
glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2NAD+  2
GLYCOLYSIS pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 4H++
2H2O
Glycolysis is a series of ten reactions, – There is a net gain of 2 moles of
with a net result of converting a ATP for every mole of glucose
glucose molecule into two molecules that is converted to pyruvate.
of pyruvate. Other sugars are also digested in
glycolysis:
– Fructose enters glycolysis as
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
– Galactose is isomerized to form
glucose-6- phosphate.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

The glycolysis pathway is regulated by – When ATP concentrations are low,

three enzymes: ADP and AMP concentrations are
high, which activates the
Hexokinase phosphofructokinase, accelerating
catalyzes the conversion of glucose to the glycolysis pathway
glucose-6- phosphate and initiates
the glycolysis pathway.
The enzyme is inhibited by a high
concentration of glucose-6-
phosphate (feedback inhibition).

Phosphofructokinase
catalyzes the irreversible conversion
of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose
1,6- bisphosphate THE FATES OF PYRUVATE
As an allosteric enzyme, it is inhibited The sequence of reactions that
by high concentrations of ATP and convert glucose to pyruvate is similar
citrate, and activated by high in all organisms. However, the fate of
concentrations of ADP and AMP the pyruvate as it is used to generate
energy is variable.
Pyruvate Kinase As the process occurs, NAD+ is
catalyzes the conversion of 3- reduced to NADH. The need for a
phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate. continuous supply of NAD+ for
This is an allosteric enzyme that is glycolysis is a key to understanding
inhibited by high concentrations of the fates of pyruvate.
ATP. – In each case, pyruvate is
metabolized so as to regenerate
NAD+, allowing glycolysis to
When the glycolysis pathway is
continue.
operating, so are the citric acid cycle
and the electron transport chain,
which produce large amounts of ATP.
– If ATP use decreases, the
concentration of ATP increases.
The ATP binds to phosphofruc-
tokinase and pyruvate kinase,
slowing down their activity, and
thus slowing the glycolysis
pathway.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

There are three things that can REDUCTION TO LACTATE

happen to pyruvate after glycolysis:
– oxidation to acetyl CoA under Under anaerobic conditions
aerobic conditions (restricted O2 supply), such as those
– reduction to lactate under that accompany strenuous or long-
anaerobic conditions term muscle activity, the cellular
– reduction to ethanol under supply of oxygen is not adequate for
anaerobic conditions for some the reoxidation of NADH to NAD+.
prokaryotic organisms Under these conditions, the cells
begin reducing pyruvate to lactate as
a means of regenerating NAD+:

Adding this equation to the net

results of glycolysis produces the
OXIDATION TO ACETYL COA equation for lactate fermentation:

Under aerobic conditions (a plentiful

supply of oxygen), pyruvate is
oxidized in the mitochondria to form
acetyl CoA:
– Most of the acetyl CoA formed REDUCTION TO LACTATE
can enter the citric acid cycle on
This reaction does not produce as
its way to complete oxidation to
much energy as the complete
CO2 .
oxidation of pyruvate under aerobic
– Some acetyl CoA serves as a
conditions, but the two ATPs
starting material for fatty acid
produced from lactate fermentation
biosynthesis.
are sufficient to sustain the life of
anaerobic microorganisms.
– In human metabolism, those two
ATPs play a critical role by
furnishing energy when cellular
NAD+ is regenerated when NADH supplies of oxygen are insufficient
transfers its electrons to O2 in the for complete oxidation
electron transport chain. of pyruvate.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

– During vigorous exercise, there

is a shift to lactate production as a
means for producing ATP; the
buildup of lactate in the muscles
causes muscle pain and cramps,
and causes a slight decrease in
blood pH, triggering an increase in
the rate and depth of breathing,
providing more oxygen to the
cells.

REDUCTION TO ETHANOL
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Several organisms, including yeast,
regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic
conditions by alcoholic fermentation,
by decarboxylation (removing CO2 )
of pyruvate to produce acetaldehyde:

– The CO2 thus produced causes

beer to foam and wine and
champagnes to bubble.
Acetaldehyde is then reduced by
NADH to form ethanol (also
regenerating NAD+ for glycolysis):

Combining the reaction for glycolysis

with the reactions for reduction to
ethanol gives the following overall
reaction:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

THE COMPLETE OXIDATION ATP CALCULATIONS,

OF GLUCOSE SUMMARY

Only 2 mol of ATP is produced per

mole of glucose by lactate
fermentation and alcoholic
fermentation. Complete aerobic
oxidation of glucose is thus 16 times
more efficient than either of these
processes.
The total energy available in glucose
is: GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS
Excess glucose is converted into
glycogen in a process called
glycogenesis.
– Glycogen is stored primarily in the
liver and muscle tissue, although
some glycogenesis can occur in all
ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN cells.
LIVING ORGANISMS – The liver can store about 110 g of
glycogen, and the muscles can
Thus, glucose oxidation liberates 686 store about 245 g.
kcal/mol, whereas the synthesis of 32 This anabolic process results in a
mol of ATP stores 234 kcal/mol. The bonding of glucose units to a growing
efficiency of the energy storage is: glycogen chain. The energy is
provided by the hydrolysis of uridine
triphosphate (UTP; uracil + ribose +
three phosphates).
– Living cells can capture 34% of
the released free energy and make
it available to do biochemical work.
– Automobile engines make available
20-30% of the energy actually
released by burning gasoline.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

BREAKDOWN OF GLYCOGEN GLYCOGEN IN MUSCLES

AND THE LIVER
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of
Muscle cells lack glucose 6-
glycogen back into glucose.
phophatase and cannot form free
– Glycogenolysis can occur in the
glucose from glycogen.
liver (and kidney and intestinal
– They can carry out the first two
cells) but not in muscle tissue
steps of glycogenolysis to
because one essential enzyme
produce glucose 6-phosphate.
(glucose 6- phosphatase) is
– This form of glucose is the first
missing.
intermediate in the glycolysis
The first step in glycogen breakdown
pathway, which produces energy.
is the cleaving of the a(14) linkages,
– Muscles therefore only use
catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase.
glycogen for energy production.
Glucose units are released from the
In the liver, glycogen is broken down
glycogen chain as glucose 1-
all the way to form free glucose,
phosphate:
which is relased into the blood during
muscular activity and between meals.
– This glucose is used to maintain a
relatively constant level of blood
glucose.
A debranching enzyme hydrolyzes the
a(1-->6) linkages, eliminating the GLUCONEOGENESIS
branches in glycogen. This allows the
phosphorylase to continue acting on The supply of glucose in the form of
the rest of the chain liver and muscle glycogen can be
In the second step, phosphogluco- depleted by about 12-18 hours of
mutase isomerizes glucose 1- fasting, and in a shorter time as a
phosphate to glucose 6-phosphate: result of heavy work or strenuous
exercise. Nerve tissue, including the
brain, would be deprived of glucose if
- In the final step, glucose 6- the only source was glycogen.
phosphate is hydrolyzed to free
glucose by the enzyme glucose 6-
phophatase (found only in liver,
kidney, and intestinal cells):

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

Gluconeogenesis is the process of – The pyruvate is then converted to

synthesizing glucose from non- glucose by the gluconeogenesis
carbohydrate materials. pathway, and enters the blood.
– When carbohydrate intake is low, – Thus, the liver increases a low blood
and when glycogen stores are glucose level and makes glucose
depleted, the carbon skeletons of available to the muscles.
lactate, glycerol (derived from the – This cyclic process of transport of
hydrolysis of fats), and certain lactate from muscle to liver, the
amino acids are used to synthesize resynthesis of glucose by
pyruvate, which is then converted to gluconeogenesis, and the return of
glucose: glucose to muscle tissue is called
the Cori cycle.

CORI CYCLE
About 90% of gluconeogenesis occurs
in the liver.
– Very little takes place in the brain,
skeletal muscle, or heart, even
though these tissues have a high
demand for glucose.
– This allows the liver to maintain
blood glucose levels so that
tissues needing glucose can SUMMARY OF MAJOR
PATHWAYS IN GLUCOSE
extract it from the blood.
METABOLISM
Gluconeogenesis involving lactate is
especially important under anaerobic
conditions.
– During exercise, lactate levels
increase in muscle tissue, and
some diffuses into the blood.
This lactate is transported to the liver,
where lactate dehydrogenase
converts it back into pyruvate:

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

REGULATION OF GLUCAGON
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Glucagon is a polypeptide hormone
It is important that metabolic (29 aa’s) made in the a-cells of the
pathways be responsive to cellular pancreas.
conditions that that energy is not – Glucagon activates the
wasted in producing unneeded breakdown of glycogen in the
materials. liver, thereby increasing blood
Besides the regulation of enzymes at glucose levels, thus counteracting
key control points, the body also uses the effect of insulin.
three important regulatory hormones: – Insulin and glucagon work in
– epinephrine opposition to each other, and
– glucagon blood sugar levels depend in part
– insulin of the biochemical balance
between these hormones.

INSULIN
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone (51
aa’s) made in in the b-cells of the
pancreas. When carbohydrates are
consumed, blood glucose levels rise, EPINEPHRINE
and the pancreas releases insulin into Epinephrine (also known as
the bloodstream: adrenaline) is a hormone and a
– This enhances the absorption of neurotransmitter.
glucose from the blood into the – It stimulates glycogen breakdown
cells of active tissues such as in muscles, and to a smaller extent
skeletal and heart muscles. in the liver.
– Insulin also increases the rate of – This glycogenolysis reaction
synthesis of glycogen, fatty acids, provides energy for a sudden burst
and proteins. of muscular activity as a response
– Insulin stimulates glycolysis. to pain, anger, or fear (the “fight-
– As a result, blood glucose levels or flight” response)
begin to decrease within one hour, – Epinephrine also increases heart
and return to normal in three rate, constricts blood
hours. vessels, and dilates
air passages.

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN
 Week 11
Carbohydrate Metabolism

REGULATION OF
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM "Seek first his kingdom and his
righteousness, and all these things
will be given to you as well. Therefore
do not worry about tomorrow, for
tomorrow will worry about itself."
Matthew 6:33-34

Fighting, Future RNs!

Fatima Aira Legaspi

ACADEMICIAN