Mineral Exploration and Resource Evaluation

(Geol 4123)
Lecture Note

By: M. Ali
 1. Introduction to Exploration Geology

1.1 Course Definition and Aims /Rationales:

• What exploration Geology? It is a scientific investigation of the earth’s

crust to determine if there are mineral deposits present that may be
commercially developed.

• The principal objective of exploration geology is to find economic

mineral deposits that will appreciably increase the value of a mining
company's stock to the shareholders on a continuing basis, or to yield a
profit to the explorer.

1.2. Historical Background of Mineral Exploration

It has been argued that humans have always been scientists. It could also be said they have
always been prospectors, explorationists, miners and entrepreneurs. One example of this was the
mining of copper by Native Americans on Isle Royale from about 7,500 to 3,000 years before the
present. Here Native American prospectors discovered every native copper deposit eventually
mined by Americans in the mid-late 1800’s.

Another example is the making of “superglue” over 70,000 years ago by people who lived in
what is now South Africa. The glue was made out of red hematite and acacia gum. But making
the glue wasn't easy for the ancient Africans. It was mentally taxing work that would have
required humans to account for differences in the chemistry of gum harvested from different
trees and in the iron content of the powdery hematite from different sites.

Other commodities mined by early humans included salt, flint, (mining for these dates back at
least 100,000 years) silver, gold, cinnabar, lead, malachite and hematite. These commodities
were used for nutrition, hunting, tools, jewelry, paint, fishing weights, and who knows what else.
There was underground mining for flint in France and Britain between 4000 and 10,000 years ago.
These ancient miners sunk shafts over 100 meter deep into the soft chalk with stone hammers and
picks. Over 7000 years ago Egypt sent out expedition in search of gold, turquoise, silver, tin, and
lead.
1.3 Definition of common Terms
Mineral occurrence/ Prospect: rock body that contain one or more minerals sufficiently above
crystal abundance to have potential economic value. In short it is potential ore deposit, based on
preliminary exploration-geologically interest but not necessarily economic interest
Ore/Ore body/Ore Deposit: refers to a specific volume of material in a mineral deposit that can
be mined and marketed at reasonable profit under prevailing condition of commodity price, costs
and technology, the value of the mineral or metal extracted and its concentration in the ore (The
higher the concentration, the richer the ore). Thus, many mineral deposits are not mined because
they fail to pass the test of profitability. In common mining terminology an “ore deposit” by
definition must have an “Ore reserve” and may and may not have an additional “Resources”.
Mineral Resource: The amount of ore in a given deposit, usually quoted as the number of tones
available at a specific average grade. In short it is potential mineral deposit, based on preliminary
exploration- geologically interest but not necessarily economic interest.
Mineral Reserve/ Ore reserve: The geological estimate of the resource is converted into
reserves by technical and economic work we commonly call pre-feasibility and feasibility
studies. What are these modifying factors’? These factors include:- Consideration of mining,
metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental factors

Grade/tenor: is the average concentration of a valuable substance in mineral deposits and

usually given as weight percent. The average grade of an ore deposit is calculated, often
employing very sophisticated statistical procedures, as an average of the grades of a very large
number of samples collected from throughout the deposit.
Cut-off grade: the minim concentration required-even point- for mine in terms of revenue and
costs. And usually defines the boundary of the deposit. For example, if the average grade of a
porphyry deposit is 0.5% Cu, the cut-off grade might be 0.2% Cu. any rock with a grade below
0.2% Cu would be waste. However there are factors controlling cut-off grade limit such as
byproducts, undesirable substances, size and shape ore body, commodity price and cost of
capitals.

Ore mineral: - the minerals of economic interest in a deposit.

Gangue: the commercially worthless minerals associated with economically valuable metallic
minerals in an ore deposit.

Host rock: The rock within which the ore deposit occurs.

Wall rock/Country rocks: Non-mineralized rocks adjacent to an ore deposit.

1.5 Considerations during mineral exploration

The mineral industry has specific features to which we must pay attention. It is characterized as:
• Risky • High rate of return, and
• Complex • Time taking.
• Capital intensive
This calls for careful planning. Mineral exploration activity is complex, multifaceted and
multilateral. It involves a thorough analysis of geology, economics, environment, etc. It is a
long-term commitment and hence careful considerations have to taken.
1.6 Stages of exploration (Exploration activity sequences in general)

The process of developing mineral resource will generally go through the stages listed below.
Positive results in any stage will lead to advance to the next stage and an escalation of the
exploration effort. Negative results mean that the prospect will be discarded, sold or joint
ventured to another party, or simply put on hold until the acquisition of fresh
information/ideas/technology leads to its being reactivated.

Prospecting
This includes I. Planning (i.e. selection of commodities/or deposit type, Organization and
budgeting). II. Desk study (i.e. area selection/ or target generation based on background
information on geology, data on the occurrence of currently producing mines and prospects and
their economic status are essential. III. Reconnaissance (i.e. the aim of reconnaissance is to
evaluate areas of interest highlighted in the desk study rapidly and to generate other, previously
unknown, targets preferably without taking out licenses, shortly conducting regional assessment
and preliminary result evaluation).
Exploration- systematic examination of a deposit; after an interesting area is chosen and an
application for exploration permit is made.
Target Generation
This includes all exploration on the prospect undertaken prior to the drilling of holes directly
targeted on potential ore. The aim of the exploration is to define such targets. The procedures
carried out in this stage could include some or all of the following:
o a review of all available information on the prospect, such as government geological
mapping and geophysical surveys, the results of previous exploration and the known
occurrence of minerals;
o preliminary geological interpretations of air photographs and remote sensed imagery;
o regional and detailed geological mapping;
o detailed rock-chip and soil sampling for geochemistry;
o regional and detailed geophysical surveys;
o shallow pattern drilling for regolith or bedrock geochemistry;
o Drilling aimed at increasing geological knowledge.

Target Drilling
This stage is aimed at achieving an intersection of ore, or potential ore. The testing will usually
be by means of carefully targeted diamond or rotary-percussion drill holes, but more rarely
trenching, pitting, sinking a shaft or driving an adit may be employed. This is probably the most
critical stage of exploration since, depending on its results, decisions involving high costs and
potential costs have to be made. If a decision is made that a potential ore body has been located,
the costs of exploration will then dramatically escalate, often at the expense of other prospects. If
it is decided to write a prospect off after this stage, there is always the possibility that an ore
body has been missed.
Resource Evaluation Drilling
This stage provides answers to economic questions relating to the grade, tonnes and
mining/metallurgical characteristics of the potential ore body. A good understanding of the
nature of the mineralization should already have been achieved – that understanding was
probably a big factor in the confidence needed to move to this stage. Providing the data to
answer the economic questions requires detailed pattern drilling and sampling. Because this can
be such an expensive and time-consuming process, this drilling will often be carried out in two
sub-stages with a minor decision point in between: an initial evaluation drilling and a later
definition drilling stage. Evaluation and definition drilling provide the detail and confidence
levels required to proceed to the final feasibility study.

Feasibility Study
This, the final stage in the process, is a desk-top due-diligence study that assesses all factors –
geological, mining, environmental, political, economic – relevant to the decision to mine. With
very large projects, the costs involved in evaluation are such that a preliminary feasibility study
is often carried out during the preceding resource evaluation stage. The preliminary feasibility
study will identify whether the costs involved in exploration are appropriate to the returns that
can be expected, as well as identify the nature of the data that must be acquired in order to bring
the project to the final feasibility stage.
 2. Geological exploration

Understanding the geology of the ore deposit and its general geologic setting is absolutely necessary at every
step in prospecting, exploration and development. Once the reconnaissance phase has outlined likely targets for
more detailed assessment, the next step in the exploration data gathering process is normally the production of a
suitable geological map at different scales (scales becoming more detailed as the exploration progresses). This
is achieved by walking over the ground surface and accurately recording the nature, location and structure of the
various rocks in the target area, which may be some tens of square kilometers in area. Samples will be collected
for further mineralogical or textural study by microscope techniques in the laboratory. Chemical analyses also
yield important information on the status of the rocks with respect to mineralization. It is normal for an area to
be mapped by different geologists at different times, for a variety of purposes. As geological ideas change over
time, such repetitions are advantageous to our understanding of the area. The end product of geological
mapping is a map which accurately documents rock types, alteration, mineralogy, and structural data such as
faults, folds, stress patterns and dip/strike of strata. This information is of vital importance to deduce the
location of hidden ore deposits.
Maps and x-sections
Geologic map – is a graphical presentation of geological observations and interpretations on a horizontal plane
Geologic cross section – is a graphical presentation of geological observations and interpretations on a vertical
surface.
Why Make a Map and cross section?
1. Are means of portraying, documenting and presenting geological, geochemical, geophysical, structural,
geostatistical or assay data
2. Are fundamental tools for
o Exploration planning
o Correlation of ideas expectations etc with realities
o Evaluation of preliminary results
o Reporting to management
 o Visualizing 3D geologic relationships
4. Allow the application of theories of ore deposit controls to predictions of location, size, grade and shape of
potential ore bodies
5. Are fundamental control document for all subsequent exploration stages
6. They are subjected to modifications throughout the life of the project as new data will be collected during the
progress of the work.
Geologic Maps Depict selected useful field observations from infinite number of observations
The selection is at the discretions of the geologist – he/she selects which is more important than the other with
respect to the objective of the mapping.

Make possible the prediction of things not observed (extrapolation or interpolation of ideas)
Are generally two in type?
1. Large scale – maps with a small scale ratio 1:1000, 1:2500, etc
Every significant rock outcrop is visited & outlined Hence are fact maps, observational maps or outcrop maps
2. Small scale – maps with large scale ratios 1:100,000; 1:250,000 etc
Selected outcrops are examined Interpolation or extrapolation is made b/n observation points. Inter or
extrapolation can be made by either data projection or using features seen in remotely sensed data. Hence, these
maps have a much larger interpretational element than large scale maps.

The difference b/n them is a question of scale. Otherwise, every geologic map is subjected to interpretational
bias & certain degree of uncertainty. A geologic map is not contoured data point but an analogue presentation of
ideas -- not like measured geochemical or geophysical data
The ideas are based on detailed careful observation and rational theory but, nevertheless ideas, their quality
depends on the experience and smartness of the mapmaker. However, a reality for one geologist will not be for
the other one geologist’s ground truth may be another geologist’s irrelevant noise. Therefore, don’t consider the
geologic mapmaker as an objective collector of ‘ground truth’ data. The best way of mapping is the process of
problem solving. It needs multiple working hypotheses, different alternatives for the work have to be
formulated before the mapping starts Subsequent field works will be targeted towards checking/proving the
working hypotheses.
Ideas can be developed from
1. Looking previous geologic maps 3. Field observations on selected areas
2. Interpreting aerial photos
Mapping in the fieldwork can be conducted differently based on the characteristics of the terrain to be mapped
1. If strong linear continuity of rock along the strike exists, one can select traverses across the strike
2. If the area is complexly folded and faulted, one can follow a marker horizon or a contact
3. Or more irregular search pattern can be followed During fieldwork spend less time in uniform exposures in
structural interpretations, consider the relationship that exist between micro and macro structures especially in
terms of sense of movement, geometrical relations etc.
The scale of the map to be prepared varies according to Phase of exploration
Purpose of making the map
a) Small scale maps
􀂉 For regional works, depict broad distribution of rocks and regional structures, In this map the following can
be identified: Basins, Fold belts, Tectonic units, other geological subdivision and good for new project
generation. Explorationists do not prepare map of such scales for two reasons
1. The maps are mostly prepared by geological surveys
2. The acquisition of such large area for map production is not worthwhile at this preliminary level
b) Intermediate range scales (b/n 1:25000 & 1:5000), Can be considered detailed regional maps, Good for
combining geological mapping and regional geochemistry, good for the control & development of new prospect
generation
c) Detailed (greater than 1:5000) the following features are shown on the map, Individual outcrops, Surface
expressions of mineralized areas, Features controlling & localizing mineralization. The maps are prepared after
the prospect is defined; Purpose of their making is to define
i. the size iii. Other characteristics of the potential ore body
ii. The shape and
The maps are employed in the subsequent works of geochemistry, geophysics and drilling
Base maps for geologic mapping
1. Topographic maps May not be available for the area in focus
May not be in appropriate scale, some physiographic/topographic complexities can mask geologic detail
2. Aerial photos-Ideal
3. Maps prepared by topographic surveys using local coordinates

Measuring and Recording Structures

To fully define and understand the attitude of a planar surface such as a bedding plane, cleavage, joint, vein etc.,
a geologist needs to know its strike, its dip and the direction of the dip towards one of the principal compass
quadrants. Of these measurements, the strike is usually the most important, because it is that which defines the
potential continuity of the surface in the horizontal plane of a geological map, or between the adjacent sections
of a drilling program. When measurements are recorded digitally (as opposed to analog recording as a strike and
dip symbol on a map) the most common traditional way has been in the form of xxx/yy/A, where xxx (the
strike) is a 3-digit compass bearing (000–360◦), yy (the dip) a two digit number representing the angle from the
horizontal (00–90◦) and A is the direction of dip towards a principal compass direction or quadrant (i.e. N, NE,
E, SE, S, SW, W or NW). As an example: 042/23 NW is a surface with strike of 42◦ that dips at 23◦ to the
northwest.

The attitude of linear structure is measured and recorded as its trend and plunge. Trend is defined as the
horizontal direction or strike of a vertical plane passing through the lineation, measured in the direction of
plunge. It is recorded as a compass bearing between 000 and 360◦. Plunge is the angle that the lineation makes
with the horizontal, measured in the vertical plane. A measurement of 76/067 represents a plunge of 76 ◦
towards 067◦. If a lineation lies in a plane, then it can be measured as its pitch on that plane. A pitch is the angle
that a lineation makes with the horizontal, measured in the plane that contains the lineation. If the attitude of the
plane is also known, then knowing the pitch enables the trend and plunge to be calculated. The simplest way to
do this is by means of a stereonet. Any computer software used should be capable of accepting and presenting
data in all the above formats.
Geological mapping includes:

a) Geological indications of a possible mineral body c) Favorable rock types.

include presence of gossans or leached capping,
rock alteration. d) Topographic features suggesting anomalous rock
conditions.
b) Structural intersections, breccia, fold axes.
Geologic Criteria for ore recognition
1. Igneous rock affiliation 6. Trace metal association
2. Host rock association 7. Structural controls
3. Wall rock alteration 8. Physiographic expression
4. Age of mineralization 9. Weathering effects
5. Gangue mineral association 10. Ore mineralogy

Fig. 2. 1. Geological mapping

 3. Geochemical Prospecting/exploration

Geochemical prospecting for minerals includes any method of mineral exploration based on systematic
measurement of the chemical properties (i.e. concentration of element of interest/ore elements, pathfinders,
ratios of groups of elements and Isotope ratios) of a naturally occurring material (i.e. solid, liquid or gas: rocks,
sediments, soil, water air, etc). Historically these methods have been some of the most productive of any
methods used in mineral exploration. Sometimes mineralization can be extremely subtle, if not impossible to
recognize, in hand specimen. Without the use of geochemical sampling methods, many known ore deposits
would probably not have been discovered.
After discovery, geochemical sampling plays a key role in the delineation of mineralization. For example,
geochemical sampling of soils is often employed to outline the general distribution of mineralization at shallow
depths where outcrops of bedrock are minimal or nonexistent. The procedure involves collection of materials in
the field, laboratory (or field) analysis of the geochemistry of the materials, plotting of the geochemical values
on maps, and interpretation of the results. The materials may be analyzed for any number of elements. Which
elements are chosen for analysis depends on budget, the geology of the area, and the commodity which is being
sought after. Often there are specific elements or suites of elements which are known to be associated with
specific types of mineralization. Therefore it is possible to evaluate the potential for the existence of certain
types of mineralization by evaluating which elements are associated in a given area.

The purpose of the measurements is the location of geochemical anomalies or of areas where the chemical
pattern indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity. Anomalies may be formed either at depth by igneous and
metamorphic processes or at the earth's surface by sedimentary process. That means anomalies related to
mineralization are mobilized over wider areas by dispersion (both clastic dispersion and chemical dispersion) of
elements related to mineralization.
3.2 Phases of the geochemical exploration program
An overall geochemical exploration program can be divided into the following phases:
I. Planning
II. Sampling
III. Chemical analysis
IV. Interpretation
V. Follow-up
The field geologist is involved more in phases I, II, IV and V while the III rd phase is done by a chemical
laboratory. Geochemical surveys are conducted to study, sample and analyze the natural geochemical media.

I. Planning – This can be achieved through what we call “Orientation Survey”. An orientation survey is
simply defined as the process/practice of evaluating/choosing the most effective techniques (i.e. field survey
techniques, the analytical methods and interpretations) for the commodity sought in the area of search.

After the orientation survey has been conducted the logistics of the major survey need to be planned.
The following are mentioned as checklist for this purpose (Thompson, 1987; cited in Evans, 1995).
• Hire field crew with appropriate experience and training
• Obtain base maps and devise simple numbering scheme
• Designate personnel for communication with laboratory
• Arrange quality control laboratory
• Arrange for data handling and interpretation
• Organize archive of samples and data
• Liaise with other project staff (e.g. geophysicists) and arrange reporting to management.

II. Geochemical Sampling (Stream-sediment, Soil, Heavy Mineral Concentrate, Rock, Water,
Biogeochemical, Glacial and Gas surveys).

Surveys may be either reconnaissance or detailed. The object of a reconnaissance survey is the evaluation of
an area of hundreds or even thousands of square kilometers. Only small sample densities are feasible with large
areas; a typical example would be one sample per square kilometer. Reconnaissance surveys are usually carried
out by sampling stream sediments and their purpose is not so much to locate a specific mineral deposit rather it
is to assess the likelihood that mineralization might be present in the region sampled and that further, more
detailed exploration might be warranted. Detailed surveys utilize closely spaced samples over an area of a few
square kilometers, and individual samples may be as close as two or three meters apart. The objective of a
detailed survey is the outlining of a specific anomaly and thereby the location of a specific deposit, or the
possible extension of a known deposit.

Stream Sediment Sampling/surveying

Active sediments in the channels of streams and rivers can contain low levels of metals derived from
weathering of mineralized rocks within the upstream catchment. This simple fact is the basis for stream
sediment sampling–one of the most widely used methods in regional geochemical prospecting/reconnaissance.
The technique has played a major part in the discovery of many ore bodies, a good example being the discovery
of the Panguna porphyry copper/gold deposit on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea (Baumer and Fraser,
1975). Panning for gold is an example of a stream sediment survey. For the technique to work with maximum
effectiveness, ideally the following conditions should be met:
• The area should be one of active erosion with an incised drainage pattern.
• The ideal sample point is on a primary drainage with a relatively small upstream catchment. Even very large
anomalies are rapidly diluted in secondary or tertiary streams.
• Only the active/fresh sediment on the stream bed should be sampled and also from old sediment on the
terraces and floodplains.. Bank material may be locally derived and not representative of the whole catchment.
• In the absence of an orientation survey to define the ideal sample size fraction, the silt fraction of the stream
sediment (usually specified as –80 mesh, 180um/0.018mm) should be collected. In fast flowing streams a large
volume of sediment may have to be sieved in order to collect a sample of suitable weight for assay (at least 50 g
but preferably 100 g is needed). Sieving therefore has to be done at site and is best done by washing a grab
sample through the mesh of the sieve. The most rugged and best sieves for field use are made of stainless steel
with stainless steel mesh (Fig. 9.1g). Sieved samples are usually stored in small Kraft paper envelopes with
sealable fold-over tops (Fig. 9.2c, d). All samples should be clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.
• As much detail as possible about the sample site should be recorded. As a minimum this will include the
following information: stream width and flow, nature of the coarse float and nature of any outcrop present. This
information will be invaluable when the assay results are later analysed and potential anomalous values selected
for follow-up.
• Follow-up of anomalies will usually take the form of stream sediment sampling upstream, along the
anomalous drainage, to define the point of entry of the anomalous metal to the stream sediment. Further
definition of the source can then be carried out by means of soil sampling on the slopes above the anomalous
drainage.
Soil sampling: - is one of the most widely used methods of geochemical exploration for the detailed, local
assessment of an anomaly is a soil survey. The method works because weathering and leaching of buried
deposits can release anomalous concentrations of heavy metals to the soil and ground water. The released heavy
metals spread outwards and create a dispersion halo in the soil which is much larger than the deposit itself.

The sample collected for assay is usually the fine silty or clayey (<120 μm), surface material that results from
weathering of the underlying bedrock and may contain small fragments of bedrock. A coarse sieve (–10 mesh)
may be necessary to remove overlarge fragments before taking the sample. The sample is normally taken from
just below the organic-rich surface grass-roots layer (A soil horizons) and at clay rich B soil horizons in the
belief cations present will be largely adsorbed on to clays. Soil samples are generally collected on a rectangular
pattern (fig 3.2), generally with closer spacing of sample sites along more widely spaced sample lines and for
most soil surveys 300-500g samples are sufficient. A small pick or mattock is used for this job – the “pelican
pick” (Fig. 9.1d) – is ideal as it allows the sample to be collected without stooping and slid easily into a sample
bag with minimum handling. In some areas (such as rain forest) a hand auger (Fig. 9.1a) may be needed to
obtain the sample. Samples are normally stored in calico bags with draw-string tops (Fig. 9.2a). All samples
should be clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.

Not all soils are in situ residual accumulations of weathered bedrock. They may, for
example, have been transported for some distance laterally from their source by the
action of gravity, wind or rain. The soils may be part of a landscape with a long history of
evolution. That history might have involved variable water tables and cycles of chemical
enrichment and depletion. To adequately interpret the results of a soil survey it is
therefore essential to have an understanding of the regolith (9) of which they are a part.
Regoliths can have long and complex evolutionary histories and need to be geologically
mapped and interpreted prior to planning a soil geochemistry survey, in order to define
those areas suitable for this type of sampling.
Heavy Mineral Concentrate (HMC) Sampling:
Panning stream sediments to extract any heavy mineral component is an ancient, but still very relevant and
effective, geochemical prospecting technique. Panning refers to the process whereby a sample of alluvial or
colluvial material is agitated in water in order to separate minerals by their specific gravity. To do this a broad
shallow dish or pan with a dark-coloured matte surface is used. Panning dishes range from 30 to 40 cm diameter
(fig.9.2f).

The heavy mineral concentrate (HMC) can be examined at the collection site to identify and quantify its mineral
content (e.g. number of grains of gold). If required, the concentrate can then be collected into a Kraft paper
sample envelope for subsequent assay. Positive results from on-site examination can be immediately followed
up with upstream sampling until the source of the anomaly is located. Heavy mineral sampling is widely
employed to locate native elements such as gold grains (colour-a small gold grine and nugget), platinum,
diamonds and heavy resistant mineral grains such as magnetite, zirconium, ilmenite, rutile monazite and
cassiterite. Heavy mineral identification is a widely used technique in the search for the indicator minerals of
kimberlite pipes.

(9) Regolith refers to the surface layer or layers of unconsolidated soil and rock fragments that overly bedrock. It may be derived
directly from weathering of underlying rock (residual regolith) or been transported to its present site by surface agents such as wind,
water, down-slope creep or human activity. (from above)
Fig.3.2. Soil surveying

Rock surveys (also known as lithogeochemical or bedrock surveys):- Rock sampling is included in the
techniques for follow-up, although it has been applied with some success in regional reconnaissance, it is really
in detailed work, where there is good outcrop (chip rock sampling) or where there is drill core (core sampling),
that this technique becomes most effective. On a regional basis the most successful applications have been in
the delineation of mineralized felsic plutons and of exhalative horizons. The object is to outline host rocks that
are favorable for mineralization (i.e. it helps delineate the zone of primary dispersion).

Some care needs to be taken in the collection of rock samples. In general 1-3 kg samples are sufficient.
Outcropping mineralisation requires a representative sample to be taken across the entire exposed width of the
mineralisation. Samples of adjacent unmineralised bedrock should also be taken. It is important to wear eye
protection when collecting rock samples and samples are collected in a cloth sample bag (Fig. 9.2a). All
samples should be clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.

SAMPLE PREPARATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

SAMPLE PREPARATION:-
Rock samples

The objective of a precise sample preparation scheme is to produce a representative and meaningful test sample
(regularly about 50-100g). The grain size of the prepared sample must be so fine that the element of interest (or
host mineral) can be properly liberated from the bulk matrix and distributed in the pulp to produce a
homogeneous distribution sufficiently representative for preceding analytical methods. This is particularly
important for low-concentration ores (e.g. Au and PGE’s) where the number of mineral particles producing ore
concentration is always low.

Different minerals behave differently during pulverization – most (brittle) minerals will easily breakdown to
small particles while some (e.g. native gold) will just change their shape if proper sample preparation
methods are not used.

It is commonly accepted that poor sample preparation is, next to poor sampling, the largest source of bias in an
exploration or resource evaluation project. Sample preparation methods should therefore be selected as carefully
as the actual analytical methods.

Drying
Drill cores are always dried no matter what the earlier sample preparation history is. Exceptionally wet
and large samples require longer drying in elevated temperature.

Crushing

The standard scheme consists of direct one–stage fine crushing using a special type jaw crushers (a nominal
minus 10 meshes (1.7 mm)). If crushed reject is required for future work the crushed material can be split to two
(e.g. 50g?) splits (riffle splitting) – the other for storage and the other for pulverizing.

For samples containing visible gold and/or for unusually big or heterogeneous samples, (max.3.5 kg) we
recommend standard crushing to 5-10mm and followed by pulverizing the entire test sample using mills.

Pulverizing

Mechanically split to obtain a representative sample and then pulverized to at least 95% minus 150 meshes (106
microns). Pulverizing will always cause unavoidable contamination of wear metals at trace level from
the grinding surfaces. This contamination may vary depending on material of the bowl (i.e. Carbon steel, Agate
(Si), Tungsten carbide…), hardness of the sample material, pulverizing time etc. The pulverizing method must
be selected to best serve the requirements of the client.

To minimize cross-contamination, cleaning of pulverizing bowls between samples (pulverizing with barren
quartzite) is included in the price in all labtium-pulverizing methods. The pulverizers and jaw crushers are
cleaned with compressed air and brushes between every sample.

Soil and stream sediment samples

Soils and stream sediments are generally dried (at 110 °C) either in the sun, in low temperature ovens, or freeze
dried. If mercury or other volatile components are to be determined, lower drying temperatures (below 65°C)
must be used. Drying is generally followed by gentle disaggregation and sieving (< 0.06 mm fraction) to obtain
the desired size fraction. Other sieve fractions (< 0.125, < 0.25, < 0.5 mm) can be used upon client’s request.
When requesting sieving, please indicate the fraction to be analyzed. If coarse sieve fractions are used for
analysis, additional pulverizing is regularly required.

Sample shipment and packing:- Geochemical samples (soil, silt, sediments and rocks) should be collected in
Kraft bags/ plastic bags and clearly marked with waterproof ink and a numbered assay tag should be placed in
each bag. Fill out and enclose an analytical requisition form. Advice on shipping in terms of speed and economy
is available on request.

SAMPLE ANALYSIS

To obtain the best quality and cost-efficiency in a particular geological project it is important to decide
the strategy of analysis by selecting the appropriate analytical methods (element suit,
digestion/pretreatment method, detection limits, optimum measurement area etc.) to fit the objectives of the
project. Selecting a wrong method may end up in attaining optimized results in wrong concentration
levels and introducing problems in laboratory (contamination, additional sample dilutions) which may
deteriorate accuracy and precision.
Most analysis is aimed at the determination of the elemental concentrations in a sample and usually of trace
metals. At present it is impossible to analyze all elements simultaneously at the required levels, so some
compromises have to be made. In exploration for base metals it is usual to analyze for the elements sought, e.g.
copper in the case of a Cu deposit, and as many useful elements as possible at a limited extra cost With modern
techniques it is often possible to get 20–30 extra elements, including some that provide little extra information
but a lot of extra data for interpretation. Here are bellow a summary of figure and table on the main methods
used in exploration geochemistry.
The differences between the methods shown are cost, the detection limits of analysis, speed of analysis, and the
need to take material into solution. Most general analysis in developed countries is carried out by inductively
coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP–ES), often in combination with inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP–MS), or X-ray fluorescence (XRF). All three methods require highly sophisticated
laboratories, pure chemicals, continuous and non fluctuating power supplies, and readily available service
personnel; these are features not always present in developing countries. In less sophisticated environments,
high quality analysis can be provided by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), which was the most
commonly, used method in developed countries until about 1980. Another method which is widely used in
industry is neutron activation analysis (NAA), but its use is restricted to countries with cheap nuclear reactor
time.

Precious metals (gold and PGEs) have been extremely difficult to determine accurately at background levels.
The boom in precious metal exploration has, however, changed this and commercial laboratories are able to
offer inexpensive gold analysis at geochemical levels (5 ppb to 1 ppm) using solvent extraction and AAS, ICP–
ES or alternatively NAA on solid samples. For evaluation the method of fire assay is still without equal: In this
the precious metals are extracted into a small button which is then separated from the slag and determined by
AAS, ICP–ES, or ICP–MS.
The analysis of precious metals is different from most major elements and base metals in those large
subsamples are preferred to overcome the occurrence of gold as discrete grains. Typically 30 or 50 g are taken
in contrast to 0.25–1 g for base metals. Elements which occur as anionic species are generally difficult to
measure, especially the chloride, bromide, and iodide ions which serve as some of the ore transporting ligands.
Although some of these elements can be determined by ICP–ES or XRF, the most useful method is ion
chromatography. Isotopic analysis is not yet widely used in exploration although some pilot studies, such as
that of Gulson (1986), have been carried out. The main reason for this is the difficulty and cost of analysis.
Although high resolution ICP sourced mass spectrometers are finding their way into commercial laboratories
and are the main hope for cheap analysis, they are not yet routine.

The choice of analytical method will aim at optimizing contrast of the main target element. For example, it is
little use determining the total amount of nickel in an ultramafic rock when the majority of nickel is in olivine
and the target sought is nickel sulfides. It would be better in this case to choose a reagent which will mainly
extract nickel from sulfides and little from olivine. In soils and stream sediments, optimum contrast for base
metals is normally obtained by a strong acid (e.g. nitric + hydrochloric acids) attack that does not dissolve all
silicates, and an ICP–ES or AAS finish. Most rock analysis uses total analysis by XRF or by ICP–ES/ICP–MS
following a fusion or nitric–perchloric–hydrofluoric acid attack.

IV. Interpretation the geochemical- data

Once the analytical data have been received from the laboratory and checked for precision and accuracy, the
question of how the data is treated and interpreted needs to be addressed. As the data are likely to be multi-
element and there are likely to be a large number of samples this will involve the use of statistical analysis on a
computer. It is recommended that the data are received from the analyst either in the form of a floppy disk, CD-
ROM, or over the Internet (table 1).
Statistics (mean, standard deviation, correlation…)
The object of geochemical exploration is to define significant anomalies. In the simplest case
these are the highest values of the element sought but they could be an elemental association
reflecting hydrothermal alteration or even element depletion. Anomalies are defined by
statistically grouping data and comparing these with geology and sampling information.

Anomalous Maps

Geologists are used to thinking in terms of maps and the most useful end product to compare
geochemical data with geology and geophysics is to summarize the data in map form using a
gridding or GIS package such as Geosoft Oasis Montaj, ArcView, or MapInfo. However, some
care should be taken with the preparation of these maps as it is extremely easy to prejudice
interpretation, and many maps in the literature do not reflect the true meaning of the data but
merely the easiest way of representing it.

Fig. Geochemical spatial distribution of elements in chip rocks of the study area, the anomaly area is
mostly in the south central within the silicified phyllite and mafic metavolcanic rocks.
If the data reflect the chemistry of an area, such as a catchment, it is best if the whole area is
shaded with an appropriate color or tone, rather than contouring. Data which essentially
represent a point can be plotted by posting the value at that point or if there are a lot of data. By
representing them by symbols, which are easier to interpret. Typical symbols are given by
Howarth (1982). A more usual method of presentation if the samples were collected on a grid is
to present the data as a contour plot using the intervals from a histogram. Plots are best colored
from blue to green to yellow to red – cold to hot, as an indication of low to high concentrations.

The combined statistical analysis and element mapping is used to define areas of interest which
need to be investigated in detail, using detailed geology, topography sampling information, and,
probably, a return to the site. These areas can be classified as to their suggested origin, seepage,
and precipitation from local ground waters, from transported material, or probable residual
anomalies. The aim must be to provide a rational explanation for the chemistry of all the areas of
interest and not merely to say that they are of unknown origin.

Background, Anomaly, and Threshold Values

The object of geochemical exploration is to define significant anomalies. Geochemical
anomalies are geochemical features different from what is considered normal. They can be the
result of unusual or uncommon processes concentrating particular elements (e.g. an ore-forming
process, weathering and element dispersion from an unusual element concentration such as an
ore-body). Elements accumulation or concentration by common processes acting over long
periods (e.g. scavenging and concentration of certain elements by ironstones, ferruginous
regolith or manganese oxides), artificial contamination of sites or samples, analytical noise or
error (e.g. poor precision of the analytical method, particularly for element concentrations close
to the detection limit).

Traditionally, geochemical anomalies have been identified by setting threshold values, which
mark the upper and lower limits of normal variation for a particular population of data. Values
within the threshold values are referred to as background values and those above or below as
anomalies. In mineral exploration interest is generally in positive anomalies, on the assumption
that ore deposits and their weathering have increased element abundances above normal crustal
levels. However, negative anomalies can also be important, for example where they reflect
depletion in some elements during host rock alteration accompanying ore formation.

Statistical methods have been widely applied to interpret geochemical data sets and define
anomalies. Such methods need to be used cautiously because of the particular characteristics of
geochemical data. Geochemical data sets seldom represent a single population or distribution;
the data are typically spatially dependent and at each sample site a range of different processes
have influenced the element abundances measured. The data are also imprecise due to
unavoidable variability in sampling methods and media and the level of analytical precision. As
a result no single universally applicable statistical test has been developed for identifying
anomalies. Statistical investigation should use a range of techniques to explore the nature of
geochemical data before selecting anomalous values.

Fig. Zinc (ppm) in stream sediments of area covered by above fig. Background range is 95-130
ppm and threshold approximately 200 ppm.
 4. Geophysical Techniques of Mineral Exploration

Geophysical instruments play a large role in gathering geological data (i.e. mapping, logging,
detecting minerals…) which is used in mineral exploration-exploration geophysics. Various
geophysical methods are identified in table 4.1. The table identifies the utility of each method in

airborne, ground, or borehole applications. Most measurements are made on the surface of the
land or sea, but some are taken from aircraft or satellites, and still others are made underground
in boreholes or mines and at ocean depths.

The five most important geophysical methods relate to five most common physical
characteristics/parameters of the earth, which can be determined from the surface are: (1)
electrical conductivity, (2) density, (3) magnetism, (4) elasticity and (5) radio activity. These are
investigated respectively by: (1) electrical (2) gravity, (3) magnetic, (4) seismic and (5)
radioactive methods. In addition, geophysical methods are also used in the logging of boreholes
and these are classified as (1) electro-logging and (2) radioactive logging. Summary of
geophysical methods and their characteristics applicable to exploration is noticed (Table 4.1).

GRAVITY METHOD

Gravity measurements define anomalous density within the Earth; in most cases, ground-based
gravimeters are used to precisely measure variations in the gravity field at different points. By
weighing a standard mass at a series of surface stations, the gravimeter
detects minute changes in gravity caused by crustal density differences.
Gravity anomalies are computed by subtracting a regional field from the measured field, which result in
gravitational anomalies that correlate with source body density variations. Positive gravity anomalies are
associated with shallow high density bodies, whereas gravity lows are associated with shallow low
density bodies. Thus, deposits of high-density chromite, hematite, and barite yield gravity highs, whereas
deposits of low-density halite, weathered kimberlite, and diatomaceous earth yield gravity lows. The
gravity method also enables a prediction of the total anomalous mass (ore tonnage) responsible for an
anomaly. Gravity and magnetic (discussed below) methods detect only lateral contrasts in density or
magnetization, respectively. In contrast, electrical and seismic methods can detect vertical, as well as
lateral, contrasts of resistivity and velocity or reflectivity.

Applications of gravity to mineral deposit and environmental considerations includes: - identification of

lithologies, structures and at times, ore-bodies themselves and hens mapping (Wright, 1981). Small
anomalous bodies, such as underground workings, are not easily detected by gravity surveys unless they
are at shallow depth. In commercial applications, gravity surveying is rarely used in reconnaissance
exploration. Gravity methods do fined application, however, as a follow-up technique used on a target
defined by another, more cost-effective method. An important application of this type in mineral
exploration is the determination of ore tonnage by the excess mass method (Fig.4.1).
Fig 4.1 measuring masses
and densities of the earth
materials.
MAGNETIC METHOD
The magnetic method exploits small variations in magnetic mineralogy (magnetic iron and iron-
titanium oxide minerals, including magnetite, titanomagnetite, titanomaghemite, and
titanohematite, and some iron sulfide minerals, including pyrrhotite and greigite- especially
when used in conjunction with electromagnetic methods-) among rocks. Magnetic surveying is a
rapid and cost-effective technique and represents one of the most widely-used geophysical
methods in terms of line length surveyed. Measurements are made using fluxgate, proton-
precession, Overhauser, and optical absorption magnetometers. In most cases, total-magnetic
field data are acquired; vector measurements are made in some instances. Magnetic rocks contain
various combinations of induced and remnant magnetization that perturb the Earth's primary
field (Reynolds and others, 1990). The magnitudes of both induced and remnant magnetization
depend on the quantity, composition, and size of magnetic-mineral grains. Magnetic anomalies
may be related to primary igneous or sedimentary processes that establish the magnetic
mineralogy, or they may be related to secondary alteration that either introduces or removes
magnetic minerals. In mineral exploration and its geo-environmental considerations, the
secondary effects in rocks that host ore deposits associated with hydrothermal systems are
important (Hanna, 1969; Criss and Champion, 1984) and magnetic surveys may outline zones of
fossil hydrothermal activity. Because rock alteration can effect a change in bulk density as well
as magnetization, magnetic anomalies, when corrected for magnetization direction, sometimes
coincide with gravity anomalies.

Magnetic method is widely used in large scale airborne surveys/regional mapping due to its high
efficiencies. And can also be used for the direct location of those ore bodies that have a distinct
magnetic signature.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHODS

Electrical surveys are almost all ground based. In their simplest form, they
put an electric current directly into the ground and measure, by means of
arrays of receivers, the resistance of the rocks through which the current
passes. Electrical methods comprise a multiplicity of separate techniques that employ differing
instruments and procedures, have variable exploration depth and lateral resolution, and are
known by a large lexicon of names and acronyms describing techniques and their variants.
Electrical methods can be described in five classes and the most important one are: (1) direct
current resistivity, (2) induced polarization, (3) self potential and (4) electromagnetic (EM). In
spite of all the variants, measurements fundamentally are of the Earth's electrical impedance or
relate to changes in impedance. Electrical methods have broad application to mineral: they may
be used to identify sulfide minerals, are directly applicable to hydrologic investigations, and can
be used to identify structures and lithologies.
Direct current resistivity method
Direct current resistivity methods measure Earth Resistivity (the inverse of conductivity) using a
direct or low frequency alternating current source. Rocks are electrically conductive as
consequences of ionic migration in pore space water and more rarely, electronic conduction
through metallic luster minerals. Because metallic luster minerals typically do not provide long
continuous circuit paths for conduction in the host rock, bulk-rock resistivities are almost always
controlled by water content and dissolved ionic species present. High porosity causes low
resistivity in water-saturated rocks.

Direct current techniques have application to a variety of mineral exploration related to various
ore deposit types. Massive sulfide deposits are a direct low resistivity target, whereas clay
alteration assemblages are an indirect low resistivity target within and around many
hydrothermal systems. The wide range of earth material resistivity also makes the method
applicable to identification of lithologies and structures that may control mineralization.

Self potential method

Several possible natural sources generate measurable direct current or quasi-direct current,
natural electrical fields or self potentials. The association of a self potential anomaly with a
sulfide deposit indicates a site of ongoing oxidation and that metals are being mobilized; other
self potential anomalies are due to fluxs of water or heat through the Earth (Corwin, 1990).

Induced polarization method

The induced polarization method provides a measure of polarizable minerals-minerals with some
electrical field- (i.e. metallic-luster sulfide minerals, clays, and zeolites) within water-bearing
pore spaces of rocks. Polarizable minerals, in order to be detected, must present an active surface
to pore water. Because induced polarization responses relate to active surface areas within rocks,
disseminated sulfide minerals provide a much better target for this method than massive sulfide
deposits, although in practice most massive sulfide deposits have significant gangue and have
measurable induced polarization. Induced polarization has found its greatest application in
exploration for disseminated sulfide ore, where it may detect as little as 0.5 volume percent total
metallic luster sulfide minerals (Sumner, 1976).

Fig…. Macroscopic effect of grain polarisation over a disseminated orebody.

Electromagnetic method
Electromagnetic measurements use alternating magnetic fields to induce measurable current in
the Earth. The traditional application of electromagnetic methods in mineral exploration has been
in the search for low-resistivity (high-conductivity) massive sulfide deposits. Airborne methods
may be used to screen large areas and provide a multitude of targets for ground surveys.
Electromagnetic methods, including airborne, are widely used to map lithologic and structural
features (Palacky, 1986; Hoover and others, 1991) from which various mineral exploration are
possible. EM systems work best for ore bodies within 0–200 m of the surface. Although,
theoretically, larger primary fields and more widely spaced electrodes can give much deeper
penetration, the problems of interpreting the results of EM surveys go up exponentially with
increasing depth of penetration. Problems in interpreting EM surveys arise because many host
rocks to mineralization can give a similar geophysical response to the mineralization itself.
Water-filled fault lines, graphitic shales and magnetite-rich zones all can give spurious
conductivity anomalies. Deep weathering or salty groundwater can make EM surveys either
unworkable or at least very difficult to interpret. For this reason, EM surveys have had most
success in locating ore in those parts of the world where fresh, unoxidized rocks occur close to
the surface.

Electrical surveys require a generator capable of delivering a high voltage

and electrodes placed directly into the ground to transmit the input current.
Arrays of receivers laid along the ground measure resistivity or chargeability.
The surveys are relatively expensive and labour intensive techniques. They
are therefore used as direct ore-targeting tools in established prospects
where the presence of disseminated metallic sulphide ore is suspected.

Problems in using electrical surveys can be caused by the short-circuiting

effects on the input current that can be caused by salty near-surface
groundwater in deeply weathered terrain. Problems in interpretation result
from the fact that many zones within rocks, other than bodies of massive or
disseminated sulphides, have low electrical resistance or are chargeable.
Electrical methods, as with electromagnetic methods, work best in the upper
few hundred metres of the surface in areas where recent uplift and erosion,
or glaciation, has produced fresh unweathered rocks relatively close to the
surface.

SEISMIC METHODS
Seismic techniques have had relatively limited utilization, due to their relatively high cost and
the difficulty of acquiring and interpreting seismic data in strongly faulted and altered igneous
terranes, in mineral assessments and exploration at the deposit scale. However, shallow seismic
surveys employ less expensive sources and smaller surveys than are typical of regional surveys.
Reflection seismic methods provide fine structural detail and refraction methods provide precise
estimates of depth to lithologies of differing acoustic impedance. The refraction method has been
used in mineral investigations to map low-velocity alluvial deposits such as those that may
contain gold, tin, or sand and gravel. Seismic reflection, operated on density and elastic moduli
of subsurface materials, is the primary geophysical method used in oil and gas exploration. 2D
and 3D seismic surveys are conducted around the world everyday, in both land and marine
settings. Seismic surveys utilize artificial energy sources, such as explosives and water guns, to
generate seismic/acoustic waves. The waves are bounded back at interfaces of subsurface layers,
and their timings and amplitudes upon arrival back to the surface were recorded by seismographs
utilizing geophones/hydrophones. Seismic data generally can provide more detailed information
about subsurface materials than other methods. In the other hand, the data is also harder to
analyze and interpret. Geophysicists with years of experiences on seismic data processing and
interpretation are in great demand. Other geophysical methods, including gravity, magnetic and
sometimes EM, etc., are also used as subsidiary methods in oil and gas exploration for
delineating geological settings in large scales.

Figure.. Reflection methods

RADIMETRIC METHODS
These surveys measure the natural radiation (i.e. γ rays) emitted by rocks at
surface. The data are collected and presented in a similar way to magnetic
data. Radiometric measurements are often carried out from a low-flying
aircraft at the same time as air magnetic surveys. Radiometric
measurements can also be taken with land-based instruments that can be
used at ground stations or lowered down drill holes. The instrument used is
called a spectrometer.

The most abundant naturally occurring radioactive element in the crust is

the potassium isotope 40K, largely incorporated into the crystal structure of
the rock forming mineral orthoclase. Of lesser importance as a source of
radiation is thorium (found in monazite, an accessory mineral of some
granite and pegmatite bodies). The radioactive mineral normally sought by
explorers – uranium – is seldom abundant, but at low concentrations can
characterize particular rocks such as highly fractionated granites or some
black shale sequences. Spectrometers provide selectable channels so that
radiation derived from these different sources can be distinguished. Since
most natural radiation comes from potassium, maps of total radiation count
provide a very effective way of mapping the distribution of alkali igneous
rock and of sediments (such as arkose) derived from these rocks. Monazite
weathers from bedrock to form a resistant heavy detrital mineral that often
accumulates in watercourses or strand lines. For this reason, these features
often stand out on the thorium channel of radiometric maps. Maps
presenting ratios of radiometric measurements made in different channels,
such as U/Th and K/U can be very useful for discriminating different rock
types. Different granite suites may have distinctive radiometric ratios.
Radiometric images have no depth penetration and depend on signals from
surface materials, so they can be particularly useful in adding value to
regolith maps.

Logging is the principal method of compiling geological records (i.e. composition, thickens,
depth, grade, conditions of borehole…) in core-less drilling. Electrical and radioactive bore hole
logging are most commonly used at present. The practical importance of logging is enormous
and it is widely used in exploration for coal and oil, since coal and oil bearing formations possess
high electrical resistivity.
 5. Remote Sensing and GIS methods of Exploration

5.1. Remote Sensing methods

Remote sensing is the collection of information about an object or area without being in physical
contact with it. Data gathering systems used in remote sensing are:
o Photographs obtained from manned space flights or airborne cameras, and
o Electronic scanners or sensors such as multispectral scanners in satellites or aeroplanes
and TV cameras, all of which record data digitally.

Remote sensing data gathering systems are divided into two fundamental types, i.e. those with
passive or active sensors.
Passive sensors:-These sensors gather data using available reflected or transmitted parts of the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, i.e. they rely on solar illumination of the ground or natural
thermal radiation for their source of energy respectively. Some examples are:-

o Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS);

o Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) utilizes additional wavelengths, and has superior
spectral and spatial resolution compared with MSS images;
o Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on
NASA’s satellite Terra;
o SPOT, a French commercial satellite with stereoscopic capabilities;
o high resolution commercial satellites, such as Ikonos (Infoterra 2004), the first of the next
generation of high spatial resolution satellites, and QuickBird (Ball Aerospace &
Technologies Corp 2002);
o Space Shuttle;
o Airborne scanning systems that have even greater resolution and can look at more and
narrower wavebands.

Any system which can record the intensity and wavelengths of the reflected light and reproduce
the data as an image is known as reflectance imagery/remote sensing imagery (aerial
photographs, satellite and radar imageries). Different satellites collect different data with various
degrees of resolution depending on their application. For geological applications resolution of
the order of meters of Landsat is required in contrast to the tens of kilometers of NOAA
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) weather satellites.

Active sensors:- These sensors use their own source of energy. They emit energy and measure
the intensity of energy reflected by a target. Some examples are Radar (microwave) and Lasers
(European Space Agency 2004).

Aerial photography: a camera mounted in an aircraft takes a series of photographs as the plane
flies in regular parallel passes over the terrain. Air photographs have the advantage of being
relatively cheap to collect and, since they are taken at low altitude, can show great detail.
Overlapping adjacent photographs along the flight path (Fig. 4.1) enables subsequent
stereoscopic (3-dimensional) viewing (Fig.4.2). Air photographs typically offer a resolution of
ground features that range in size from a few centimeters upwards, depending on the height of
the aircraft above the ground and the quality of the camera optics used. The resolution of the film
used for air photographs is an order of magnitude greater that is currently achievable with
electronic recording methods. Air photographs are typically collected for normal viewing at
scales of from 1:500 to 1:100,000, but, unlike digital images, they can be enlarged many times
without losing resolution.

The common types of aerial photos are: panchromatic black and white photographs (B&W),
B&W taken on infrared (IR) sensitive film, color photographs, and color IR.

FIG. 4.1 (a) Typical specification of an air photo survey designed to obtain full stereo coverage.
(b) A typical black and white, vertical, aerial photograph stereo pair from Guinea.
Fig.2.6. Differen types of stereoscope. With a small pocket stereoscope (a) the edge of one
photograph needs to be bent back in order to view the whole overlap area of air photographs. A
large mirror stereoscope (b) will span a pair of standard air photographs and can be easily slid
around to view the whole image.

Satellite imagery: This chapter concerns earth observation satellites that are designed to record
the electromagnetic radiation reflected from the surface of the earth during daylight hours. It
describes satellites that are commercially available at the time of going to press (2010) and
detailed on the accompanying. Since they first became available in the late 1970s the data from
land observation satellites have provided a powerful range of new tools for the explorationist.
Satellite data can be used in three ways:

1. As an accurate georeferenced map – available for any part of the world and through a
wide range of resolutions – for use in navigation and location in the field and as a base on
which to plot geological observations at all scales.

2. As an overhead view of landscape on which geological features can be directly

identified. Geological interpretations can be made from satellite images in exactly the
same way as from aerial photographs.

3. Computer analysis and manipulation of specific reflectance bands can enhance the
reflectance signature of minerals (such as certain clays) that might be associated with ore
deposits. Used in this manner, satellite reflectance data can provide a powerful and
sophisticated remote sensed geophysical survey. This process has been called spectral
geology.

Radar Imagery:- A radar imaging system has three main functions: It transmits the microwave
signal toward the scene receives a portion of that transmitted energy as backscatter from the
scene, and then observes the strength and time delay of the returned signal. Some of this
imagery is flown with an aircraft while some of it is onboard satellites or the US Space Shuttle.
It produces an image much like a photograph that also shows earth structure at the surface.

Digital image processing

Data from the satellites are collected at the ground station on magnetic tape, i.e. in a digital form.
Data are loaded into image processing computer systems from CCTs or CDs. The main functions
of these systems in a geological exploration program are: image restoration (i.e. the process of
correcting inherent defects in the image caused during data collection), image enhancement (i.e.
transforms the original data to improve the information content.), and data extraction (i.e.
decision-making capability of the computers to classify pixels on some predetermined gray level-
used to enhance specific geological features) (Sabins 1997). Drury (2001) explains the methods
of digital image processing in more detail and shows how they can be applied to geological
remote sensing.

Geological Interpretation

Air photographs (along with other similar remote sensed products such as satellite and radar
imagery) provide both a mapping base on which to record field observations and an integrated
view of landscape on which map-scale patterns of lithology and structure can be directly
observed or interpreted. Where available at a suitable scale and resolution, they are the pre-
eminent medium upon which to construct a geological map. For any geological mapping
programme making use of remote sensed imagery, image interpretation represents the idea-
generating, integrative, control and planning phases of that programme. The initial interpretation
made from the images will provide:

• Definition of areas of outcrop and areas of superficial cover;

• Preliminary geological interpretation based on topographic features, drainage patterns, colours
and textures of rocks, soils and vegetation, trend lines of linear features, etc.;
• Geological hypotheses for field checking;
• Selection of the best areas to test these hypotheses;
• Familiarity with the topography and access routes to assist in logistic planning of the field
programme – access roads and tracks, fording points for streams and gullies, potential helicopter
landing sites, etc.

Air photo or satellite image interpretation needs to be carried out before, during and after the
field phases of the mapping process. Obviously, detailed interpretation making use of stereo
viewing can be most conveniently done at an office desk, but, as ideas change or evolve,
interpretation of photo features will have to be attempted in the field as well. The ability to use a
pocket stereoscope on the outcrop is an essential skill to acquire. Since making and interpreting
geological observations on the photo and outcrop are two aspects of the same process, they
should ideally be carried out by the same person. Whenever possible, the field geologist should
do his own interpretation. Geological interpretation of remote sensed imagery complements field
mapping and should never be regarded as an adequate substitute for it. Skills required for the
geological interpretation of remote sensed imagery are very much the same as those needed for
field mapping. However, some practical techniques need to be learned in order to turn air photo
observations into usable geological maps.

Interpretation

Two approaches are used to extract geological information from satellite imagery.
 i. Spectral approach. Spectral properties are used to separate units in image data based
on spectral reflectance. This is done interactively on computers using multispectral
data in areas with or without dense vegetation.

ii. Photo-geological approach. Known weathering and erosional characteristics

(topographical expression) are used, on black and white or color prints, to imply the
presence of geological structure or lithology. Photogeological elements include
topography, erosion, tone, texture, drainage pattern, vegetation, and land use.

SUMMARY
In remote sensing we are concerned with the collection of information about
an area without being in contact with it, and this can be achieved using
satellites or aeroplanes carrying electronic scanners or sensors or
photographic and TV cameras.

Some satellite systems producing data useful for mineral exploration include
NASA’s Landsat and Terra (ASTER) and the French SPOT. Each has its
advantages. The first Landsat satellite was launched in 1972 and SPOT 1 in
1986. Satellites are solar powered and transmit data to their home station in
digital form which enables the geologist to manipulate, combine, and
compare this data with geological, geochemical, and geophysical data which
has itself been expressed as digital images. Satellite imagery is used in
structural investigations, in hydrogeology, to provide basic geological maps,
to detect hydrothermal alteration, and to produce maps of regional and local
fracture patterns that may have controlled mineralisation or hydrocarbon
accumulation.

Aerial photography has been used for much longer than satellite imagery
and is important to the geologist for the production of topographical maps
(photogrammetry) as well as in the making of geological maps
(photogeology). In areas of good exposure aerial photographs yield much
valuable geological information and even in areas of only 5% outcrop the
amount of information they provide is often invaluable to the explorationist.

5.1. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Exploration Databases

One of the major developments in mineral exploration has been the increased use of
computerized data management. This has been used to handle the flow of the large amounts of
data generated by modern instrumentation as well as to speed up and improve decision making.

5.1.1. DATA CAPTURE AND STORAGE In order to integrate data, they must be available in
an appropriate digital form (i.e. digitalization - by scanning a map and implement electronically
in a spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel). Computers do not know how to classify geological
objects so a format for storing data must be defined. This format will be determined by the type,
relationship, attributes, geometry, and quality of data objects. As large amounts of money are
invested in collecting the data, it is crucial that the data are safely archived and made available to
those who need them as easily as possible.

5.1.2 DATA INTEGRATIONS: One of the major advances in technology at the early
exploration stage has been the ability to integrate data easily. This has been driven by the
development of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Although GIS is usually defined to
include data storage, its main function is to allow the easy integration of data and output, usually
in the form of maps (Longley et al. 1999, 2001). These systems are well suited to 2D data but, at
the time of writing, only partly usable for 3D drill data including drill holes and underground
sampling.

5.1.3 Analysis/interpretation- Simple display and querying: geological map

The basis for geological interpretation in the area is a digitized version of the 1:50,000 scale
published Mapping Agency. The most important component is the distribution of lithologies that
were outlined by generating polygons. Each polygon has a unique number which is linked in a
table to the lithological number and lithological name in the key. In contrast to conventional
maps it is easy to select individual units; in this case the acid and basic volcanics have been
chosen.

Remote sensing data

As the geological mapping was quite old (Ussher 1912) and the oucrop poor, it was possible to
check the mapping with Landsat, air photography, and digital elevation models.

Data overlay and buffering:- Overlaying data is one of the key methods in GIS. A typical use of
the data overlay function is to analyze the control of lineaments on the distribution of the known
gold soil anomalies. The relation of lineaments with gold mineralisation can be analyzed by
calculating the distance of the gold occurrences from the lineaments. In this example there does
not seem to be a definitive relationship between gold occurrences and a particular set of
lineaments. Lineaments are often inaccurately defined and it more practical to define zones of
influence. The ability to generate corridors of a given width around features or buffer around
structures and geological contacts is therefore a major advance.
 6. Underground developments
6.1 Preamble
In areas where soil cover is thin, the location and testing of bedrock mineralization is made
relatively straightforward by the examination and sampling of outcrops. However, in locations of
thick cover such testing may involve a deep sampling program by pitting, trenching, or drilling.

Pits and trenches, can be a quick and cheap way of obtaining lithological, structural and assay
information in areas of shallow cover. Drilling is one of the most important, and can be the most
expensive, of all mineral exploration procedures. In almost all cases, it is drilling that locates and
defines economic mineralization, and drilling provides the ultimate test for all the ideas, theories
and predictions that are generated in the preceding prospect generation and target generation
phases of the exploration process.

6.2 Pitting and Trenching

Pitting is usually employed to test shallow, extensive, flat-lying bodies of mineralization. An

ideal example of this would be a buried heavy mineral placer. The main advantage of pitting
over a pattern-drill programme on the same deposit is that pits are capable of providing a very
large volume sample. Large sample sizes are necessary to overcome problems of variable grade
distribution, which are a characteristic feature of such deposits. Pits dug to depths of 3–4 m, with
a 1 m square are common and with large equipment excavation to 6 m can be achieved. In wet,
soft ground any pit deeper than 1 m is dangerous and boarding must be used.

Trenches are usually employed to expose steep dipping bedrock buried below shallow
overburden, and are normally dug across the strike of the rocks or mineral zone being tested.
Trenches are an excellent adjunct to RAB or RC drilling programmes, where the structural data
from trench mapping are needed to complement the lithological information obtained from the
drill cuttings. Excavated depths of up to 4 m and 1m in width are common.

In some cases, it may be possible to completely strip shallow unconsolidated overburden to

expose large areas of bedrock. This is done by bulldozing and/or by sluicing with high-pressure
water hoses. The bedrock can then be mapped and sampled in great detail. Since the process is
environmentally destructive, and rehabilitation would be expensive, extensive stripping would
normally only be attempted when a prospective mineralized zone had been defined, and special
sampling/ geological problems were present that needed this kind of 100% exposure for their
resolution.

Pits and trenches can be dug by bulldozer, by excavator, by back-hoe or even by hand.
Excavators and back-hoes are generally much quicker, cheaper and environmentally less
damaging than bulldozers, and because of this are nowadays usually the preferred options.
Hand-dug pits and trenches are a valid option in places where power excavation equipment
cannot be brought to a remote site, and abundant cheap labour is available. In remote and rugged
tropical areas, contour trails/trenches have been successfully employed in order to locate the
source of anomalous float boulders or stream sediment geochemical anomalies. The exposed
bedrock due to pitting, trenching and trapping can be geologically mapped, logged and sampled.
Scales from 1:50 to 1:500 are appropriate for (trench) mapping. Geochemical sampling of a
trench involves taking a number of chip channels along it - a sample consisting of horizontal
and/or vertical channels.

5.3 Drilling: General Discussion on the Importance of Drilling

5.3.1 Types of Drilling

There are a large number of different drilling techniques. This section does not attempt to
describe them all, but focuses instead on the three basic types that are most commonly used in
mineral exploration. In order of increasing cost, these are auger drilling, rotary percussion
drilling and diamond drilling (see Figs. 5.1, 5.2 and Table 5.1).

Selecting the right technique or combination of techniques is always a trade-off between speed;
cost, required sample quality, sample volume; logistics and environmental considerations (see
Table 5.2).

The specific requirements of an exploration programme play a large part in

the choice of drilling technique. For example, if the area is geologically
complex, or the exposure is poor, and there are no clearly defined targets (or
perhaps too many targets), it may be imperative to increase the level of
geological knowledge by diamond drilling. In this case, the geological
knowledge gained from the diamond drill core can be used to help prioritize
surface geochemical anomalies or develop conceptual targets. On the other
hand, if discrete and clearly defined surface geochemical anomalies are to
be tested to see if they are the expression of blind but shallow ore bodies, it
may be sufficient to simply test them with a large number of RC or even RAB
drill holes.

The logistical requirements of the different drilling types also play a large
part in selection of the best technique. RC rigs (and the larger RAB rigs) are
generally very large, truck-mounted machines which have difficulty getting
into some rugged areas without track preparation, and cannot operate on
very steep slopes. Diamond drill rigs are much more mobile; they are truck
or skid mounted, have modest power requirements compared to an RC rig,
and can be disassembled if necessary and flown to site by helicopter.

6.3.1.1 Auger drilling (hand and power auger)

In this drilling system, rock is cut and broken with a simple blade bit mounted on the end of a
rotating string of rods. As the drill advances, extra rod sections are added to the top of the drill
string. The broken rock can be collected in two ways. In the bucket auger, the rock is collected in
a small barrel behind the bit which, when full, is simply pulled from the ground to be emptied.
The hand auger is an example of a small bucket auger. In the other system, called a screw auger,
the broken rock is passed to the surface by a spiral screw thread along the rod string (see Fig.
5.1).

Power augers are usually a simple petrol-engine driven screw auger, with a blade bit at the end,
mounted on the back of a small trailer or truck. The Archimedean screw along the rods lifts the
sample to surface. Some small power augers can also be hand held. Machines used in exploration
range from simple post-hole diggers to drills designed specifically for mineral exploration. They
are capable of drilling a few metres to a few tens of metres into weathered or poorly consolidated
material.

Augers are a useful tool for quickly and cheaply collecting geochemical samples from below
shallow overburden, or where some surface contamination might be suspected (e.g. down-wind
from old mine tailings). They are not capable of penetrating hard or consolidated rock. Hand
augers have proved useful in remote areas to pinpoint the source of stream-sediment
geochemical anomalies. They are invaluable for collecting ridge and spur geochemical samples
in rugged or remote terrain.

Hand augers work only in soft, poorly consolidated materials and will be stopped immediately
by any rock fragments or heavy clay. Hand augers are used extensively as a geochemical tool for
collecting C-horizon soil samples from below shallow overburden, particularly in rugged,
inaccessible or rain-forest terrain. Hand augers are also widely used as a reconnaissance tool in
heavy-mineral sand exploration. Augering and RAB drilling provide relatively low levels of
geological knowledge but are quick and cheap and so are useful principally as geochemical
reconnaissance tools for collecting samples below areas of shallow overburden.
6.3.1.2 Rotary Percussion Drilling (RC, Air Core and RAB)

In rotary percussion drilling, a variety of blade or roller bits (Fig. 5.2) mounted on the end of a
rotating string of rods cut and break the rock. A percussion or hammer action in conjunction with
a chisel bit can be used to penetrate hard material. High-pressure air pumped to the face of the bit
down the centre of the rods serves to lubricate the cutting surfaces and to remove the broken rock
(cuttings) by blowing it to the surface. The cuttings consist of broken, disoriented rock fragments
ranging in size from silt (“rock flour”) to chips up to 3 cm diameter. In standard rotary
percussion drilling, the broken rock reaches the surface along the narrow space between the drill
rods and the side of the hole. In a mineral exploration programme all the cuttings emerging from
the hole at surface are collected in a large container called a cyclone.

Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC)

Reverse circulation (RC) drilling is a type of rotary percussion drilling in which broken rock
from the cutting face passes to the surface inside separate tube within the drill stem (the system
is properly called dual-tube reverse circulation). With dual-tube RC drilling, compressed air
passes down to the drill bit along the annular space between an inner tube and outer drill rods to
return to surface carrying the rock cuttings up the centre of the inside rod. The cuttings enter the
inner tube through a special opening located behind the bit called a crossover sub (Fig.5.).

The RC drilling procedure prevents the upcoming sample from being contaminated with material
broken from the sides of the hole and so can potentially provide a sample whose down hole
position is exactly known. This is obviously of great value, especially in drilling gold prospects
where even low levels of contamination can produce highly misleading results. For this reason
RC rigs are nowadays specified in most rotary percussion drilling programmes. They are
powerful machines capable of penetrating much deeper and through harder rock and drill a large-
diameter hole (100– 200 mm) than the RAB rig.
Fig.6.3 collecting the rock cuttings from a reverse circulation (RC) drill

Air Core Drilling

Air core is a specialized RC drill procedure where a small annular bit is used to cut a solid core
of rock from relatively soft or easily broken material. The bit produces short sections of core
which are recovered, along with broken rock chips, up the centre of the drill stem in the manner
of a standard RC rig. The system is often capable of penetrating and coring soft sticky clays
which might bind a normal blade bit.

Rotary Air Blast (RAB) Drilling

RAB drill rigs are light weight truck mounted rotary percussion machines that recover cuttings to
surface through pumping compressed air down the centre of the drill stem. Cuttings pass to the
surface up the outside of the rods and spill onto the surface where they are usually collected in a
tray notched to fit around the drill stem, although a cyclone may be employed for collection in
the same manner as an RC rig. The rigs are used as a geochemical sampling tool to quickly drill
shallow holes (up to 60 m depth) in weathered rocks. In normal rotary percussion drilling, the
long sample return from drill bit to the surface along the outside of the rods may produce
contamination from the walls of the hole. This problem can be especially acute when dealing
with the low and often erratic concentrations typical of gold mineralization.

6.3.1.3 Diamond drilling

In diamond drilling, an annular, diamond impregnated cutting tool (called a bit) mounted on the
end of a rotating string of hollow steel rods, cuts a solid cylinder of rock (core) which passes up
inside the drill rods as the bit advances (Fig.6.). The bit is lubricated with water (or sometimes a
special water/mud mixture) which is pumped to the cutting face down the inside of the rods,
before returning to the surface between the rods and the sides of the hole. At surface, the return
water is usually collected in a sump where fine suspended ground rock material can settle. The
water can then be recirculated to the drill bit. Standard core sizes range from 27 to 85 mm
diameter. The core enters an inner tube (the core barrel) located inside the outer drill rods
immediately behind the bit. The cut rock is prevented from falling back into the hole by a wedge-
shaped sleeve (called a core-lifter) mounted at the base of the barrel. Core barrels normally hold
up to 6 m of core, depending on the size of the drill rig. When the barrel is full, the drilling is
halted and a special device called an overshot is lowered down the inside of the rods on the end
of a steel cable (the wire line). The overshot locks on to the top of the core barrel. A pull on the
cable then causes the core-lifter to tighten and grip the base of the drilled core in the barrel, thus
breaking it free. The barrel containing the core can then be drawn to surface up the inside of the
rod string. Once on the surface, the core is removed from the barrel and laid out in core trays. A
split tube barrel is available which splits into two pieces lengthways, so facilitating core removal
– this is particularly useful when the core in the barrel is soft or highly fractured. Once emptied,
the barrel is dropped down the hole to automatically lock into its position just behind the bit, and
the drill advance is resumed.

Fig.6.4 Cutaway section through a diamond drill bit, drill rods and core barrel

Diamond drilling provides the premier sample for both geology and geochemistry. A diamond
impregnated cutting bit produces a solid cylinder of rock (Fig.5.4). The rock sample can be
obtained from any depth that is capable of being mined. Diamond drill core permits sophisticated
geological and structural observations to be made, and can also yield a large-volume,
uncontaminated sample with high recovery suitable for geochemical assay. Drill core can be
oriented permitting structures to be measured. Diamond drilling is also the most expensive
technique. As a general rule, for the cost of 1 m of diamond drilling, up to 4 m of RC or 20 m of
RAB can be drilled

6.3.2 Targeting Holes

Ore bodies are rare, elusive and hard to locate. If this were not so, they would hardly be worth
finding. A single drill hole produces a very small sample of rock and the ore bodies we seek are
already small relative to the barren rocks that surround them. When geologists drill targeted
holes they are testing a mental model of the size, shape and attitude of a hoped for ore body. The
more accurate that model, the greater the chance that the hole will be successful. The model is
the result of extensive detailed preparatory studies on the prospect, involving literature search,
examination of known outcropping mineralisation, geological mapping at regional and detailed
scales as well as geochemical and geophysical studies. These are the procedures that are
described in the first four chapters of these discussions. Holes are normally positioned to
intersect mineralization at depths (as close to 90◦ as possible) where good core or cuttings return
can be expected. If the target is primary mineralization, the hole will be aimed to intersect below
the anticipated level of the oxidized zone.

6.3.3 Logging of drillhole samples

Information from drillholes comes from the following main sources: rock, core, or chips; down-
the-hole geophysical equipment; instruments inside the hole; and performance of the drilling
machinery. In this section we are only concerned with geological logging, but the geologist on
site at a drill location must be familiar with all sources of information.

Geological logging
Effective core recovery is essential – that is, the length or volume (weight) of sample recovered
divided by the length or volume (weight) drilled expressed as a percentage. If recovery is less
than 85–90% the value of the core is doubtful as mineralized and altered rock zones are
frequently most friable and the first to be ground away and lost during drilling. The core is not
then representative of the rock drilled, it is not a true sample, and it is probably misleading.

Often, initial, rapid core logging is done at the drill site. This information is used to decide
whether the hole is to be either continued or abandoned. Wetted core is more easily examined,
using either a hand lens or a binocular microscope. Most organizations have a standard
procedure for core logging and a standard terminology to describe geological features. Field data
loggers are now used to gather company standardized digital data, which are downloaded to the
central database upon return to the field base or office.

Once the initial logging at a drill site is complete, the core is moved to a field base, where a more
detailed examination of the core takes place at a later date. Nevertheless, the main structural
features should be recorded (fracture spacing and orientation) and a lithological description
(colour, texture, mineralogy, rock alteration, and rock name) with other details such as core
recovery and the location of excessive core loss (when say >5%). The description should be
systematic and as quantitative as possible; qualitative descriptions should be avoided. These data
are plotted on graphical core logs and used as an aid in interpreting the geology of the current
and next holes to be drilled.

Important decisions such as deepening or terminating a hole, or siting the next hole, may have to
be made whilst drilling is progressing. Core should therefore be logged in as much detail as
possible, hand-plotted on to section, and its significance assessed on a daily basis as drilling
progresses (fig--). More detailed logging can subsequently be made when more time is available.
Indeed, in many if not most cases, as new ideas evolve, or between-hole correlations are sought,
the core will have to be logged and re-logged many times. There are undoubtedly many ore
bodies stacked away in core farms still waiting to be discovered.

Core is stored in slotted wooden, plastic or metal boxes short enough to allow two persons to lift
and stack them easily (see Fig. ). Core is collected for a variety of purposes other than geological
description, e.g. metallurgical testing and assaying. For these latter purposes the core is measured
into appropriate lengths (remembering the principle of stratified sampling) and divided or split
into two equal halves either by a diamond saw or a mechanical splitter. Half the core is sent for
assay or other investigations whilst the other half is returned to the core box for record purposes.
Obviously structural features have to be recorded before splitting and a good practice is to
photograph wet core, box by box, before logging it, to produce a permanent photographic record.

Rock chips and dust (“sludge”) can be collected during core drilling; they represent the rock cut
away by the diamond/percusion drill bit. They .are usually collected at 1- to 2-m intervals, dried
and separately bagged at the drill site. After washing they are relatively easy to examine with the
use of a hand lens and binocular microscope. Samples can be panned so as to recover a heavy
mineral concentrate. It is a good practice to sprinkle, and glue, a sample of rock chips and
panned concentrates from each sample interval on to a board so that a continuous visual
representation of the hole can be made. Again, descriptions must be systematic and quantitative.

Fig 6.5 Core Handling & Sampling Photographs. A. Photographed B. Logging

C. Sample intervals were marked-up. D. The core was sawn in half along the line marked E.
sealed sample bags and F. polypropylene barrels and sealed
Fig.6.6 An example of the use of graphical scale logging of core and Examples of symbols that
can be used in graphical scale logging. Observations are recorded graphically and numerically on
the log sheet against a selected down-page scale. The use of colour on such logs greatly enhances
information content.
 7. Mineral Resource Estimates
7.1 Basic concepts of mineral resources and reserves

A mineral deposit may be subdivided into two Classes, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves.
Each of these Classes may be subdivided into Categories: Measured, Indicated and Inferred in the
case of Mineral Resources and Proven and Probable in the case of Mineral Reserves (fig.7.1).

FIG. 7.1 A Box used as an early basis for classifying mineral resources and reserves. It takes
into account the increasing degree of confidence in the resources and the financial feasibility of
mining them.

Mineral Resource: “a concentration or occurrence of natural, solid, inorganic, or fossilized

organic material in or on the Earth’s crust in such form and quantity and of such a grade or
quality that it has reasonable prospects for economic extraction. The location quantity, grade,
geological characteristics, and continuity of a Mineral Resource are known, estimated or
interpreted from specific geological evidence and knowledge”.
An ‘Inferred Mineral Resource’ is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage, grade
and mineral content can be estimated with a low level of confidence. It is based on information
gathered through appropriate techniques from locations such as outcrops, trenches, pits,
workings and drill holes which is limited or of uncertain quality and/or reliability.
An ‘Indicated Mineral Resource’ is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage,
densities, shape, physical characteristics, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a
reasonable level of confidence. The locations are too widely or inappropriately spaced to confirm
geological continuity and/or grade continuity but are spaced closely enough for continuity to be
assumed.
A ‘Measured Mineral Resource’ is that part of a Mineral Resource for which tonnage,
densities, shape, physical characteristics, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a high

level of confidence. It is based on detailed and reliable exploration, sampling and testing
information gathered through appropriate techniques from locations such as outcrops, trenches,
pits, workings, and drill holes. The locations are spaced closely enough to confirm geological
and/or grade continuity. The appropriate mineral resource category must be determined by the
Competent Person. Mineral Resource figures must not be aggregated with Mineral Reserve
figures.

Mineral Reserve: “the economically mineable part of a Measured or Indicated Mineral

Resource demonstrated by at least a Preliminary Feasibility Study. This study must include
adequate information on mining, processing, metallurgical, economic, and other relevant factors
that demonstrate, at the time of reporting, that economic extraction can be justified. A Mineral
Reserve includes diluting materials and allowances for losses that may occur when the material
is mined”
A ‘Probable Mineral Reserve’ is the economically mineable part of an Indicated and, in some
circumstances, Measured Mineral Resource. It includes diluting materials and allowances for
losses which may occur when the material is mined.
A ‘Proved Mineral Reserve’ is the economically mineable part of a Measured Mineral
Resource. It includes diluting materials and allowances for losses which may occur when the
material is mined.

Appropriate assessments, which may include feasibility studies, have been carried out and
include consideration of and modification by realistically assumed mining, metallurgical,
economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and governmental factors. These assessments
demonstrate at the time of reporting that extraction is reasonably justified. The choice of the
appropriate category of Mineral Reserve is determined primarily by the classification of the
corresponding Mineral Resource and must be made by the Competent Person. In situations
where both Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves are reported, a clarifying statement must be
included in the report which clearly indicates whether the Mineral Resources are inclusive of, or
additional to the Mineral Reserves.
Estimate: “to judge or approximate the value, worth, or significance of; to determine the size,
extent, or nature of”. Or “an approximate calculation; a numerical value obtained from a
statistical sample and assigned to a population parameter”.

7.2 Determinations of resources

Tonnage calculation methods
Conventional methods
In calculating the resource or reserve potential of a deposit, one formula, or a variation of it, is
used throughout, namely:
T = A x Th x BD
Where T = tonnage (in tonnes), A = area of influence on a plan or section in km2, Th = thickness
of the deposit within the area of influence in meters, BD = bulk density. This includes the
volume of the pore spaces. It is obtained by laboratory measurement of field samples.

The area of influence is derived from a plan or section of the geologically defined deposit. The
conventional methods commonly used for obtaining these areas are: thickness contours
(constructed manually), polygons, triangles, cross-sections, or a random stratified grid (Fi7.2).
Popoff (1966) outlined the principles and conventional methods of resource calculation in some
detail. The choice of method depends upon the shape, dimensions and complexity of the mineral
deposit, and the type, dimensions and pattern of spacing of the sampling information. Routinely
in exploration geology, ore resource are calculated using i) plan method and ii) cross-sectional
methods. These methods have various drawbacks that relate to the assumptions on which they
are based, especially the area of influence of the sampling data, and generally do not take into
account any correlation of mineralisation between sample points nor quantify any error of
estimation.

Large errors in estimation of thickness (or grade) can therefore be made when assuming that the
thickness or grade of a block is equal to the thickness or grade of a single sample point about
which the block has been drawn. Care should be taken when using the cross sectional method
that the appropriate formula is used for computing volume between sections, as significant errors
in tonnage estimation can be introduced where the area and shapes on adjacent sections vary
considerably. Wire frame modeling, in technical software packages such as Datamine, offers the
user the ability to construct a series of sections between which the user can link the areas of
interest with a wire frame. The package calculates the volume, limiting some of the errors
introduced by manual methods. Manual contouring methods are less prone to this estimation
error by virtue of the fact that contours are constructed by linear interpolation, thereby smoothing
the data irregularities.
FIG. 7.2 Conventional methods of estimating the area of influence of a sample using (a)
isopachs, (b) polygons, (c) triangles, (d) cross-sections, or (e) a random stratified grid. (From
Whateley 1992.)

The inverse power of the distance (1/Dn) method can also be used to calculate resources, usually
using a geological modeling software package. The deposit is divided into a series of regular
blocks within the geologically defined boundary, and the available data are used to calculate the
thickness value for the center of each block. Near sample points are given greater weighting than
points further away. The weighted average value for each block is calculated using the following
general formula:

Where Th = the thickness at any block center, V = known thickness value at a sample point, f =
1/Dn weighting function, n = the power to which the distance (D) is raised. The geologist has to
decide how many of the available data are to be used. This is normally decided by choosing a
distance factor for the search area (usually the distance, a, derived from the range of a semi-
variogram), the power factor which should be employed (normally D2), and how many sample
points should be used to calculate the center point for each block. The time needed to calculate
many hundreds of block values on a complex deposit requires the aid of a computer. This
method begins to take the spatial distribution of data points into account in the calculations. Most
of these methods have found application in the mining industry, some with considerable success.
The results from one method can be cross checked using one of the other methods.

Grade calculation methods

Conventional methods
Often borehole chips or cores, or channels, are sampled on a significantly smaller interval than a
bench height in an open pit or a stope width in an underground mine. It is the geologist’s
responsibility to calculate a composite grade or quality value over a predetermined interval from
the samples taken from the cores or channels. Grade computation of a mineral body is critical
and important operation that can be done by various formulas (table 7.1)
The general formula given above for calculating the weighted average thickness value for the
1/Dn block model, also applies when calculating weighted average grade or quality values. The
weighting function changes though, and three variables, length, specific gravity (SG), and area
are used. For example when compositing several core samples for a particular bench in a
proposed open pit, length of sample is used. This is particularly important when the geologist
sampling the core has done so using geological criteria to choose sample lengths and samples are
of different lengths. Thus:

Where G =weighted average grade of each borehole on that bench, G =grade of each core
sample, L =length of sample. When samples are to be composited from, say, core, and the rocks
are of significantly different densities, then the weighting factor should have bulk density (BD)
included. Thus:

Area of influence can also be used as part of the weighting function. For example, to calculate
the weighted average grade of a stratiform deposit which is to be assessed by polygons of
different sizes, the area of each polygon is used as the weighting function. Thus:

Where A =area of influence of each polygon.

Computational methods
In large ore bodies, or deposits which have a large amount of data, such, computers are used to
manipulate the data. Commercial software packages are available (e.g. Mine Sight, Datamine)
which can perform all the conventional methods described above. Computers offer speed and
repeatability, as well as the chance to vary parameters to undertake sensitivity analyses. In
addition computers can use exactly the same procedures as described for geostatistical mineral
resource estimation methods. As well as using thickness to calculate volume and (with SG-
specific gravity) tonnage, grade or quality can be estimated along with the estimation error.

Errors
The errors in resource computations may be divided into three groups: Errors of interpritation
(often labeled geologic), Technical, and analytical errors.

Errors of interpretation often called errors of analogy; representation, details, and geology are
due to the accepted hypothesis of the origin of the deposit, assumption of geologic similarity to
other deposits interpretation or assumtpion of the uniform changes of the basic elements, and the
continuity of the body along the strike and depth. They are errors of judgment and, consequently,
depend on the training and experience of the person appraising or conducting the investigations.
The results of exploration are generally disclosed by a series of plans and sections representing
the mineral body in graphic form. Thus, the exactness of our knowledge of definite mineral
deposit depends on the correctness of the maps, which intern, depends on the type of mineral
deposit, kind and density of workings, and precision of all measurements and qualitative assay
tests.
Technical and analytical errors are those due to imperfections in instruments and techniques
used in determining all variables. Errors, random, biased, or both, should be corrected t o prevent
downgrading or upgrading of individual observation , since erroneous variables influence
interpretation of boundaries and computation of basic parameters of the mineral body, and
consequently, of the size and value of resources.

8. Feasibility study

Introduction
Determining the feasibility of a mineral property may be simple or sophisticated but has one
primary goal. This is to demonstrate that the project is economically viable if it is designed,
constructed and operated appropriately. The feasibility study will define the ore reserves, the
mining methods, the mineral processing concepts and the scale of the project.
Mining is more prone to risk than most businesses and often projects initiated fail to achieve
their expectations in terms of cost and timing of project or operational performance such as the
size of reserves or grade recovery. The average feasibility study is a lot less accurate than one
would like to think and in many cases there is a strong likelihood that a new project could run
into problems. It must be recognized that, as engineers we need to improve and develop our
skills in feasibility study preparation throughout the mining value chain. This paper looks at
three phases in the development of a mineral project and the type of study required: namely a
scoping study, prefeasibility, and a full feasibility study.

Feasibility study
The concept of a ‘feasibility study’ is a widely used term which includes a whole range of
activities from a scoping study to a full feasibility study. Thus, it is critical that the purpose of a
study be defined upfront i.e. clear terms of reference are required to manage expectations
associated with the level of available information and the cost of the study.

The mine evaluation process is an important tool in the decision process, which allows mining
executives, senior consultants and financiers to understand the inherent value of a project.
Depending upon the level of information, a project or property will be examined under different
conditions or phases. The following sections discuss the various phases of the evaluation process
and the level of detail expected.

Prefeasibility studies
Prefeasibility studies are usually undertaken once a mineral resource has been identified and it is
at this stage that one should ensure that the project is indeed feasible and/or identify areas
requiring further detailed studies.

There are four common reasons for conducting a prefeasibility study:

• As a base to justify a major exploration programme, for example an exploration shaft or decline
• As part of due diligence work by a potential purchaser
• To determine whether to proceed with a full feasibility study
• As a means to determine issues requiring further attention.

Preliminary studies are accurate to 15 to 30% and are typically obtained by factoring known unit
costs and estimated gross quantities once conceptual or preliminary engineering has been
completed. At this stage, the level of engineering (10 to 30%) should match the level of accuracy
required, i.e. no greater than required to reliably compare concepts and assess the overall
economics.
These studies are usually completed by a small multidiscipline group of experienced technical
people. Assumptions should be realistic rather than optimistic and conclusions qualified
wherever necessary. Main features of a prefeasibility study (after P.L. McCarthy, AMC) are as
follows:
• Location and description of the project •Preliminary studies completed on
• Regional and local geology geotechnical, environmental and
• Mineral resource estimate and model infrastructure requirements
• Reserve conversion
• Mine design based on a resource model, • Process plant
best alternatives selected from a range of • Mill flow sheet
alternatives • Pre-production construction schedule
• Mine sections and level plans • Production schedule
• Mining method(s) and extraction sequence • Capital and operating cost estimate
• Ore handling • Preliminary financial evaluation and risk
• Bench scale metallurgical tests and analysis.
preliminary process design completed

Full feasibility study

The objective of a full feasibility study is to remove all significant doubt and to present relevant
information about referenced material. A full feasibility study should demonstrate within a
reasonable confidence that the project can be constructed and operated in a technically sound and
economically viable manner. The study should support the raising of finances for the project
from banks or other sources, and provide a basis for detailed designs and construction. Typically,
a full feasibility study is the basis for capital appropriation and provides the budget figures for
the project. Capital and operating costs are estimated to an accuracy of 10–15%, including
realistic contingencies, based on the level of engineering completed.
The full feasibility study should determine:
• Ore reserves as per standard definition (i.e. SAMREC, JORC, etc.)
• Scale of the project
• Construction budget and schedule for the project
• Cost estimate for operating and capital
• Contingency; there are many approaches to the inclusion of a contingency. The contingency
may be an estimate of costs that will arise subsequent to the study or it may be a hedge against
improper or incomplete estimates
• Market estimates; the most significant variable in a feasibility study is often commodity price
and currency exchange rate
• Cash flow study; an appropriate discount rate should be agreed by all concerned and used to
calculate the NPV
• Risk and sensitivity analysis; risk and sensitivity analysis are commonly used to assess the
upside and downside potential of the project.

Accuracy of cost estimates

The accuracy of capital and operating cost estimates increases as the project advances from
conceptual to preliminary to feasibility phase. Normally acceptable ranges of accuracy are
considered to be:
• Prefeasibility study 15 to 30 per cent
• Full feasibility study 10 to 15 per cent.

Higher levels of estimate accuracy are a reflection of the extent of analysis undertaken to
quantify risk elements and therein establish cost to the prescribed level of accuracy. As the
project advances, the level of detail of engineering studies increases, as does the cost to
undertake the higher level studies. Therefore, it is common for detailed engineering to be
conducted in the full feasibility study after the project concepts have been fully optimized.

All studies factor in a level of contingency. This is an allowance to cover costs, which, based on
historical experience, are expected to be encountered but which are not possible to identify at the
time an estimate is prepared. It is the amount of money provided for the uncertainties in quantity,
pricing, productivity and timing, which lies within he defined scope of the project. The key is the
manner in which the contingency is derived. There should be degrees of contingency for
differing circumstances and the various components of the project. These can be then summed
up to show the overall contingency allowance.

Mine feasibility sequence

The following discussion reviews each discipline in the evaluation process. The scope of work
for each phase of the study is essentially the same for any phase of the evaluation process (i.e.
preliminary feasibility, or full feasibility study). However, the detail and quantity of work
required for the appropriate level of accuracy will vary considerably. In addition, the process is
integrated and iterative, requiring several detailed studies before committing to a full feasibility
study.

Mine design
The level of mine design will vary depending upon the level of the study. At the start of the
study, it will be necessary for the mining engineers involved in the study to understand the nature
and disposition of the ore-body, and structure and content of the geological resource block
model. The scale of the operation and the mining method will largely be influenced by the size of
the resource. The shape and disposition of the resource will also influence the selection of the
mining method, the per cent extraction and dilution and ultimately the economics of the mining
method selected. The study should schedule the ore and waste movement throughout the mine
life and assess its achievability, practicality and optimality in the light of any constraints such as
mining fleet, resource configuration or mill throughput. In addition, the mining engineer will
need to understand the mine infrastructure requirements. Waste disposal also needs to be
considered and is becoming increasingly important as government and the public are exerting
greater influence on the industry to minimize surface disturbances. Of importance is the ability to
anticipate future trends or requirements so that ore is not sterilized.

New technology
A conscious decision must be made about new technology. There are always opportunities for
new projects to incorporate prototype equipment or processes. However, one needs to understand
the associated risk. New projects already incorporate risk; one should not add untested concepts
and equipment unless it is essential to the viability of the project.

Process design and logistics

Processing engineers should become involved during the late stages of exploration as mineral
processing will influence ore reserve estimations. Process engineers will indicate what drill
samples are necessary for bench scale test work or if bulk samples are required for pilot plant
work. Since it is both time consuming and expensive to obtain a representative bulk sample, it is
ideal to identify the need for pilot plant work as soon as possible. The test work will establish a
preliminary flow sheet, which will be used to estimate costs and recoveries. It is important that
the treatment process be designed to handle maximum concentrations of minerals, peak material
flows and or hardness, not only average values.

Infrastructure
Infrastructure requirements will need to be assessed and designed to a level in keeping with the
study accuracy, and usually addresses the following:
• Power supply
• Water supply
• Internal roads
• Plant infrastructure
• Permitting and authorities.
The design of on-site infrastructure is partially dependent upon the company’s organizational
philosophy. The degree to which the operation will rely on outsourcing certain operations (for
example maintenance, surveying, assaying, security or mining), will influence the design,
location and equipping of infrastructure requirements. Other external infrastructure requirements
such as power, water, access and community will be required, regardless of the company’s
organizational philosophy.

Mining projects are normally very energy intensive and the availability and cost of electrical
power is always a significant consideration. Water is also important: the identification,
acquisition and construction of the necessary water supply and control systems will be a major
consideration.

Access is obviously of critical importance, and includes construction of railways, roads, airstrips
and shipping facilities. Although on the decrease, mining communities are still developed in
emerging countries where the mine may be expected to introduce social and regional
development.

Construction
The feasibility study should reflect the expected approach to project construction. The most
common approach is to use contractors to provide engineering, procurement and construction
management (EPCM). In any feasibility, one must account for the build-up period on
commissioning of the project. The cost of operations and the production buildup period during
this stage must be planned and budgeted. Finally, pre- and post-technical audits of the project
need to be conducted. Post-audits are often neglected, yet can provide great insight when
comparing anticipated results with actual results.

Land and legal

Land and legal issues should be dealt with at an early stage, i.e. once an exploration programme
begins to show positive signs. During the early stages of the evaluation process, property issues
(mineral and surface rights) should be addressed to identify any possible fractional areas that
may exist within the project area, understand any title deficiencies and plan for remedial action.
Additional property should be available for such issues as infrastructure requirements (such as
offices and workshops), processing plants, waste and tailing disposal, housing and general site
access.

Environmental
The development of any mine will require an environmental impact assessment (EIA). The EIA
consists of mitigation, management, monitoring and institutional measures to be taken to
eliminate adverse environmental and social impacts. The EIA and subsequent permitting will
always be on the critical path and can be more expensive and time consuming than the feasibility
itself. Due to the critical nature of the EIA and permitting, it is advisable to begin environmental
studies during the late stages of exploration. Typical areas that should be reviewed include:
• Implementation of baseline studies, including routine sampling of active drainages to assess
water quality before and after drilling
• Implementation of general flora and fauna baseline surveys
• Monitoring of local water wells, dams and other drill holes to determine seasonal variations in
the water table
• Multi-element soil geochemistry and details of mineralogical work
• Establishment of a weather station capable of measuring rainfall, wind direction, wind velocity
and temperature.
Capital and operational costs
Estimates of the project capital and operating costs are based on the level of the study. For instance, a scoping
study would require only order of magnitude costs; a prefeasibility study may base operationing costs on similar
operations in the region, whereas a full feasibility study would require definitive cost estimates. Capital cost
estimates for a prefeasibility study would consist of mechanical equipment, pipe work and electrical and
instrumentation equipment costed by suppliers; steelwork, earthworks and civil work quoted on unit rates, and
engineering and management costs based on man-hour estimates.
Full feasibility studies would require written budget quotations based on general arrangement and section
drawings, duty specifications of equipment, bulk quantity items and P and ID drawings. Estimates would include
all manpower costs-including contingencies.
Engineers and consultants will develop the operating cost estimate to an accuracy of 15 to 20% for a prefeasibility
study and 10 to 15% for a full feasibility study. The operating cost estimates will be developed as follows:
• Manpower schedules and remuneration rates agreed
• Mining costs either for owner operated or contractor
• Power consumption estimates and power supply rates from the power suppliers
• Reagents and consumables from consumption estimates and supplier quotations
• Water consumption estimate and supply cost
• Maintenance costs from consumption estimates and supplier quotes
• Taxes, duties, levies etc, as supplied by GFG (define)
• Assay costs based on quantities and consumables costs
• Overhead cost estimates for telecommunications and office supplies.

Marketing and evaluation

One additional aspect of project evaluation that must be considered prior to making the final decision to proceed
with the project is product marketing and the subsequent revenues received. The projected revenue or return of
the mining venture is the ultimate criteria for determining the feasibility of any mining venture. If the return isn’t
high enough, then an extensive study is not justified. In addition to the financial evaluation, a risk assessment
should be carried out on the major parameters, including metal price, working costs, capital costs and recoveries.
The first level at which revenue becomes critical is the exploration phase. If the rate of return isn’t sufficient at
that point, there is no point in continuing on with the project.

Financing mining projects

I) Equity
• This is finance contributed from the shareholders of the mine company
• The share of a mine company can be bought and sold throughout the life of the mine
• The share holders are then paid the return (dividend) of their investment when the mine is successfully
making a profit
• A reduction in dividend could lead to a drop in share price.
ii) Debt
• This is a money lend to the mine company from banks or any other source (e.g. government)
iii) Retained profits
• A successful company may retain some of its profit and not distribute all of it in the form of dividends to
shareholders.
• The company will therefore have the capacity to finance other projects, which are in line for development.

Conclusion
Feasibility studies are required for the evaluation of a property, which leads to a high degree of confidence in the
decision process. This paper reviews the work expected to be completed for the various types of feasibility studies
i.e. prefeasibility or full feasibility study. However, the reader should note that what has been presented is only a
guideline and would vary depending on the actual details of the project and the amount of work done to date.