Renewable Energy

Lecture No. 11

Solar photovoltaic systems, solar latern, Solar street lights, solar fencing

11.1 Solar Photovoltaic systems

The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it into DC
electricity by means of solar photo-voltaic cells. Energy conversion devices which are used to
convert sun light to electricity by the use of photo-voltaic effect are called solar cells. A typical
photovoltaic cell consists of semiconductor material (usually silicon) having a pn junction as
shown in Figure 11.1. Sunlight striking the cell raises the energy level of electrons and frees
them from their atomic shells. The electric field at the pn junction drives the electrons into the n
region while positive charges are driven to the p region. A metal grid on the surface of the cell
collects the electrons while a metal back-plate collects the positive charges.

Fig.11.1 solar photo-voltaic cells

Photovoltaic is a well-established, proven technology with a substantial international

industry network. And PV is increasingly more cost-effective compared with either extending
the electrical grid or using generators in remote locations. The cost per peak watt of today‟s PV
power is about $7. Local supply conditions, including shipping costs and import duties, vary and
may add to the cost. PV systems are very economical in providing electricity at remote locations
on farms, ranches, orchards and other agricultural operations. A “remote” location can be as little
as 15 meters from an existing power source. PV systems can be much cheaper than installing
power lines and step-down transformers in applications such as electric fencing, area or building
lighting, and water pumping – either for livestock watering or crop irrigation.

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 Renewable Energy

Solar cells can be manufactured from different semiconductor materials and their
combinations. The voltage generated by a solar cell depends on the intensity of solar radiation
and the cell surface area receiving the radiations. The maximum achievable power is about 100
W/m2 of solar cell surface area. The main types of solar cells aremonocrystalline silicon cells,
poly crystalline silicon cells,amorphous silicon cells, gallium arsenide (GaAs), andCopper
indium diselenide (CID) cells.
At present, silicon solar cells occupy 60% of the world market. Basic types of silicon
solar cells are: (i) Mono crystalline silicon solar cells, (ii) poly crystalline silicon solar cells,and
(iii) thin film or Amorphous silicon solar cells.
11.2 Mono crystalline silicon solar cells
A silicon solar cell of size 10cm×10cm produces a voltage of 0.5V and power output of 1
W at a solar radiation intensity of 1000 W/m2. The solar cells are formed into modulus by
enclosing in an air tight casing with a transparent cover of synthetic glass. These modulus posses
high efficiency between 15 and 18% and are used in medium and large size plants.
11.3 Poly crystalline silicon solar cells: The higher efficiency of solar module is 12 to 14%.
11.4 Thin-film solar cells: The crystalline solar cells are labour and energy intensive in
manufacturing. The thin film cells are produced from amorphous silicon. It has the capacity to
absorb more solar radiation due to irregular atom arrangement. The efficiency is 5 to 8%. These
are very cheap to manufacture. Cell efficiency is defined as the ratio of electric power output of
the cell, module, or array to the power content of sunlight over its total exposed area. The
maximum theoretical efficiency of solar cells is around 47 percent.
11.5 Advantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion
 Absence of moving parts.
 Direct conversion of light to electricity at room temperature.
 Can function unattended for long time. Low maintenance cost.
 No environmental pollution.
 Very long life. Highly reliable.
 Solar energy is free and no fuel required.
 Can be started easily as no starting time is involved.

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 Easy to fabricate. These have high power-to-weight ratio, therefore very useful for space
application.
 Decentralized or dispersed power generation at the point of power consumption can save
power transmission and distribution costs.
 These can be used with or without sun tracking.
11.6 Limitations of photovoltaic solar energy conversion
 Manufacture of silicon crystals is labour and energy intensive.
 High cost.
 The insolation is unreliable and therefore storage batteries are needed.
 Solar power plants require very large land areas.
 Electrical generation cost is very high.
 The energy spent in the manufacture of solar cells is very high.
 The initial cost of the plant is very high and still requires a long gasification period.
11.7 Solar lantern

A solar lamp also known as solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system composed of
an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and there may also be an inverter. The
lamp operates on electricity from batteries, charged through the use of solar photovoltaic panel.

It is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology, which has found good

acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is irregular and scarce. Even in the urban
areas people prefer a solar lantern as an alternative during power cuts because of its simple
mechanism. Solar Lantern (Fig.11.2) is made of three main components - the solar PV panel, the
storage battery and the lamp. The lamp, battery and electronics all placed in a suitable housing
made of metal, plastic or fiber glass. The operation is very simple. The solar energy is converted
to electrical energy by the SPV panel and stored in a sealed maintenance-free battery for later use
during the night hours. A single charge can operate the lamp for about 4-5 hours. The lantern is
basically a portable lighting device suitable for either indoor or outdoor lighting, covering a full
range of 360 degrees.

Solar-powered household lighting can replace other light sources like candles or kerosene
lamps. Solar lamps have a lower operating costthan kerosene lamps because renewable energy
from the sun is free, unlike fuel. In addition, solar lamps produce no indoor air pollution unlike

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Photovoltaic Cell
An electrical device which converts light energy into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect is known as photovoltaic cell or PV cell or solar cell. A
photovoltaic cell is basically a specially designed p-n junction diode.

Construction and Working of Photovoltaic Cell

The construction of a photovoltaic cell is shown in the following figure.

A photovoltaic cell consists of a base metal plate and it is made of either steel or
aluminum over which a metallic selenium layer is situated which is light sensitive
and acts as the positive terminal.

An electrically conducting layer of cadmium oxide is applied by sputtering over

the selenium layer. This cadmium oxide layer is sufficiently thin in order to allow
light to reach the selenium and as it is electrically conducting, hence acts as the
negative terminal. A strip of metal sprayed on the edge of the top surface which
forms the negative contact.

The transparent varnish layer is used to protect the front surface of the
photovoltaic cell.

When light falls on the surface of selenium layer through the layer of cadmium
oxide, the selenium compound releases the electrons that are sufficient to
maintain the flow of current through the external circuit connected between the
positive and negative terminals.
Advantages of Using Photovoltaic Cells
The advantages of using photovoltaic cells are listed below −

• Photovoltaic cells do not cause pollution while producing electricity.

• The operating cost of photovoltaic cells is low as source of energy is natural light.
• The maintenance cost of PV cells is also minimum as they need little maintenance.
• Photovoltaic cells have long lifespan. They are highly reliable.
• PV cells are the best renewable energy sources.

Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Cell

Following are some of the disadvantages of using photovoltaic cells −

• The operation of photovoltaic cells depends upon the light energy of the Sun, thus their
operation depends upon the weather.
• Storage of electricity produced by the photovoltaic cells is expensive and complicated.
• They require more space for installation.

Applications of Photovoltaic Cell

The applications of photovoltaic cells include the following −

• Remote lighting systems

• Emergency power
• For Satellites power supplies
• In photometric measurements
• As portable power supplies such as solar car, etc.

Solar Constant:
The solar constant is a term related to solar energy. The solar constant can be
defined as the amount of solar energy received by a unit area in a unit of time. It
is measured in Watt per meter square. The solar constant is measured on the area
perpendicular to the sunlight, and it can be used to determine the amount of
energy received by a particular area per unit of time. The value of this constant is
1388 W/m2.
Beam Radiation or Direct Radiation
The radiation received by the Earth without any change in the direction is referred
to as beam radiation or direct radiation as shown in Figure
Diffused Radiation
The diffused radiation is received by the Earth from all directions. The radiations
may change their direction due to scattering from dust particles, clouds etc. while
passing through atmosphere. Diffused radiations do not have a unique direction.
The diffused radiation is shown in Figure. Diffused component of solar radiation
(B) is that portion which is reflected from clouds, the ground, and nearby objects,
and direct component of solar radiation (A) is that portion which falls onto flat-
plate solar panels.
SOLAR GEOMETRY
When designing any type of system that relies on solar radiation, it is important to take into
consideration the seasonal and hourly changes in position of the sun. This has a direct influence
on the incident angle of sunlight, so it is valuable to incorporate a system that can adjust to the
position of the sun. It is also helpful to consider the position of the sun when deciding the
placement of a structure’s windows.
The position of the sun can be described by two different angles. The first angle is the solar
azimuth (denoted by α, alpha), which is defined as the clockwise angle between the sun and the
cardinal direction of true north. It is measured up to the horizontal projection of the sun’s
position onto the Earth’s surface (see Figure 1). The second angle is the solar altitude or
elevation (denoted by Φ, phi), indicating the angle of the sun’s position from the horizontal (see
Figure 1). The angle of incidence is not a measure of the sun’s position, but rather a measure of
the amount of radiation incident on a vertical surface. The angle of incidence is related to the
solar altitude as follows:

Together, the two angles provide useful information about the orientation of incoming sunlight
on an object or structure. Knowing this, solar collectors and other devices should be installed so
they are within 20° of either side of perpendicular to the sun. By incorporating a system that
adjusts to the incident angle of the sun, we can further control the angle incident on the surface
of the collector. For example, hinging light shelves so they are adjustable for the optimal angle.

θ: angle of incidence

Φ: solar altitude
θ Earth’s surface

α: solar azimuth
Figure 1: Solar geometry diagram.

Energy-Efficient Housing: Lesson 3, Daylighting Activity — Solar Geometry Reading 1