Full download ebooks at ebookmeta.

com

Biology Matters GCE 'O' Level Textbook 3rd Edition

Lam Peng Kwan

https://ebookmeta.com/product/biology-matters-gce-o-level-
textbook-3rd-edition-lam-peng-kwan/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD NOW

Download more ebook from https://ebookmeta.com

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Lam Cool 27 Widows Wear Weeds 1st Edition A A Fair

https://ebookmeta.com/product/lam-cool-27-widows-wear-weeds-1st-
edition-a-a-fair/

OCR A level Physics A Student Book 2 ActiveBook OCR GCE

Science 2015 1st Edition Mike O'Neill

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ocr-a-level-physics-a-student-
book-2-activebook-ocr-gce-science-2015-1st-edition-mike-oneill/

Edexcel AS and A Level Modular Mathematics Core

Mathematics C4 eBook edition Edexcel GCE Modular Maths
Keith Pledger

https://ebookmeta.com/product/edexcel-as-and-a-level-modular-
mathematics-core-mathematics-c4-ebook-edition-edexcel-gce-
modular-maths-keith-pledger/

Textbook of Structural Biology 2nd Edition Anders

Liljas

https://ebookmeta.com/product/textbook-of-structural-biology-2nd-
edition-anders-liljas/
Ophthalmology Review 3rd Edition Myron Yanoff Uriel
Schechter Vincent B Lam

https://ebookmeta.com/product/ophthalmology-review-3rd-edition-
myron-yanoff-uriel-schechter-vincent-b-lam/

Textbook of Pharmacoepidemiology 3rd Edition

https://ebookmeta.com/product/textbook-of-
pharmacoepidemiology-3rd-edition/

Biology 12th Class Punjab Curriculum And Textbook

Board (Pctb)

https://ebookmeta.com/product/biology-12th-class-punjab-
curriculum-and-textbook-board-pctb/

Biology Now 3rd Edition Houtman

https://ebookmeta.com/product/biology-now-3rd-edition-houtman/

Pearson Edexcel International AS Level Biology Student

Book (Edexcel International A Level) 1st Edition Ann
Fullick

https://ebookmeta.com/product/pearson-edexcel-international-as-
level-biology-student-book-edexcel-international-a-level-1st-
edition-ann-fullick/
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
to be noticed last year in the accidents due to atmospheric
conditions. This was caused in most cases by the unusual daring,
even foolhardiness of the pilots. In their attempts to amaze their
audience by performing hazardous dives and volplanes from great
heights many machines were wrecked and several aviators met their
death.
Since the main cause of fatal accidents has not been structural
weakness or the carelessness of the pilots, it is clear that the science
of aviation itself cannot be blamed. It is of course a comparatively
easy matter to build machines sufficiently strong to fly without
breaking down. The number of accidents, especially fatal accidents,
due to the inherent danger of flying, to dangers which cannot be
overcome, has been very trifling, and is steadily diminishing.
CHAPTER XIII SELECTED QUESTIONS FOR
BEGINNERS

How can I find the center of pressure of my model aeroplane? The

simplest plan is to adjust the planes so that the model flies on a
perfectly even keel, and then balance the machine. Since the center
of pressure and the center of gravity must coincide to produce
horizontal flight, this point of balance will be the center of pressure.
As a rule, the center of pressure will be found to be near the front
edge of the main plane, perhaps slightly back of this forward edge.
What is the best position for the propeller?
In the case of a model driven by a single motor, the propeller
shaft should pass through the center of gravity and center of
pressure of the machine. It is very important that the alignment
should be perfect or you will have great difficulty in securing a
horizontal flight. In case of a double propeller machine, the line
midway between the two propeller shafts must pass between the
center of gravity.
My aeroplane starts off all right but often begins to rock from
side to side like a cradle and then flutters to the ground. How can I
prevent this?
A beautiful model built by Stewart Easter
 A successful model of 1910 built by E. G. Halpine. Note contrast in
plane area

This "rocking" motion is probably caused by a too low center of

gravity in your machine. If your planes are set at a dihedral angle,
they should be brought nearer to the horizontal. Another plan is to
place them lower down. A side gust of wind will start this rocking or
vibration, and in order to right itself the machine loses momentum
and falls. This difficulty is seldom experienced with horizontal wings,
especially if their aspect ratio is high.
I have no trouble in getting my model off the ground, but it
seems to rise too fast and fall backward or uses up the power before
it really gets under way. Is the trouble with the propeller or the
planes, for my motor seems all right?
If your model rises quickly, the planes are probably well
designed and built, the motor is effective, and the propeller
sufficient for all needs. The trouble is likely to be with the angle of
the planes. Perhaps your front plane is elevated too high. The rear
plane should be kept horizontal or very nearly so. An aileron at the
rear of the main plane will help you to properly adjust same. As a
rule, the angle of ascent should be a little more than that of the
front plane. If it still acts badly, strengthen your motor and bring
your large plane back a trifle.
What is the best place to put the keel?
The greatest stability is usually gained by fixing the keel at the
center of gravity. There is great difference of opinion as to whether it
should be above or below. Try both ways. What is stability for one
aeroplane may mean disaster for another.
Why should an aeroplane pitch and roll when rising or even
traveling horizontally, but sail in a bee line when it begins to
descend?
The stability of a model is greater when its course is downward
than when in a horizontal flight. In this position, the center of
pressure is much less likely to shift, and the pole of gravity has
rather a steadying effect. For this reason a glider thrown from an
elevation travels much more evenly than a power-driven machine.
Try reversing your planes.
Why is it that my aeroplane sails all right, but when I increase
the power of my motor it falls off and darts about until it reaches the
ground?
It has been found in experiments of man-carrying machines that
an increase in the speed of a flight would often render an ordinarily
steady machine unstable. It is argued by some authorities that the
air is churned up, as it were, by the forward planes, and that the
rear wing, therefore, rocks just as will a boat in rough water. If your
model flies well at a certain speed, you had better stick to the motor,
and try a larger plane.
How far apart shall I place the two wings of my monoplane?
There is no general rule possible. Some designers believe that
the two planes should be separated by a distance equal to four
times the width of the main plane. An excellent model which makes
long flights is illustrated herewith, in which the distance is equal to
nearly twenty times the width of the main plane, while another
successful model has an open space of only twice the width of the
main plane. Much depends, of course, upon the speed at which the
aeroplane flies. The wings may be much further apart on a high-
speed than on a slow-flying model.
Are there any simple equations for working out the relation of
the proportion of the size and weight of model aeroplanes?
There are many such equations, but none of them are simple.
The formula which obliges one to solve a complicated problem in
algebra or calculus to know where to cut off a stick is obviously
absurd in the case of small models. These formulas which may be
found in technical books on aviation seem to savor too much of
certain school books to be brought in for the builder of model
aeroplanes. A good rule to remember is that the thrust should equal
the weight of the machine.
Some of the large aeroplanes are driven by propellers made up
of four blades. Would you try this arrangement on a model
aeroplane?
By no means. As explained in the chapter on propellers, the
work performed by your propeller blades is entirely different from
that of an electric fan. It is true that fairly efficient propellers made
up of four blades have been used on some passenger-carrying
aeroplanes. This form might prove effective on a model aeroplane,
but increased weight is prohibitive. By carefully designing your two
blades, you can get equally as much work out of them and at the
same time reduce the weight by one-half. It is argued by some
authorities that the single blades act upon undisturbed air and are
therefore more efficient than a four-blade propeller, as the air is
always churned up.
 How can I calculate the speed of my machine from the size and
pitch of my propeller?
It is practically impossible to do so. If you multiply the pitch of a
propeller by the number of turns at a given time, you will arrive
theoretically at the speed.
In practice, however, the slip of an aerial propeller is from
twenty-five to forty per cent. It is very difficult to determine just
what the slip is. Your calculation is likely to be a matter of thirty per
cent off and is of little value.
I am troubled with my machine trembling a great deal during
flight. What can I do to make it steady?
The framework of your model is probably too light for your
motor. Strengthen your machine if it will stand it, or take off some
strands of your motor, if it will stand it. The frame may be
strengthened by using wire braces. This method so commonly used
last year is being abandoned by the successful builders, as it makes
it necessary to attach struts at right angles to the frame, which add
to the weight and resistance. The wire in vibrating also offers an
appreciable amount of resistance to the air. In a large passenger-
carrying machine, these wire braces are absolutely necessary, but
the model being so much smaller it is better to make the frame
heavy enough to remain rigid. A great deal of extra work and
annoyance is saved by doing away with wires. This trembling again
may be caused by your propeller not being properly balanced.
What is the lightest metal I can use?
Aluminum has less specific gravity than any metal now
available. Its cheapness also makes it practicable. Magnalium is a
trifle heavier than aluminum but considerably stronger, and is
preferred by many model builders. There are still others who prefer
steel to either of these. Steel is three times as heavy as aluminum
and about five times as strong. If you can get the metal in the
proper size for model aeroplane building, steel is probably the
lightest after all. Some model builders have great success with
umbrella ribs, which is probably the most available form of steel for
our purpose. As most of us have discovered, a steel bicycle spoke is
by far the best axle for propellers.
Should the propeller be in front or behind the machine?
It will require some years of experimenting to answer this
question definitely. On one hand it is argued that the forward
propeller, or tractor as it is called, works in undisturbed air and is
therefore more efficient. Most of the large passenger-carrying
aeroplanes are driven by tractors. Others argue that the propeller
churns up the air and that the planes would therefore balance
themselves against the gusts thus set in motion, which makes their
flight unstable besides requiring additional power. Practically all of
the successful model aeroplanes this year are driven by propellers.
What is the lightest practical model aeroplane?
The English aviators who excel in constructing very light models
have had great success with what are termed "one ouncers." Some
of the models of this type weigh even less than one ounce. The
distance qualities of these machines are marvelous. Mr. Burge Webb
claims a record of 1,500 feet in a straight-away flight by one of his
one-ounce models.
Can I make a model fly by turning the propellers in the same
direction?
 It is doubtful. In using twin propellers the blades should, of
course, revolve in opposite directions although they are wound up by
turning them away from the center. Be careful, of course, to mount
the right and left propeller in the proper position. Some aviators
believe that the propellers should be turned at the same time,—
there are machines to do this,—in order that the thrust may be
exactly balanced.
What is the longest flight ever made by a model aeroplane?
Mr. Flemming Williams, the English expert, claims to have made
a flight of almost exactly one-half a mile. His machine, which is
illustrated in this volume, weighs ten ounces. It was launched by
throwing it in the air, and in making this record flight travelled with
the wind.
What is the best weight for a model?
Here is a very difficult question. It depends entirely upon what
you are trying to accomplish. In England, where everything is
sacrificed to the distance qualities of the model aeroplane, the best
models vary from five to ten ounces in weight. In America, where
much more is required of a model aeroplane, since it must rise from
the ground under its own power and possess considerable automatic
stability, the average weight is much more.
What is the average speed of a model aeroplane in flight?
About twelve miles an hour. When sailing with the wind this
speed may be increased indefinitely. In sailing against the wind, a
model aeroplane may creep along while remaining almost stationary.
Will tandem propellers make my model swifter or steadier?
Little has been accomplished either in America or in England
with the tandem propeller. Several small French models have been
flown in this way, but without striking results. Theoretically, the
torque of the propellers balance one another in this position; the
forward propeller creates a considerable backwash, and the second
propeller works at a disadvantage. Further experiments may discover
an advantage in this arrangement
How hard should I throw my machine when starting it?
It is not a good plan to launch the machine at a higher speed
than that at which it travels under its own power. By increasing its
speed, you are likely to set up violent oscillation, and, as explained
elsewhere, a model becomes unstable with increased speed. It is
better to start it too slowly than too rapidly. In the case of a glider,
of course, it is well to throw it with all your might. This is a problem,
incidentally, which does not occur when the models rise by their own
power.
My machine flies very well indeed, but I cannot make it start
from the ground. When I add more power it swerves to one side and
will not fly off. What would you advise?
Percy Pierce launching a prize-winning model
 Launching the sling-shot gliders

This is a common experience. Our advice is to return to the

original motor and make the most of the successful flights. Your
model may not be adapted to rising at all, that is, it is too light to
carry the motor required to raise it from the ground. If your frame is
made strong enough, it may be able to stand the increase in power,
if it vibrates violently, as is probably the case with a heavier motor.
What is the best time to release the propellers, just as it starts
or before?
Try both ways. Some model builders allow their propellers to get
under way a second or so before the flight commences, and release
them and push the machine forward at the same instant. One
amateur secures his propellers by means of a thread which he
breaks by touching it with a match, but it is rather fanciful.
What is the best height for a model aeroplane to fly?
In the principal model tournaments held in New York the models
were seldom more than twenty feet from the ground at any time.
Most model builders have this altitude in mind in designing their
machines. It seems to be generally agreed that when a model rises
higher than this too much power is used up in gaining altitude and
there is a corresponding loss in the distance qualities. On the other
hand in the remarkable 1,600 foot flight made by Cecil Peoli in July,
the model rose to a height, it is believed, of more than 100 feet and
gained considerable distance in gliding down. After all it is a problem
which must be decided by the individual. Incidentally it is estimated
that a large man-carrying aeroplane on rising to an altitude of one
mile can safely soar with all power shut off for twelve miles. This
means of course that an aviator has the choice of landing anywhere
within a circle twenty-five miles in diameter, which gives him a rather
wide choice.
What is meant by "critical soaring speed?"
 It is claimed by some aviators that every aeroplane has a
certain speed at which it flies best and beyond which it is unsafe to
push it. If more power is put on, they argue, it will only tend to send
the machine up in the air and will not increase its speed. This is
probably true in a measure of model aeroplanes as well. When you
have found the speed at which your aeroplane flies best do not
change the number of rubber bands of your motor or the number of
turns in winding.
Do the tails of birds serve as rudders to guide them in flying?
It is an open question. Some aviators who have made very
careful observations of birds in flight deny that the tails have
anything to do with their direction. The theory is advanced by some
scientists that the birds used their heads to change their course,
operating them as a forward rudder, much as do some types of
aeroplanes. They argue that since a rudder is much more effective
when placed forward the smaller surface presented by the flat heads
and necks of birds has more effect than a comparatively large tail.
What is the relation of the wing surface to the weight and
horse-power of the biplane as compared with the monoplane?
The Wright biplane carries a trifle more than two pounds of
weight for each square foot of lifting surface. The Bleriot monoplane
carries about five pounds weight to every square foot of lifting
surface. On the other hand the Wright machine carries about forty
pounds per horse-power, whereas the Bleriot will only carry about
twenty-seven pounds. These figures do not work out for all biplanes
or monoplanes but they indicate broadly the relation between the
two general types of aeroplanes.
 What would be the effect of bending down the outer ends of
the wings of an aeroplane as the wings of some birds droop?
The experiment is well worth trying. It would seem that this
angle would give increased stability, although if the model were
knocked off its course it might increase the resistance considerably.
An elaborate test of this form has been made by an aeronaut named
Weiss in England, who believes he has gained automatic stability in
this way. Mr. Weiss has built and flown a number of aeroplanes,
varying in size from one weighing five pounds to one which carried a
weight of 140 pounds, and the tests are reported to have been very
satisfactory.
What is meant by the phugoid path of a model aeroplane?
The line described by the machine in flight. Every aeroplane left
to itself flies in a series of waves swaying more or less up and down
from the horizontal. In a aeroplane under the control of an aviator
this is largely overcome by manipulating the rudders controlling the
vertical motion. Every model aeroplane or soaring machine has a
phugoid path peculiar to itself which is affected by the power of its
motor, the form of the wings, its ability to right itself, etc. It is
obvious of course that if the path of your model aeroplane is
irregular the machine must travel more slowly and its distance
qualities are therefore reduced.
Is a variable wing surface an advantage and can it be applied to
model aeroplanes?
In theory at least there is a great advantage in the variable
surface plane. As yet but one aeroplane has been flown in which the
pilot may increase or cut down the spread of his wings at will. When
such control is possible the aviator may employ the maximum
spread of the wings for rising, for instance where it is needed, and
then reduce their area when aloft, thus gaining in speed qualities. At
the present stage of the development of the model aeroplane a
variable wing does not seem practicable, although it is reasonable to
suppose that the improvement will come in time. The control would
of course have to be automatic, which renders the problem rather
complicated.
What is a vortex pack?
Literally a small cyclone or eddy of the air. The term is used by
aviators to describe a turbulent section of the atmosphere. It is very
common in flying, especially at low altitudes, to run into a very
turbulent eddy of air, such as is set in motion by high buildings or
deep valleys. They are extremely dangerous since they cause the
aeroplane to dip and roll about violently, and call for quick and skilful
handling of the aeroplane to keep it from being upset. The term
might be used to describe an eddy of air which brings a model
aeroplane to grief.
What form of propeller will give the highest efficiency?
It is impossible to lay down a hard and fast rule. Much depends
upon the form of the machine. The Voison propellers have been
found in actual practice to give only about forty per cent efficiency.
This is said to be partially due to the fact that their parts are held
together by bolts and projecting nuts which offer considerable skin
friction. The Wright propellers are believed to be the most efficient
propellers for large machines since their efficiency is about seventy
per cent. The accompanying photographs of the standard model
aeroplane types in America will show that there is great difference of
opinion as to the diameter and pitch of the screws.
 What is meant by a variable speed machine?
Merely an aeroplane whose speed may be increased or reduced
by degrees at the will of the aviator. This will enable the pilot to use
a slow speed for rising, for instance — and on reaching a desired
altitude increase his speed. On encountering high winds, for
instance, the speed might be increased so that the aeroplane would
cut through them almost undisturbed. The variable speed aeroplane
will doubtless soon make its appearance. Many aviators expect that
it will be the next great step in the advancement of the science of
aviation.
Has any model aeroplane been fitted with an automatic stability
device and what is it like?
No such equipment has attracted public attention up to the
present writing. An interesting method of securing automatic control
has been suggested by H. L. Twining, the well-known writer on
aviation. His plan is to attach a geared wheel to the propeller shaft
in such a way that it will not begin to move until the propeller has
made about 100 revolutions. A string is then run about this wheel
which is pulled back as it turns. The pull of this string in turn is
made to raise or lower the horizontal rudder of the model, but only
after the machine propellers have made 100 turns and the model is
presumably well up in the air. In this way the propeller may be set to
send the model upwards at a sharp angle and then made to take the
proper angle for a horizontal flight. The attachment suggests very
interesting possibilities. It may be possible, if the device works, to
alter the angle of the rudders either vertical or horizontal several
times during a flight.
What is the record flight for a motor-driven model aeroplane?
 A flight of upwards of one mile is reported to have been made
by a motor driven model in India, while in the United States the mile
mark is claimed to have been passed. Neither of these flights are
official. The most advanced work with motor-driven models is at
present being done in France. At a recent model tournament at the
Velodrome du Pare des Princess, Paris, a number of model
aeroplanes equipped with engines of various types were flown. One
of these, a biplane measuring nearly seven feet in length, was fitted
with a petroleum two-cylinder motor which developed one-third of a
horse-power. It rose beautifully, cleared a high building and was
flying well when it unfortunately collided with some telegraph wires
and came to grief. Before the accident it had flown nearly three
hundred feet in a perfectly straight line. Another model at the same
meet equipped with a carbonic acid motor flew very well for a time
but was injured in a collision.
How long has a model aeroplane remained in the air?
The American record for time aloft is held, we believe, by Cecil
Peoli of New York, whose model has remained in the air for sixty-five
seconds. Several records of from thirty to forty seconds are reported
from France. It is probable that the best record has been made in
the long distance flights in England when 26,000 feet was covered.
Has the model aeroplane any practical commercial utility?
Probably not, unless we take seriously the suggestion of a writer
on aerial warfare, who believes they will some day be so perfected
that they may be used to drop bombs or high explosives over forts
or besieged cities. His suggestion is that hundreds of model
aeroplanes equipped with miniature engines might be released in a
swarm, each carrying a deadly explosive which would be dropped
automatically at a certain time. It would be impossible, he argues,
for gunners to bring down an entire fleet of these swiftly moving
machines, and so while many of them might fall short enough would
succeed in dropping their missiles to make them an exceedingly
dangerous weapon. The writer points out that the expense of such a
mosquito fleet would be trifling compared with the cost of the
ordinary engines of warfare and might be operated without risking
any lives.

A tractor with large plane forward built by F. W. Curtis

 Model built by William Robinson

How large may a model aeroplane be made with good results?

None of the successful strand motor models at present exceed
five feet in length. This would seem to be the practical limit at which
a model may be carried with this motive power. Flights of more than
1,500 feet have been made with models but two feet in length.
When regular engines are installed there is of course no limit to the
size of models.
 When was the first model aeroplane constructed?
Crude machines propelled through the air by twisted rubber
strands were used as playthings more than a century ago. The
model built and flown by Langeley in 1887, was probably the first
machine to appear on the lines now generally followed by aeronauts.
Successful model aeroplanes have been used as toys for less than
five years. Their development in this period has been remarkable.
Are the equations for calculating the thrust of propeller in terms
of wing area and skin friction and general proportions useful in
designing model aeroplanes?
Only in a general way. When the dimensions are very small
these complicated equations are misleading. They are for the most
part extremely complicated and for this reason we have avoided
them entirely in the present volume. Much better results may be
obtained by proceeding merely by the rule of thumb, and testing out
the proportions of your aeroplane by actual practice.
What is the American indoor record for model aeroplanes?
A flight of 265 feet was made at a New York tournament by
Stewart Easter, the model rising from the ground under its own
power. This was made diagonally across the hall as far as it could go.
Many flights have been made at the New York meets in which
models have flown the entire length of the hall and struck the
further wall with their motors far from run down. In other words,
model aeroplanes have reached a state of development where they
have outgrown the largest indoor enclosures available for flying.
CHAPTER XIV AMONG THE MODEL BUILDERS

A number of model aeroplane builders in America have developed

distinctive designs which have come to be accepted as standard
types. Among thousands of boy amateurs these models are looked
upon much as, in the larger field of aeronautics, the Wrights, Curtiss,
or Bleriot are accepted as authoritative. Like the famous designers
and pilots of man-carrying craft this younger generation of designers
give their names to their machines. Our young designers, as a rule,
confine themselves to developing a particular type of machine. A
comparison of the models of the same builder for a year or more will
usually show that the same general form and arrangement of the
planes remain the same.
The Percy Pierce model, which borrows the name of its
designer, is probably the best known of these model aeroplanes. The
designer is a New York schoolboy seventeen years of age, who has
won distance records both for indoor and outdoor flying. His
machines rise from the ground under their own power. The Pierce
model of 1911 is equipped with wings much narrower than those
used last year, spaced well apart on a four-foot frame. The planes,
which are slightly flexed, are covered with silk, or bamboo paper
drawn taut and varnished. Twin propellers of high pitch are used and
the motors are carried above the planes. They are wound more than
five hundred times. The planes are carried beneath the main frame.
Directional stability is obtained by carrying back the edges of the
rear plane and by a vertical rudder placed beneath. The model is
mounted on skids of bent reed and is elevated very slightly above
the horizontal. It starts off very fast, often leaving the ground within
five feet. The model reaches its maximum altitude, traveling at an
angle equivalent to its position at starting, and maintains its height
throughout its flights.
The later Pierce machines, while preserving the same general
lines, are considerably lighter and have developed surprising
distance qualities. The planes are made of light lath or bamboo
covered with specially prepared paper, while the pitch of the
propellers has been increased as has the power. The latest models
have flown for 1,600 feet.
Another prize-winning model which has attracted considerable
attention of late is the aeroplane designed and built by Cecil Peoli. It
shows an intelligent appreciation of the principles involved and
excellent workmanship. It is a monoplane, flying with the smaller
plane forward, and has recently flown for nearly 1700 feet. Planes
are used with both silk or paper covering. The success of the model
is largely due, no doubt, to the careful workmanship and finish of
the planes.
The models are usually high powered and are driven by twin
propellers of high pitch, carved from especially designed blanks. The
aeroplane rises very quickly and will successfully combat a high
wind. It is doubtless due to this fact that the model has won in a
contest for altitude. It has repeatedly flown over a thousand feet. It
does not follow, of course, that the beginner can equal these records
since much depends upon the skilful adjustment of the model which
comes only with experience.
 Another prize-winning aeroplane which has been much admired
is the Leslie Robinson model. This model, which is of an original
design, makes long and remarkably stable flights. In no other model
has metal been used so extensively in construction. The propellers
are made of aluminum as is the framework of the planes. Both
planes are built in the proportion of about one to five, the smaller
wing being carried forward. A novel feature of this model is the
turned wing tips of both planes, which are slightly tapered and bent
upward and outward at a slight angle. The model is beautifully
finished in every detail.
Skids of reed are used and the model is tilted upward sharply at
an angle of nearly forty-five degrees. The motors, three feet in
length, are composed of ten strands of square rubber, which will
take about 400 turns. The model rises quickly at a sharp angle but
soon comes to a horizontal position and flies with great steadiness.
It weighs complete, ready for flight, nine ounces. Its metal
construction makes it very durable and proof against many of the
smaller accidents. The later machines have been equipped with
geared motors, which work well in practice.
The models built and flown by H. L. Watkins always give a good
account of themselves. A comparison of the Watkins models of 1910
and 1911 shows that their inventor has kept closely to his original
design and has made remarkable progress in lightening his machine
while keeping it sufficiently strong to support two powerful motors.
The wings have been cut down in size and made extremely light, the
smaller wing being set well forward. Directional stability is gained by
a small vertical and horizontal rudder, carried far in the rear of the
rear main plane. Every part of the frame is kept extremely light. The
model complete weighs but four ounces.
The Watkins model stands on very light skids so arranged that a
single point comes in contact with the floor, thus reducing the
friction on rising. In many of his models Watkins covers his planes
with thin red paper. The machine rests almost horizontally but rises
very quickly on being released. Its extreme lightness often gives its
flights a slightly waving form. Twin propellers, with unusually broad
surfaces are used for driving, although, in some models, a single
propeller is carried just back of the rear plane. It is an extremely
graceful model in flight.
In the models built by Stewart Easter the wing surface has been
reduced still further. The surfaces are no more than knife blades and
are mounted surprisingly far apart on a rectangular frame. Every
part of the frame has been cut away where possible to economize
weight and resistance. Although four feet in length the model weighs
less than three ounces. The front planes are flat with straight
entering edges and the sides are cut slightly away. The rear edge of
the rear plane is slightly concave. In some of his models two thin
blades are carried forward, the upper one being placed slightly in
front, thus ingeniously varying the biplane form.
Two slight vertical rudders, elliptical in form, are carried back of
the rear plane. The frame stands in a practically horizontal position.
The skids used are very light, touching the ground at a single point.
With a six-strand motor the twin propellers are wound about six
hundred times. The propellers are broad and of a high pitch. The
Easter model clears the ground instantly, rises rather high and
makes a beautiful flight. The model shows extremely fine
workmanship in every detail.
The model built by John Caresi contrasts strikingly with these
extremely light frames. They are of excellent workmanship and
illustrate many new ideas in construction. The Caresi model flies well
and has acquitted itself specially in the weight-lifting contests. It is
safe to say that no other American model aeroplane shows a more
comprehensive knowledge of the scientific principles involved in
model building or a higher standard of workmanship in every detail
of their construction. The planes are large, thus affording unusual
stability. The frames are marvels of delicate and ingenious
construction. In contests in which the workmanship and design are
considered as well as the distance qualities, the Caresi model stands
in a class apart.
No list of the successful model aeroplane models of the year
would be complete which did not include the prize-winning machine
built by J. Ragot. The aeroplane carries two planes of about equal
size and shape mounted on a simple frame. It is driven by twin
propellers of rather low pitch and a high-powered motor. By skilful
adjustment of the planes and weights the model performs the most
amazing spectacular flights. The model is well made. The
unexpected course of the machine is controlled by flexing the ends
of the planes. The Ragot model "loops the loop" and performs other
amazing feats.
In point of workmanship few of the model aeroplanes which
have appeared at the meets this year compare with those built by R.
Mungokee. The genius of the Japanese for delicate construction
finds an admirable opportunity in such work. These models are
unusually large, and their wing area considerable, yet so delicate are
all the parts that they weigh less than one pound. The sticks used
for the motor base are hollow, being built up of a light veneer one-
sixteenth of an inch thick. The joints are so cleverly arranged that
they would deceive the average eye. The main sticks of the frame
are joined by a series of trusses of the same delicate construction
which form an exceptionally rigid base of amazing lightness. Every
detail of the model shows the same delicacy of construction. The
planes are built up of thin strips of bamboo covered with Japanese
silk on both surfaces, the curve being drawn perfectly. The models
are driven by two very wide propellers of high pitch, placed back of
the rear plane. The smaller plane is carried forward. The model rises
to considerable height, often fifty feet or more, and flies horizontally
with unusual stability. The frame is braced by fine wires running
through struts placed midway above and below the main sticks.
The finest scale model aeroplane in America to-day is doubtless
the biplane built by Mr. Karl H. De Leon, illustrated on the cover of
this volume. Its great size is indicated by comparison with the boys
standing about it. The most delicate workmanship is to be found in
every detail. The planes are controlled by a complete system of
wires and levers centered at the driver's seat, exactly as in the large
man-carrying machines.. The wings may be flexed and the guiding
rudders turned from side to side or their angle elevated or depressed
by the slightest movement of the controlling devices. The model is
equipped with a miniature Gnome engine especially imported for the
purpose. The materials employed in constructing this model alone
cost upwards of $500. The model embodies several original features,
the inventions of the builder.
 Front view of the De Lion model

Several of the most interesting models of the year have been

designed and built by Mr. W. S. Howell, Jr., a very painstaking and
intelligent student of aeronautics. Mr. Howell has done much
valuable original work in building scientific gliders. One of his gliders
weighing nearly two pounds, has been thrown for more than 600
feet measured in a straight line, while the actual distance traversed
was probably two or three times this distance. The model is of
exquisite workmanship in every part. Mr. Howell is the inventor of
several devices for increasing the efficiency of rubber-strand motors
by reverse winding.