BIOLOGY MADE EASY

BIOLOGY MADE EASY
PAMPHLET
FOR GRADES 10, 11 AND 12
PREPARED BY:
ANDREW SAKALA-BIOLOGY TUTOR
FOR MORE INFOR CONTACT-0965804907
ALSO AVAILABLE IN STORE ARE:
ENGLISH P1 MADE EASY
MATHS MADE EASY
SCIENCE MADE EASY
@ 2018 PRODUCTION
Contains Past Examination Questions and Answers from Different Papers.
“Conceive, Believe and Achieve”
1|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

TOPIC 1: CELL STRUCTURE, DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND MICROSCOPE
2007 BIOLOGY P1
1. Which of the following pairs correctly states the function of ribosomes and mitochondria.
Ribosomes Mitochondria
A. Respiration Protein synthesis
B. Protein synthesis Respiration
C. Transport within cells Respiration
D. Protein synthesis Transport within cells
Ans is B
2007 BIOLOGY P1
2. The diagram below shows some specialized cells
Which cells are able to move on their own.

A. 1 and 2
B. 1 and 4
C. 2 and 5
D. 4 and 5
Ans is C
2008 BIOLOGY P1
3.Which of the following is true of animal cells.
A. Presence of cell wall
B. Presence of chloroplast
C. Absence of cell membrane
D. Absence of Chlorophyll
Ans is D.
2009 BIOLOGY P1
4.The diagram below shows a cell taken from a leaf of a plant.
Which of the labelled parts make up the protoplasm?

A. 1,2,3
B. 2,3,5
C. 3,4,5
D. 1,4,5
Ans is B – (protoplasm is made up of cell membrane (3), nucleus (5) and cytoplasm (2)

2009 BIOLOGY P1
5.Which of the following carbohydrates is found in cell walls of fungi.
A. Cellulose
B. Chitin
C. Sugar
D. Keratin
Ans is Chitin (B).
2010 BIOLOGY P1
6.The diagram below shows a cell taken from a leaf of a plant.
Which of the labelled parts stores salts? C – (Vacuole stores cell sap (solution of dissolved salts and sugars)
2010 BIOLOGY P1
7. The diagram below shows four different animal cells as seen through a microscope.
2011 BIOLOGY P1
8. The diagram below shows three specialized cells found in a human being.

2003 BIOLOGY P2
9.The figure below shows a plant cell.
(a) List and identify the functions of structures labelled A and B.

Structure A: Vacuole
Function of A: To Store cell sap
Structure B: Nucleus
Function of B: Controls cell activities and stores genetic material
(b) List 3 differences between the plant cell shown above and an animal cell.
1.A plant cell has a cell wall whilst an animal cell has no cell wall.
2.A plant cell has chloroplast whilst an animal cell has no chloroplast.
3. A plant cell has a large permanent vacuole whilst an animal cell has no large permanent vacuole.
2011 BIOLOGY P2
10.The figure below shows a plant cell that has been put in a concentrated salt solution.
(a) Identify the parts labelled A and B.

Structure A: Cell membrane
Structure B: Chloroplast
(b) What happened to the cell to reach this state.
The cell started losing water to the external environment which was the salt solution. This was due to a
difference in the concentration gradient of water.
(c) (i) State the term given to the cell in this state? Plasmolysis.
(ii) How can this condition be reversed? By placing the cell in a solution of pure water.
(d) Give one reason why structure C remained in its natural state. It is rigid.

2010 BIOLOGY P2
11.The figure below shows four specialized cells
(a) (I) Using the letters of the cells identify animal cells.
Identify Name
1. B Red blood cell
2. C Nerve cell
(ii) for each named animal cell in (a) (i) state one of its characteristics.
Feature in Animal cell 1: Hemoglobin. Feature in Animal cell 2: Axons and Dendrites.
(b) Name the substance found in the cells A and D which enables them to perform their specialized functions.
Cell Substance Function
A Companion cell Provides energy in the form of ATP.
D Chloroplast Traps sunlight energy which is needed for photosynthesis
2009 BIOLOGY P2
12. The figure below shows some cells taken from a vascular tissue of a plant.
(a) Identify the cells X and Y and structure labelled Z.

X is a companion cell
Y is a Phloem sieve tube cell
Z is a Sieve Plate
(b) What are the functions of the cells labelled X and Y.

X provides energy
Y transports manufactured food from one part of a plant to another
[glucose which is the manufactured food is transported in the form of sucrose.]
(c) What structure in the human body performs the same function as y? Blood
(d) What two conditions are needed for osmosis to take place?
1. Water molecules
2. A selectively permeable membrane

2010 BIOLOGY P2
13. The figure below shows an experiment on osmosis.
(i) From which solution in the figure above will there be flow of water molecules by osmosis?
Water molecules will flow from solution E to solution F.
(ii) When will the flow of water molecules across the membrane stop by osmosis?
It will stop when there is dynamic equilibrium is reached that is the number of water molecules in
both solutions are the same.
(iii) Suggest one reason why only water molecules can move across the cell membrane?
This is because water molecules are small enough to pass through the cell membrane while other
molecules are big such that they can’t pass.

2016 SPE BIOLOGY P2
14. The figure below shows a microscope.
(a) (i) Identify the parts labelled A and B. [2]

A - Coarse adjustment Knob B – Mirror
(b) Using letter X, label on the figure above, one part where magnification takes place? [1]
(c) Outline the correct procedure to follow in order to use a microscope to view a specimen. [3]
(d) Describe how magnification is determined when using a microscope. [2]
2017 GCE BIOLOGY P2

15. (a) Complete the table below showing parts of a microscope and their functions.
PART FUNCTION
Eye Piece Collects and reflects light onto specimen on the stage
Diaphragm Controls the amount of light that enters a microscope
Objective Lens Magnifies the image further
Stage Holds slides with the Specimen
Fine adjusting Knob Brings the image into sharp focus especially when the
specimen is being viewed at high magnification
(b) State three parts of a plant cell which can be easily seen under a light microscope.
1. Cell wall
2. Chloroplast
3. Nucleus

TOPIC 2: DENTITION, ENZYMES AND DIGESTION
2007 BIOLOGY p1 Q6
1.The diagram below shows the skull of an animal.
Ans is A
2010 BIOLOGY P1
1 0 0 3
2.What is the total number of teeth in a rabbit whose dental formula is I , C , PM , M ?
1 0 0 3
A. 14
B. 16
C. 8
D. 28
Ans: B [ (1+1+0+0+3+3) × 2 = 16 =]
2007 BIOLOGY P1
3.Below are the enzymes that digest proteins in man.

1. Peptidase
2. Pepsin
3. Trypsin
Place these enzymes in the order that they act on proteins.
The answer is B

2008 BIOLOGY P1
4.Which of the following is the end product of digestion down the alimentary canal?
A. Cellulose
B. Amino acids
C. Fats
D. Proteins
The answer is B
2009 BIOLOGY P1
5.The diagram below shows the breakdown of a food substance.
What is substance Y and enzyme Z?
Substance Y Enzyme Z
A. Maltose Amylase
B. Peptides Pepsin
C. Maltose Maltase
D. Peptides Pepsinogen
Ans is B (pepsin works well in an acidic environment of PH below 7 converting proteins to peptides)
2010 BIOLOGY P1 Q10
6.The diagram below shows the chemical digestion of a nutrient in the human body.
Identify enzyme K and products M and L.
Enzyme K Product M Product L

A Lipase Fatty acid Glycerol
B Lipase Glycerol Fatty acids
C Trypsin Peptide Amino acids
D Maltase Glucose Fructose
Ans is B

2007 BIOLOGY P1
7.The diagram below shows the digestive system of a human being.
Which two labelled structures do not secrete enzymes into the alimentary canal?
A. J and K
B. K and L
C. L and M
D. M and J
Ans is A
2003 BIOLOGY P2
8.Explain how the human body digests the following food substances contained in a boiled egg.
(I) Fats [4]
Fats found in boiled egg first undergo physical digestion in the mouth facilitated by the action of teeth through
chewing. Chewing increases, the surface area for enzyme action. However, no chemical digestion occurs in both the
mouth and stomach. Once fats reach the part of the small intestine called duodenum, bile is secreted by the liver to
the duodenum. Bile has no enzymes but physically acts on fats to increase their surface area by a process called
emulsification. Additionally, an enzyme called Lipase which is secreted from the pancreas in the form of pancreatic
juice acts on fats. Lipase acts on fats converting them to Fatty acids and glycerol.
(ii) Proteins [4]
Protein digestion begins in the stomach where pepsin from the lining of the stomach digests proteins into soluble
peptides. Pepsin works well in an acidic medium which have a PH below 7. When food reaches the duodenum trypsin
also acts on proteins. Trypsin works well in an alkaline medium which have a PH above 7. In addition, several
peptidases found in the duodenum break down the peptides to amino acids.
10 | P a g e BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

2009 BIOLOGY P2 SECTION B
9. (a) Explain how enzyme activity is affected by the pH and concentration of the substrate. [4]
The PH value at which a given enzyme works best is called the optimum PH. Values lower or higher than the
optimum PH lower enzyme activity. The optimum PH varies from enzyme to enzyme, depending on the
enzyme’s natural occurrence. For instance, the digestive enzymes of the stomach work best at acidic PH
values while those of the duodenum work best at alkaline PH values. The more the substrate concentration
the slower the enzyme activity and vice versa.
2010 BIOLOGY P2
10.The diagram below shows the human digestive system.
(a) Select the letter where

(i) Egestion occurs. X
(ii) Pancreatic juice is formed. V
(iii) Villi are present. W
(b) The stomach produces hydrochloric Acid. State 2 functions of this hydrochloric Acid.
1.To kill bacteria that is taken in with food.
2.To provide an optimum Ph for enzyme action of pepsin.
3.To help convert inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin.
(c) State the roles of the liver in

(I) Digestion – to manufacture bile
(II) Assimilation – to use glucose for Respiration and amino acids to makes proteins like albumin

2016 BIOLOGY P2 SPECIMEN
11. The figure below shows the alimentary canal and its associated organs.
(a) (i) In which labelled structure above are bile salts produced.
C (NB: Bile salts are produce in the liver (C) and stored in the gall bladder (D) )
(ii) Explain the role of bile salts in digestion?

Bile salts increase the surface area of Fats by physically dividing fats into smaller pieces. This is called
Emulsification.
(b) In which of the labelled structures above are Proteins first digested? E
(c) Explain how protein digestion takes places in the structure identified in b (i) above.
Protein digestion begins in the stomach where pepsin from the lining of the stomach digests proteins converting
proteins into soluble peptides. Pepsin works well in an acidic medium which have a PH above 7.
(d) Name 2 common ailments of structure C.

1.Liver cirrhosis
2.Hepatitis

TOPIC 3: PLANT NUTRITION
2008 Biology p1
1. In what form is the first product of photosynthesis transported to other parts of a plant.
A. Sucrose
B. Glucose
C. Cellulose
D. Starch
Ans is A
2008 Biology p1
2. Why is light important for photosynthesis, it provides

A. Light energy to split the carbon dioxide molecule
B. Light energy to split the water molecule
C. Heat energy to combine carbon dioxide and water
D. Heat energy to combine chlorophyll and carbon dioxide
2008 Biology p1
3. The table below shows varying temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations to which a plant was
subjected.
Carbon dioxide Concentration Temperature / o C

A 0.01 10
B 0.04 25
C 0.04 10
D 0.01 25
If the light intensity is constant, under which conditions A , B , C or D would there be less photosynthesis
occurring?
Ans is A
2008 Biology p1
4. The process that can reduce the rate of photosynthesis is

A. Respiration
B. Pollution
C. Germination
D. Transpiration
Ans is A

2010 Biology p1 Q13
5. The diagram below shows a longitudinal section through the phloem.
Name a substance that is Conducted across the sieve plates
A. Glucose
B. Starch
C. Sucrose
D. Proteins
Ans is C
2011 Biology p1
6. The diagram below shows an experiment to investigate photosynthesis
Under what conditions would the plant produce most bubbles?
Dissolved Carbon dioxide Light Temperature
A. Present Bright Warm

B. Present Bright Cool
C. Absent Dim Warm
D. Absent Bright Cool
Ans is A

2001 BIOLOGY P 2
7. (a) (i) Explain what is meant by the term Photosynthesis? [2]
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants combine carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll to make glucose.
(ii) Give an equation summarizing the process of photosynthesis. [3]

𝐒𝐮𝐧𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Carbon dioxide + Water ---> Glucose + Oxygen
𝐜𝐡𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐲𝐥𝐥
(b) How are the products of photosynthesis distributed to the rest of the plant? [2]
The products of photosynthesis (glucose) are distributed to the rest of the plant through the phloem by
Translocation. The product is first converted into sucrose and move through the phloem. The mass flow of materials
in the phloem occurs because of hydrostatic which develops as a result of osmosis.
(c) How does photosynthesis benefit:
(i) A caterpillar [2]
A caterpillar feeds on plant matter and is provided with carbohydrates which is manufactured by plants through
the process of photosynthesis.
(i) Bird of prey [2]
A bird of prey feeds on animal organism which feeds on plant materials. Hence, the energy flows in the form of
carbohydrates passes to the bird of prey via the prey which feeds on plants and is eaten by the bird.
2004 BIOLOGY P 2
8. (a) Describe the ways in which a farmer would increase the rate of photosynthesis in a green house. [8]
The rate of photosynthesis can be limited by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. These
are referred to as limiting factors of photosynthesis. Insufficient light will limit photosynthesis despite having
plenty of water and sunlight. In the presence of sufficient light and favorable temperature, the rate of
photosynthesis will be low if the carbon dioxide concentration is low. Also in cold temperatures, the rate of
photosynthesis will be low despite having other factors in in good amount. A farmer needs to balance the light
intensity, concentration of carbon dioxide and temperature in order to increase the rate of photosynthesis in a
green house. In the case of insufficient light or too much light, a farmer can use artificial light so that
photosynthesis can continue beyond daylight hours. Paraffin lamps can be used inside green houses to increase
the rate of photosynthesis. The use of paraffin lamps inside a greenhouse maximizes photosynthesis because
burning produces carbon dioxide and heat is also produced.
(b) Explain why a bean plant will not produce seeds unless its rate of photosynthesis is greater than the rate of
respiration. [4]
Oxygen and glucose produced by photosynthesis are required for aerobic respiration. When the rate of respiration
is low or equal to the rate of photosynthesis all the sugar produced by photosynthesis will be used by respiration.
Thus, there is no sugar left for seed production. To have enough sugar which is a requirement for seed production, the
rate of photosynthesis needs to greater than of respiration

2005 BIOLOGY p 2
9.The figure below shows a cross section of a leaf.
(a) Cells labelled X, Y and Z are capable of making glucose when a leaf is exposed to sunlight.
(i) Place the cells X, Y and Z in the order of increasing glucose in each cell, after the leaf is exposed to 2
hours of sunlight starting with the least amount of glucose. Y, Z, X
(ii) Give reasons for your answers in (a) (i) above?

The production of glucose by photosynthesis depends on the amount of chloroplast. Cell Y has the
least number of chloroplast while Cell X has the greatest number of chloroplast.
(b) Identify the part labelled B.

Part labelled B is the Air space
(c) Explain the role of part A during photosynthesis.

Part A (chloroplast) contains chlorophyll which traps light energy needed for photosynthesis.

2008 BIOLOGY p2
10. (a) What do you understand by the term Photosynthesis? [3]

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants combine carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of sunlight and chlorophyll to make glucose.
(b) Explain how the structure of a leaf of bean plant is adapted to carry out the process of
photosynthesis. [6]
1.Leaves are broad and flat shaped to offer a large surface area to capture as much light as possible.
2.The lamina is thin for easy penetration of sunlight and quick diffusion of carbon dioxide into the cell.
3.The spreading network of veins provides a good water supply to photosynthesizing cells.
4.Numerous stomata on the lower surface of the leaf allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen with
the air outside
5.The majority of chloroplast are packed into the palisade layer. This results into maximum absorption of
sunlight.
(c) Explain how humans benefit from photosynthesis? [1]
By the process of photosynthesis plants produce carbohydrates(sugars) which are eaten by humans.
Humans also use oxygen for respiration which is a by-product of photosynthesis.
2009 BIOLOGY p2 SECTION B
11. (a) Explain how the leaves of a plant are adapted to carry out photosynthesis? [ 4]
The leaf has a large surface area to capture as much light as possible. In addition, it has a thin lamina
for easy penetration of light. The leaf has a large number of stomata on the lower side allowing
maximum diffusion inward diffusion of carbon dioxide and outside diffusion of oxygen. The leaf has
the highest concentration of chloroplast on the palisade cells to trap as much sunlight as possible.
(b) How does a plant get and use the following elements:
(i) Nitrogen [2]
This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO-3) or ammonium ions (NH+4). It is
important for synthesis of proteins.
(ii) Magnesium [2]

This is absorbed from the soil in the form of Magnesium ions. This forms part of the chlorophyll
molecule

TOPIC 4: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND TRANSPIRATION
2007 Biology p1
1. Which of the following graphs represents the effect of humidity on the rate of transpiration.
2008 Biology p1
2. What is the function of guard cells.

A. Allows oxygen to enter leaves
B. Prevents loss of water and oxygen from leaves
C. Closes stomata when it is too windy and very hot
D. Regulates the size of stomata
Ans is D
2008 Biology p1
3. Which of the following suggest why xylem provide support to plant?

A. It has sieve tube elements.
B. It has lignin in its walls.
C. It is non-woody.
D. It is composed of companion cells.
Ans is B
2008 Biology p1
4. Which of the following pair of words correctly describes the process by which water and nitrates are
absorbed by plants from the soil.
Water Nitrates
A Diffusion Osmosis
B Osmosis Diffusion
C Diffusion Active transport
D Osmosis Active transport
Ans is B

2009 Biology p1 Q8
5. Which of the following best explains the significance of transpiration in plants?

A. It makes plant cells flaccid.
B. Promotes respiration in leaves.
C. Causes carbon dioxide to be excreted.
D. Enables water to move up the plant
Ans is D
2011 Biology p1 Q10
6. The diagram below shows how a seedling changes appearance a few hours after planting.
Identify the environmental factors responsible for the above change
Light intensity Humidity Temperature
A. Low Low High

B. Low High High
C. High Low High
D. High High Low
Ans is C

2006 Q3 Biology p2
7.The figure below shows a lower surface of a leaf.
(a) (i) Identify and State the functions of part labelled A and B.
Part A: stomata
Function of A: allow gases in and out of the leaf
Part B: Guard cells

Function of B: Controls opening and closing of stomata
(ii) What happens to Part A in windy conditions.
In windy conditions Part A (stomata) remains open as the diffusion shells get wiped away by the wind
(b) (i) What would be the effects of excessive loss of water on B.

Excessive water loss will cause Part B (guard Cells) to become smaller and weak.
(ii) By what process do gases leave the leaf.
Diffusion
2008 Q8 Biology p2
8.(a) State the processes involved in the movement of water molecules from the soil to the leaves. [3]
1.Absorption – water is absorbed from the soil by the root hairs.

2.Osmosis – by osmosis water moves from one cell to the next in the roots to other parts of the plant.
3.Transpiration pull – water is drawn is from plant vessels, roots and from the soil using a force called transpiration
pull.
(b) Give 2 uses of water in a leaf [2]
1.As a raw material for the process of photosynthesis
2.As a solvent for sugars manufactured by the leaf.

2010 Biology p2
9. Explain the following terms. [3]
(i) Transpiration pull.

Transpiration pull is a suction by which water is drawn from the plant vessels, roots and finally from the soil caused by
water loss from the leaves.
(ii) Translocation.
Translocation is the movement of soluble food material within a plant.
(ii) Guttation.
Guttation is the process by which a plant losses liquid or water from the tips and margins of a leaf.
2011 Biology p2 Q2
10.The figures below shows an experiment to investigate the movement of coloured solution in a plant.
(a) Name the process by which:

(i) Water in the solution was absorbed by the plant.
Osmosis
(ii) Coloured solute in the solute was absorbed by the plant.
Diffusion
(b) Why was oil put on top of that coloured solution?
To prevent gases and particles from diffusing into the solution.
(c) The figure below show a cross section of the stem obtained from the figure above at the end of the stem.
(i) Using the letter x, label the part on the figure which was stained from the dye.
(ii) Identify the part you labelled x on the figure above.

Part x is the xylem vessel

2012 Q6 Biology p2
11.(a) Explain the process of transpiration. [3]
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surface of the plant, mainly from leaves. Transpiration mainly
occurs in the stomata openings of the leaves
(b) Describe three environmental factors that affect transpiration.
Factors affecting transpiration include humidity, temperature and light. If the relative humidity is high the rate of
transpiration will be low and vice-versa. Higher temperature ensures higher evaporation of water at the surface of
plant resulting in increased transpiration and vice-versa. Light affects the opening and closing of the stomata which
determine the amount of water loss. In bright lights the stomata are open leading to more water loss and
consequently increased transpiration.
(c) Relate the significance of transpiration to both plants and the environment.
Transpiration is significant as it allows movement of water of water in the plant and hence transportation of
substances dissolved in water. Transpiration ensures the air in the atmosphere is not dry and this helps cool the
environment making it suitable for habitation.

TOPIC 5: BREATHING AND RESPIRATION
2007 Biology p1
1. Which of the following shows the organism and its product of anaerobic respiration?
Ans is A
2010 Biology p1 Q3
2. The process that can reduce the rate of Photosynthesis is.
A. Respiration
B. Pollution
C. Germination
D. Transpiration
Ans is A
2010 Biology p1
3. The diagram below shows processes taking place in an organism.
Which numbered part represents the process of respiration
A. 2 only
B. 1 and 2
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Ans is A

2010 Biology p1 q18
4. Which of the following reactions of tissue respiration occurring in a human being would yield the largest amount of
possible energy.
2012 Biology p1
5. What are the products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in muscle tissue.
Ans is C
2012 Biology p1
6. The diagram below shows a section through the thorax.

2012 Q1 Biology p2
7. The figure below is a graph showing changes in volume of air during breathing in the lungs of a person.
(a) (i) What letter shows the process of inspiration taking place. Letter S
(ii) Suggest activities taking place at P, Q and R.
P – Resting/walking/Eating
Q – Running/Climbing a hill
R - Resting/walking/Eating
(c) Explain why there is an increase in air volume during stage Q.

During stage Q there is an increase in air volume to allow much oxygen to be absorbed and used during
respiration.
(d) Describe the changes which will take place in the thorax during inspiration in order to facilitate the increase in
volume during stage Q.
During inspiration the diaphragm contracts, the external intercostal muscles and internal intercostal muscles
contract respectively, the ribcage move upward resulting in an increase in the volume of the lungs.

TOPIC 6: EXCRETION
2007 Biology p1
1.The bar graph below shows the concentration of four substances in the blood before and after passing through an
organ.
Which organ did blood pass through to have these changes
A. Heart
B. Kidney
C. Liver
D. Lung
Ans is B
2009 Biology p1 Q 20
2.The diagram below shows a cross section of a kidney identify the labelled structure.
Identify the labelled structures J, K and L.
J K L
A. Pelvis Medulla Cortex

B. Pelvis Cortex Medulla
C. Cortex Pelvis Medulla
D. Cortex Medulla Pelvis
Ans is D

2011 Biology p2
3.The diagram below shows the urinary system and its blood supply.
(a) On the figure above label structures F, G and H.
(b) State 2 processes that are involved in urine formation.

1.Ultra filtration
2.Osmoregulation
(c) The table below shows the relative quantities of several substances in the blood in the renal artery and renal
vein.
Explain what happens in the kidney to bring about the changes in the relative quantities of
(i) Glucose – small quantities of glucose are diffused into the kidney cells for the process of respiration
hence the change.
(ii) Oxygen – A good amount of oxygen is used up by the renal cells in the process of respiration
(iii) Sodium salts – Excess sodium salts are removed by the kidney and are excreted
(iv) Urea – Urea is a waste product not needed by the body and is removed by the kidney and excreted.
2009 Biology p2

4. (a) (i) Explain the role of the kidney in Excretion. [ 3]
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from the body. The role of the kidney is to remove urea, excess
salts and excess water. Other unwanted materials including water are also excreted. These materials are removed in
the form of urine.
(ii) Explain the role of the kidney in homeostasis. [ 3]
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal body environment. The role of the kidneys in homeostasis is
threefold regulating acid-base balance, osmoregulation and regulation of blood pressure.
(ii) Describe the disadvantages of a kidney transplant. [ 3]
Kidney transplantation is a major surgical procedure that has risks both during and after surgery. The risks of the
surgery include infection, bleeding and damage to the surrounding organs. After kidney transplantation you will be
required to take medications and have frequent monitoring to minimize the chance of organ rejection and often this
must continue for one’s lifetime.

TOPIC 7: HOMEOSTASIS
2001 Biology p2
1. (a) What is meant by the term homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
(b) Name the two functions of the liver which contribute to homeostasis?
1.Storage of glucose in the form of glycogen when the level of glucose is high
2.Heat production when the body temperature drops
2003 Biology p2
2. (a) What is meant by the term homeostasis?
(b) What role is played by the following structures of the skin in controlling body temperature during overcooling
(i) Sensory Nerve
Detects the cool temperatures and sends information to the brain for responses.
(ii) Erector Muscle
Erector muscles contract, pulling hair upright which traps a layer of insulating air. This prevents heat loss by
conduction and convection.
(iii) Blood vessels
Blood vessels constrict to reduce the amount of blood reaching the skin surface hence reducing heat loss by
through the surface of the skin.
(iv) Sweat glands
Sweat gland become less active, this minimises loss of heat which occurs during sweating.
(d) Explain the role of the lungs in homeostasis
The lungs play a role in balancing the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

2007 Biology p2
3.(a) Define the term homeostasis?
(b) Describe the importance of homeostasis in the human body?
Homeostasis is important because it keeps the temperature of the body under control with the right conditions for
the cells to live and function well. The cells which depend on enzymes for chemical reactions to take place have to be
at the right temperature for them to carry out these processes.
(d) After playing football in the sun, a person may feel warm, but his skin is cool, explain how this is possible.
During the time of playing football, the tissue respiration in the body as well as the heat from the sun warms the
body. However, evaporation of sweat on the surface of skin keeps the body cool.
(e) After fasting (not eating) for 12 hours, a healthy adult and a diabetic adult were fed with glucose, How would
the glucose level of the healthy and diabetic adult compare.
After the healthy person is fed with glucose the body cells will utilize the glucose in the process of respiration to
provide the body with energy. Excess glucose will be converted to glycogen by insulin and be stored in the Liver. This
ensures the correct blood sugar level is maintained. However, with the diabetic person there is an insufficiency of
insulin in the body or the body fails to respond to insulin. This will cause the glucose not used in respiration to
accumulate in the blood. Therefore, there will be more glucose in the blood of a diabetic than in the blood of a
healthy person.
2007 Biology p2
5.(a) How does the body respond to changes in the concentration of the following in blood.
(i) Carbon dioxide
When there is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, breathing rate increases. This increases breathing
activity ensures more carbon dioxide is expired and more oxygen is inspired. Thus the level of carbon dioxide is
reduced through expiration.
(ii) Glucose
When there is a high concentration of glucose in blood, insulin is secreted from islets of Langerhans of the pancreas
and converts excess glucose to glycogen in the liver and muscles where it is stored and released back in blood when
the level of glucose in blood reduces.

TOPIC 8: TROPISM AND TAXISM
2006 Biology p2
1.(a) Why are tropic responses important to flowering plants. [ 5]
2010 Biology p2
2.(a) Explain the meaning of the following terms
(i) Positive geotropism [2]
Positive geotropism is the growing of a radical(root) towards gravity.
(ii) Phototropism. [2]
Phototropism is the response of a shoot to light.
(b) Distinguish between a tropic and a taxic response. [4]
1. A tropic response occurs in plants while a taxic response occurs in animals (Invertebrates).
2. A tropic response is slower whilst a taxic response is faster.
3. In a Tropic response only part of a plant responds whilst a taxic response involves the response of an entire
organism.
4. A tropic response involves growing towards or away from the stimuli while a taxic response involves
moving towards or away from the stimuli.
2011 Biology p2
3.(a) What is meant by the term hormone? [2]
(b) Describe the function of auxins in plants. [4]
(c) Relate the effects of auxins in geotropism. [6]
2012 Biology p2
4.(a) Using the auxin theory explain the effects of light coming from one direction on the growth of shoots. [ 6]
(b) Explain the term taxic response with named examples. [6]

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
1. Describe the internal structure and function of the human tooth.
Internal Structure of a Tooth
An Incisor A Molar
Functions of tooth parts:

Enamel
This is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. It’s made of Calcium and Phosphate salts and its functions
are:
• Preventing wearing away of the tooth
• Protecting the tooth from damage
• It is used as a biting and grinding surface
However the enamel can be corroded (dissolved) by acids.
Dentine
This is a bone-like tissue below the enamel which is made of calcium and phosphate salts, collagen fibres and
cytoplasmic strands. It contains fine canals which link the pulp cavity to the enamel.
Pulp Cavity
This is a space within the dentine which is made of tooth-producing cells, nerves and blood vessels. The nerves
make the tooth sensitive to stimuli such as temperature, pH and pressure. The blood vessels supply the tooth with
food and oxygen
Cement
This is a bone-like tissue with fibres that anchor the tooth to the jawbone.
2. Describe the dental formulae of a dog and human being.
Dental Formula (Plural: Dental Formulae)

The dental formula is the number and arrangement of teeth according to type on the upper and lower jaw in one
half of the mouth of an animal. Examples of dental formulae are:
Human being Cat
2 1 2 3 3 1 3 1
i= c = pm = m = i = c = pm = m =
2 1 2 3 3 1 2 1
Cow Rat

0 0 3 3 1 0 0 3
i= c = pm = m = i= c = pm = m =
3 1 3 3 1 0 0 3
Where i=incisors, c=canines, pm=premolars and m=molars
Note that the dental formulae only show the number of teeth present in one half of the mouth. To get the total
number of teeth, the numbers in the dental formula must be multiplied by two.
3. Identify the differences in dentition of carnivores, herbivores and omnivores.
Relationship between Dentition and Type of Diet

a) Dentition in Carnivore
Carnivores are animals that feed predominantly on flesh e.g. lions. Their dentition is specialised in the following
ways:
• Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear flesh and suffocate their prey.
• Presence of carnassial teeth (the last upper premolar and first lower molar) which work like the blades of
a scissors to slice meat and shear flesh away from bones.
b) Dentition in a Herbivore
Herbivores are animals that feed predominantly on vegetation e.g. sheep. Their dentition is specialised in the
following ways:
• Upper incisors are absent and replaced by a horny pad which works in conjunction with lower incisors to
grip vegetation and wrench it.
• There is a space between the incisors and premolars called the diastema. It is used to manipulate food by
separating the freshly eaten food from the one that is already being chewed.
c) Dentition in an Omnivore
Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and vegetation e.g. human beings. Their dentition is not specialised
for any kind of diet.
4. Describe causes, signs and symptoms of gum disease and tooth decay
Tooth Decay
Also called dental decay or dental caries, this is a condition where the enamel of teeth is dissolved (corroded) by
organic acids produced by fermentation of sugars by bacteria in the mouth forming cavities in the teeth. When
cavity reaches the dentine, the tooth starts getting painful. The pain increases further when the cavity reaches the
pulp cavity. At this stage, the tooth pains each time the patient takes very hot or very cold foods, becomes infected
and may even start having a bad smell due to accumulation of abscess (pus). The condition may be treated by
filling the tooth in with cement or having a tooth extraction.
Prevention of Tooth Decay
• Brushing teeth with fluoride toothpaste after every meal
• Avoiding intake of sugary foods
• Regular visits to the dentist i.e. at least twice every year (once every six months)
• Taking foods that are rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins C and D
• Using dental floss to remove food particles from teeth
• Using teeth properly by avoiding using them for opening bottle tops and the like as this may crack the
enamel.
5. State the main processes in holozoic nutrition.

in a specialized tube called the alimentary canal or digestive system and involves five stages namely ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.
Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of digestion, namely physical digestion and chemical
digestion.
Physical digestion is the breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones. In humans, this process is carried
out by teeth in the mouth. It increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes
food easy to swallow.
Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food into smaller ones by enzymes. It makes
absorption of food more efficient
Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living cells.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus.
6. Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs.
7. Describe the processes of digestion, absorption and assimilation of nutrients.
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins

Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and jejunum.
Digestion in the Mouth
The following events occur after food has been ingested into the mouth:
(i) Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the break down of large pieces of food into smaller ones by teeth. It
increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.

(ii) Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands. Saliva is a mixture of water, mucus, the enzymes
salivary amylase and lysozyme in a slightly alkaline medium. The water helps in cooling food that is too hot and
warming up food that is too cold so that its temperature is favourable for enzyme action. It also softens food for
easy chewing e.g. it is easier to chew biscuits after they have been moistened by saliva. The mucus lubricates
food for easier swallowing. The slightly alkaline PH is favourable or optimum for the activity of salivary amylase.
Salivary amylase starts the digestion of cooked starch to produce maltose. However, only small amounts of starch
are converted to maltose in the mouth because food stays for a short time in the mouth. Amylase does not work
in the stomach because the PH there is acidic.
(iii) Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus
While food is being chewed, the tongue mixes it with saliva. Later, the tongue works with the palate (top of the
mouth) to roll the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called abolus, in readiness for swallowing.
Swallowing and Peristalsis
Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus. During
swallowing, the food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis. Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and
relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave-like manner in order to move food along the alimentary
canal. Peristalsis is illustrated in the following diagram:
Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead of the bolus, circular muscles
relax while longitudinal muscles contract.
Digestion in the Stomach
The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance of the stomach is guarded
by the cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter. The following events take place in the
stomach;
Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Pepsin
breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates milk by converting the soluble protein caesinogen into
an insoluble form called casein. This delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin to
digest milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen and prorennin,
respectively. Hydrochloric acid activates them into active enzymes and sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It
also kills some bacteria and hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach
against the acid and pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the wall of the stomach to form a
paste called chyme.
Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes; carbohydrates are kept for about
one hour; proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.
Digestion in the Duodenum
The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas. The liver secretes bile which is
temporarily stored in the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains sodium hydrogen
carbonate, bile salts and bile pigments. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets
an optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. The bile salts emulsify fats thereby increasing the
surface area for the action of lipase. Emulsification is the break down of large drops of fats into small droplets.
Bile pigments have no digestive function but add colour to the faeces.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, trypsin, lipase and pancreatic
amylase. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the
enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat molecules to
fatty acid and glycerol. Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.
Digestion in the Jejunum

This secretes Intestinal Juice (succusentericus) which contains Lactase, maltase, sucrase and peptidase. Lactase
breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose. Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Sucrase breaks down
sucrose to glucose and fructose. Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids. Digestion is completed in the
jejunum.
The ileum and Absorption
The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in the following ways:
• The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
• It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.
• It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli which further increase the
surface area for absorption.
• Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation of monosaccharides and
amino acids
• Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.
Diagram of a Villus

Assimilation of Digestive end Products
After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the blood to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.
The food is then assimilated as follows
a) Assimilation of Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose and Galactose)
Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular) respiration. If it is in excess, the excess is converted to
glycogen which is stored in the muscles and the liver. However the human body stores limited amounts of
glycogen i.e. about 400g (300g in the muscles and 100g in the liver). If there is still some excess glucose, it is
converted to fat and stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the brain,
heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. These processes are influenced by a hormone called insulin which is secreted
by the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are assimilated in the same way as glucose.
b) Assimilation of Amino Acids
Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the body. Excess amino acids are deaminated by the
liver. Deamination is the process by which the amino group of an amino acid is removed and eventually converted
to urea by the liver. Ammonia is an intermediate during deamination and is highly toxic. It is quickly converted
to urea which less toxic. The remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbonskeleton may be converted to
glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis. Urea is toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. It is carried from
the liver by blood and is removed from the body by the kidneys by the process of excretion.
c) Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the following uses in the body:
• Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from the body
• Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids which can be
synthesized from fats and oils
• Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of carbohydrates in
the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the brain, heart,
liver, kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin is responsible for insulation while the fat around delicate organs
cushions the organs against shocks.
8.Investigate the common ailments of the alimentary canal.
Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral ions from the body. It is
caused by intake of food or drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens cause inflammation of
the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.

Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces, resulting from insufficient roughage
and water in diet. It may also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum for too long which causes the rectum
to absorb too much water, making the faeces hard and dry.
Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces toxic matter. Stomach ulcers may result from
over-production of pepsin and hydrochloric acid or when the mucus layer in the stomach is not sufficiently thin.
This causes the lining of the stomach to be destroyed by the action of pepsin or hydrochloric acid.
Piles (haemorrhoids): This is a condition where the veins in the rectum become swollen and eventually burst
causing pain and blood-stained stool. It may be caused by frequent constipation.
9. Describe the metabolic functions of the liver.
The liver is the largest internalorgan in the human body and performs a wide range of functions including the
following:
• Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important in emulsification of
fats.
• Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.
• Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances e.g. hydrogen peroxide
is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase in the liver. Excess intake of alcohol
frequently can lead to a condition called cirrhosis (hardening liver tissue, leading to loss of function)
• Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby regulating the levels of blood
sugar.
• Manufacture of red blood cells in babies
• Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
• Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and albumin.
• Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
• Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.
10. Describe the effects of common ailments of the liver.
• Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis viruses.
• Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.
• Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake of alcohol.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Describe the respiratory organs of human.
The following diagram illustrates the breathing system (respiratory system) of a human being.

2. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in animals (Insects, fish and human beings)
Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Insects

Insects breathe in using the tracheal system. The tracheal begins with spiracles which are located in the thorax
and abdomen. The spiracles are joined to tubes known as tracheae (singular= trachea). The tracheae are divided
into smaller tubes called tracheoles. Gaseous exchange occurs across the walls of the tracheoles. Small insects
normally do not make any breathing movements. However, large and active insects such as grasshoppers and
bees make breathing movements by pushing their abdomens in and out. Note that insects do not use blood to
transport gases since gases diffuse from the atmosphere to the tissue cells and vice versa through the tracheal
system.
The following diagram illustrates the tracheal system of an insect.
Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Fish

Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs across the surfaces of the gills. The gills of bony fish are attached to
structures known as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars on each side of the gill chamber of a bony
fish. There is a series of gill filaments attached to each gill bar. Each gill filament has structures known as gill
lamellae (singular=gill lamella) where gaseous exchange takes place. The other side of the gill bars has
structures known as gill rakers whose function is to remove solid particles from the water before it passes across
the gills.
Water enters the gill chamber of a fish through the mouth (buccal cavity) and comes out through the operculum
when it opens (note that there is an operculum on each side of the head).
The following table summarises the events associated with inspiration and expiration in fish.
Inspiration Expiration
1 Floor of mouth Lowered Raised
2 Mouth Open Closed
3 Operculum Closed Open
4 Volume of mouth and gill chamber Increases Decreases
5 Pressure in mouth and gill chamber Decreases Increases
6 Water movement Enters the gill chamber Leaves the gill chamber
Structure of Bony Fish Gills
3. Describe the composition of inspired and expired air.
Gases Inspired air Expired air

Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour Variable Saturated
Other gases Traces Traces

4. Describe the adverse effects of air pollutants (cigarette smoke) on health of human beings.
Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System
Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Tar is
responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.
Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes (stops movement of) the cilia, causing
mucus to accumulate in the air passages. This gives chance to the germs in the mucus to infect the lining of the
air passages, causing coughing. The overall effect of bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen reaching
the lungs.
Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli. When tar reaches the alveoli it weakens them
and irritates them. The irritation causes coughing which makes the alveoli burst. Emphysema reduces the
surface area available for gaseous exchange.
Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs. Smoking increases the risk of
lung cancer because tar which is present in cigarette smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)
Pneumonia:It is an inflammation of the lungs and alveoli. It is caused by smoking bacteria which results in
accumulation of bacteria in the lungs.The accumulatedbacteria cause lung infection which leads to
inflammation.
5. Explain gaseous exchange in green plants.
Gaseous exchange in plants
Gaseous exchange in plants occurs in the spongy layer of the leaf. When photosynthesis is actively taking place
e.g. during day time), a plant leaf takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen. Note that during such periods,
respiration also takes place. When respiration is the only process taking place (e.g. at night), the plant leaf takes
in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The changes in amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide used by the plant
at different times of the day may be illustrated as follows:

The following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in the leaf of a plant.
6.Describe types of tissue respiration.
Respiration is defined as the processs by which is broken down to release energy in the living cells. This definition
strictly applies to tissue respiration which is also called cellular respiration or internal respiration. However the
term respiration is sometimes loosely applied to other processes that help make oxygen available to living cells.
These are breathing (ventilation) and gaseous exchange. In this case, the term external respiration is used.
The following diagram summarises the terms associated with respiration.

Internal Respiration
Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in organelles called mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion). The
main substrate for internal respiration in most organisms is glucose. There are two types of internal respiration,
namely aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food in living cells in the presence of oxygen. This process releases a relatively
high amount of energy (about 2880 KJ from one mole of glucose) and the by products produced are carbon
dioxide and water. This type of respiration occurs in tissue cells of animals and plants when there is a sufficient
supply of oxygen. The word and chemical equations for aerobic respiration are given below:
Word Equation
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide +Water +Energy
Chemical Equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2→ 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (2880KJ)
Anaerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen. Types of anaerobic
respiration include alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation.
Alcoholic Fermentation
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen, producing alcohol
(ethanol) and carbon dioxide as by products. This process releases a relatively low amount of energy (about 210
KJ from one mole of glucose). The reaction is catalysed by an enzyme called zymase which is naturally found in
yeast. The word and chemical equations for alcoholic fermentation are given below:

7. Describe the production of adenosine triphosphate.
ATP and its Significance
Energy from respiration is not used directly by organisms but is used to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
by combining adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Energy from ATP is then used by
living organisms. When the energy is needed, ATP breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing
energy in the process. The formation and breakdown of ATP can be illustrated as follows:
ATP is important in the following ways:
• It makes it possible for energy to be stored and transported

• It makes energy available when and where it is needed.
8. Investigate the production of carbon dioxide during respiration.
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Germinating Seeds
Materials: two thermal flasks, two thermometers, cotton wool, two sets of bean seeds.
Method
• Soak one set of seeds until they start germinating and boil the other set of seeds
• Soak both sets of seeds in disinfectant to kill micro organisms and place each set in a separate thermal flask.
• Set the experiment as shown in the following diagram.
• Read the initial temperature from each of the two thermometers.

• Leave the setup for four days and read temperatures from the two thermometers again.
Exercise: Suggest why the seeds need to be soaked in a disinfectant before being put into the flasks.
Observations

• The temperature in the flask containing boiled seeds will remain the same while the temperature in the
flask containing germinating seeds will increase.
Conclusion
Energy is produced during respiration. Germinating seeds carry out respiration while boiled seeds do not.
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Soil Organisms
Materials
Two large bottles, wire gauze, sodium hydroxide solution, two capillary tubes, two glass tubes, two petri dishes,
two samples of soil, two screw valves.
Method
• Heat one of the soil samples and leave the other one without heating.
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram
• Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the position of the drop in the capillary tube.
Observations
• The oil drop in the container having heated soil remains at the same position while the one in the container
having unheated soil moves inwards
Conclusion
Soil contains living organisms that carry out respiration and use up oxygen in the process.
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Green Plants
Materials
A large bottle, sodium hydroxide solution, capillary tube, glass tube, Petri dish, potted plant, and screw valve.
Method
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram and place the setup in a dark place.
• Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the position of the drop in the capillary tube.
Observations
• The oil drop in the capillary tube moves inwards

Conclusion
The plant carries out respiration and uses up oxygen in the process.
Experiment to Show that Carbon Dioxide is Produced During Respiration
Materials
Three large bottles, lime water, glass tubes and a small mammal e.g. a rat.
Method
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram.
• Observe and record what happens to the lime water in containers A and C.
Observation
The lime water in the container C turns milky earlier than the one in A.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. That is why the lime water in C turns milky earlier
than in A.
9. State ways in which respiration is important.
The energy released during respiration is used in the following processes: maintenance of a constant body
temperature, reproduction, cell division, active transport and growth /synthesis of macromolecules (memory
aid: MR. CAG).
10. Explain the industrial applications of respiration
In brewing, germinating seeds are used. This is because they contain the sugar maltose. The seeds are dried and
ground to form a powder. This powder is then boiled in water to form a paste. The paste is cooled and yeast is
added. Yeast contains an enzyme called zymase which converts glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol, releasing
energy in the process. The glucose is formed from the action of maltase on maltose. The alcohol is removed from
the mixture by simple distillation.
When baking, flour is mixed with water, salt, sugar and yeast to form a paste called dough. When there is
insufficient oxygen, zymase from yeasts acts on sugars to form carbon dioxide and alcohol. But if oxygen is
sufficient, yeast carries out aerobic respiration. The carbon dioxide begins to form bubbles in the dough causing
it to rise. The dough is often placed in a warm place to provide an optimum temperature for enzyme activity.
After this the dough can be baked.
HEALTH
1. Describe what good health is.
• Health is defined as a state of physical and mental well-being

2. Define disease
• A disease is any physical or mental disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the body and has
a characteristic set of signs and symptoms.
3. Describe various types of diseases
• There are two main categories of diseases which are infectious diseases (transmissible diseases) and non-
infectious diseases (non-transmissible diseases).
• Infectious Diseases
• Infectious diseases are those diseases that can be transmitted from person to person. They are also called
pathogenic diseases because they are all caused by pathogens. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms,
mainly microorganisms. Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms
4. Describe causative agents, signs and symptoms, methods of transmission and control.
The following table summarizes the causative agents, signs, symptoms, methods of transmission and methods of
control for selected pathogenic diseases.
Non-transmissible Diseases
These are diseases that cannot be passed from one individual to another. They are divided into the following
categories:
(i) Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: Diseases caused poor diets lacking one of or more of essential nutrients.
Examples of such diseases are marasmus, kwashiorkor and rickets.
(ii) Genetic (inherited) Diseases: Diseases that are passed through genes from parents to their offspring e.g. sickle
cell anaemia, haemophilia and down’s syndrome.
(iii) Degenerative Diseases: Diseases characterized by a gradual decline in the function of an organ as a result
of ageing or too much stress on the organ e.g. arthritis and coronary heart disease.
(iv) Environmental Diseases: Diseases resulting from the presence of pollutants in the environment e.g. bronchitis,
emphysema and lung cancer resulting from the presence of tar in the air.
(v) Mental Disorders: Disorders of the mind caused by chemical or physical factors e.g. schizophrenia.
(vi) Self-inflicted and Social Diseases: These include conditions like drug addiction

Disease Causative Agent Signs and Methods of Treatment and Methods
Symptoms Transmission of Control
Bilharzia Schistosoma Anaemia, tiredness, Exposure to Sanitary disposal of

(Schistosomiasis) blood in urine and in cercaria larvae urine and faeces;
(S. mansoni, faeces ( eggs of in water boiling or treatment of
Schistosoma have water before use;
S. haematobium&
hooks that damage treatment with drugs
S. japonicum) blood vessels of
bladder and gut)
AIDS A virus called Loss of weight; skin Sexual Avoid unprotected

human cancer; tiredness; intercourse with casual sex; be faithful
(Acquired immunodeficiency opportunistic an infected to one sexual partner;
Immune virus (HIV) infections such as partner; contact avoid sharing piercing
Deficiency pneumonia, with infected and cutting utensils;
Syndrome) tuberculosis and blood; mother screening of blood
diarrhoeal diseases to child before transfusion; no
transmission cure yet
Malaria A protozoon Headache; fever; Bite from Treatment with anti-

called anaemia; pain in female malarial drugs;
Plasmodium muscles and joints; Anopheles controlling or killing of
shivering and mosquito mosquitoes; preventing
sweating mosquito bites
Cholera A bacterium called Vomiting and Taking Sanitary disposal of

Vibrio cholera diarrhoea (rice contaminated faeces; boiling or
water like stool) ; food and water; chlorination of drinking
dehydration contact with water; warming and
infected person covering of food;
quarantine of patients;
treatment with

antibiotics and
replacement of salts
and water using oral
rehydration salt (ORS)
5. Describe ways of HIV transmission
• HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sexual intercause.it can also be transmitted through mother
to child during birth that’s if the mother is infected. Through blood transfusion that’s if the donors
blood is contaminated with HIV virus. HIV can also be transmitted using unsterilized hospital utensils
such as needles and razor blades and by sharing contaminated body fluids
6. Explain the dangers of having multiple sexual partners.
• Contracting HIV and AIDS and STIs
7. Describe ways of safe sexual practices
• By using condoms, staying faithful to one partner

8. Identify the causes of stigma to people living with HIV and AIDS
• Fear, ignorance, myths, lack of family support,
9. Describe ways of reducing discrimination to people living with HIV and AIDS.
• Educating the public, support groups or community support groups

10. Investigate the importance of the immune system and describe the factors that reduce immunity to
pathogenic diseases
• Immunity is important for prevention of diseases. Factors that reduce immunity include poor diet,
development of resistant strains of pathogens, repeated invasions by pathogens, intake of immuno-
depressant drugs and infection by HIV that destroys the lymphocytes.
11. Describe the life cycle of a house fly

• Life Cycle of a House Fly

• Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete metamorphosis during its life cycle. Its life
cycle is summarised in the following diagram:
The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs normally hatch into larvae (commonly
called maggots) 8-24 hours after being laid. The larvae feed on rotting material by sucking the nutrients and
move using pads on the lower side of their bodies. After 4-5 days, the larvae develop into pupae which are
immobile and do not feed. Although the pupae are immobile, a lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the
imago takes shape within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4 days later, the imago breaks out of the
puparium. It takes an imago 14 days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle starts all over again.
12. Describe the life cycle of a mosquito

• Life cycle of a Mosquito
• The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type of life cycle where the different stages
of the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from each other and different behaviours and
nutritional requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are egg, larva, pupa and adult (imago) as
summarised in the following diagram.
• Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after mating and they hatch into larvae (singular: larva).
Larvae can swim and they feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They eventually develop into pupae
(singular: pupa) which are a less active stage that continually undergoing internal changes. After some
time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa case (puparium). The adult flies and feeds mainly on plant
juices. However, when female mosquitoes are carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire for animal
blood which they need for egg development.
• Because of blood sucking, the female Anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria in humans. A vector is
any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another. Mosquitoes are said to be biological
vectors. A biological vector is one that carries parasites inside its body systems and the parasite undergoes
part of its life cycle inside the vector.
13. Relate the control of malaria to the life cycle of the mosquito
• Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted against the different stages of the life
cycle in the following ways:
• Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
• Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT kill the eggs, larvae and
pupae directly. Oil blocks the oxygen supply from the eggs, larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
• Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the control agent to get rid of another – called
the target organism – which is a nuisance). The control agent must be a natural enemy (predator or parasite)
of the target organism. Biological control may also involve interfering with reproduction by use of
radiation or chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances normally produced by the target
organism to be used in traps. Examples of biological control against mosquitoes include:
• Use of a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis which infects and kills mosquito larvae.
• Use of insectivorous fish from the Genus Gambusia that feeds on mosquito pupae and larvae.
• Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes
• Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live before entering houses
• Physical killing of adult mosquitoes
GRADE 11 SECTION
TRANSPORT AND STORAGE IN PLANTS
1. Describe the external and internal structure of roots and stems.

External structure of the root
The apical meristem located next to the root cap consists of undifferentiated cells which are continually dividing
to give rise to new cells. The root cap protects the meristem from mechanical damage as the root penetrates
through the soil particles.
Internal structure of the dicot root
The internal structure of the root consists of the epidermis, root hairs, cortex, endodermis, pericycle and vascular
bundles. The epidermis protects the stem. Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts. The cortex is made up of
vascular bundles and cells that give the plant mechanical strength. The endodermis contains water Casparian
strips that control water flow into the vascular tissue. The vascular bundles consist of the xylem and phloem. The
xylem transports water and mineral salts. The phloem transports manufactured food. The cambium is an actively
dividing layer of cells.
Internal structure of monocot root

The epidermis on the outside of the root consists of a single layer of cells. Some of the epidermal cells have root
hairs. The cortex forms the layer below the epidermis and is made up of thin-walled parenchyma cells. It contains
water proof casparian strips that control water flow into the vascular tissue. The endodermis forms the innermost
layer of the cortex. Xylem and phloem vessels are found in the central part of the root.
External structure of the stem
The apical bud consisting of meristematic cells is found at the tip of the stem. Leaves, branches, flowers, fruits
and seeds are borne on the stem. The leaves receive sunlight to photosynthesize. Flowers get pollinated. The fruits
are held on the stem in such a way that the ripe fruit and seeds can be scattered easily. The stem also stores food,
transports water from the roots to the leaves, and transports carbohydrates to the roots and some stems.
Internal structure of the dicot stem
The epidermis is the outer layer of cells that covers the stem. The cortex is made up of collenchymas cells that
provide support. The parenchyma cells in the cortex store food. The vascular tissue forms the ring around the
pith. The vascular bundles consist of phloem and xylem tissue, separated by the vascular cambium. The xylem is
inside while phloem is outside.
Internal structure of monocot stem
The epidermis is the outer layer of cells that covers the stem. The cortex is made up of collenchyma cells that
provide support and parenchyma cells that store food. Vascular bundles are scattered throughout the cortex tissue.
Each vascular bundle is oval in shape. Phloem tissue is located at one end of the oval, with xylem tissue making
up the rest.
2. Describe the absorption of water and the uptake of mineral salts by roots.
The cell sap in the vacuole of root hair cells has a high concentration of dissolved mineral salts and sugars. The
presence of these solutes makes the cell sap hypertonic to the water found between soil particles. Because of this
concentration gradient, water molecules move from the soil through the selectively permeable membrane of root
hair cells by osmosis.
Mineral salt are absorbed as mineral ions from the surrounding soil for land plants; or water for aquatic plants.
The concentration of salts in the cell sap of the root hair cells is higher than that in the soil or water. Mineral salts
are taken up by active transport against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy. Once the
mineral ions are absorbed into the xylem, they are transported in dissolved form to other parts of the plant.
3. Describe the movement of water and transport of mineral salts fromthe roots to the leaves.
From the roots, water moves up the stem in the xylem vessels and then into the leaves. Most water escapes into
the atmosphere through the stomata in form of water vapour by transpiration. The continuous column of water in
the xylem flowing from roots, up the stem and into the leaves is called the transpiration stream. The column of
water is maintained by root pressure, capillarity and transpiration stream. Root pressure is the force created by
active transport of mineral ions into the xylem vessels by cells of the endodermis. The mineral ions create a region
of high solute concentration in the xylem. Due to the osmotic gradient created, water is drawn from the cortex
into the xylem vessels.
The movement of water through the xylem vessels by capillarity occurs due to cohesion and adhesion forces.
Cohesion causes water molecules in the xylem vessels to attract each other and stick together as they move
upwards. Adhesion causes water molecules to be attracted to the xylem causing them to move upwards in the
xylem. During transpiration, water evaporates from the leaves of the plant. More water from the xylem is drawn
to offset the osmotic imbalance. This creates a suction pressure that maintains continuous movement of water.
4. Describe the movement of organic solutes in phloem.

Organic solutes include sucrose and amino acids dissolved in water. Food materials from photosynthetic cells
move into adjacent sieve tube elements by active transport. Once in sieve tubes the food substances move by
diffusion, active transport and cytoplasmic streaming.
More soluble food substances such as sugars move from one sieve tube to the next by diffusion. The food
substances diffuse from a region of high concentration in the leaves to a region of lower concentration such as
the roots.
Some food substances move against concentration by active transport. Some of the organic food substances move
along the cytoplasmic filaments which are continuous from one sieve element to the next.
5. Demonstrate the process of transpiration.
Opening and closing of stomata
The water evaporates from cells into the air spaces in the leaf and then diffuses out through the stomata. Water
evaporates from a high concentration in the plant to a low concentration in the atmosphere outside the leaf. The
size of stomata is controlled by guard cells. Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of bean shaped guard cells. The
guard cells absorb water, swell and pull open the stomata. When the guard cells lose water they shrink and close
the stomata. Stomata open during daylight hours while light is available. This enables carbon dioxide to diffuse
in, so that photosynthesis can take place. Stomata close when it is dark, when carbon dioxide is not required. This
reduces the amount of water lost by the plant at a time when it not needed for photosynthesis. If plants lose water
faster than it is replaced by the roots, the stomata can close to prevent wilting and further water loss. There are
more stomata on the ventral side of a leaf (underneath). This is to prevent the guard cells from opening too wide
during the day. This prevents water loss in the plant.

Use of photometer
When using the potometer it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water loss through transpiration.
6. Investigate the factors that affect the rate of transpiration.

-Humidity: the higher the humidity, the lower the transpiration rate because high humidity lowers the
concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere. High humidity causes the air in the leaves and the
outside to contain about the same amount of water vapour. The rate of transpiration is thus decreased.
- Light intensity: the higher the light intensity, the higher the transpiration because high light -intensity causes
opening of the stomata.
-Wind: the higher the wind speed, the greater the rate of transpiration. When the air is still, a layer of water vapour
forms over leaf and reduces transpiration rate. But when there is wind, a layer of vapour is blown away thereby
increasing diffusion rate.
-Temperature: an increase in environment temperature results into increased rate of transpiration. This because
increased temperature leads to increased kinetic energy of water vapour molecules which therefore escape faster
from the leaves hence increasing transpiration rate.
7. Describe the adaptive features of a leaf to reduce excess loss of water.
-Shedding of leaves in severe conditions (summer) reducing the number stomata so that no water loss can occur.
- Reduced size of leaves (needle- shaped leaves) - minimizes surface area over which transpiration takes place in
the leaf.
-Reduces number of stomata- most terrestrial plants have very few or no stomata on the upper surfaces of leaves
to reduce the rate of transpiration. Some plants have sunken stomata.
8. Explain the significance of transpiration in plants.
-Creates transpiration pull that facilitates absorption of water by the plant. Evaporation of water from a leaf has a
cooling effect which helps prevent hot direct sunlight from damaging the cells in plants, provides water one of
the main raw materials of photosynthesis and facilitates absorption of mineral ions from the soil. When water
evaporates from the leaf it condenses and forms clouds in the water cycle.
TRANSPORT IN MAN
1. Identify the composition of blood.

The solid part of blood is made of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Plasma which is the liquid
portion of blood consists of water and contains many important dissolved substances, including the products of
digestion, such as glucose, fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, plasma proteins such as
fibrinogen and antibodies, hormones and waste materials, such as urea and carbon dioxide.
2. Explain the functions of blood.
Transport functions:
Soluble products of digestion and absorption such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals are
transported from the gut to the liver and then to the general circulation.
Waste products of metabolism such as urea are transported from sites of production to sites of removal, such as
the liver and kidneys.
Respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported from sites of uptake or production to their site of
use or removal.
Hormones such as insulin are transported from their sites of production in the glands to the target organs where
they have their effects.
Regulatory function:
Water plays a part in distribution of heat between heat producing areas such as the liver and areas of heat loss
such as the skin
Protective functions:
Platelets, plasma proteins like fibrinogen and many other plasma factors such as calcium ions protect against loss
of blood and entry of pathogens by clotting mechanisms.
White blood cells protect against disease- causing micro-organisms. Phagocytes engulf the bacteria while
lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against them.
3. Distinguish between red and white blood cells.
Red blood cells are biconcave in shapewhile white blood cells have no definite shape. Red blood cells contain
haemoglobin while white blood cells do not contain haemoglobin. Red blood cells lack the nucleus while white
blood cells have the nucleus. Red blood cells transport oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide whilewhite
blood cells defend the body against disease- causing micro-organisms.
4. Identify the sites where the blood cells are produced.
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Red blood cells are in
the bone marrow, particularlyat the ends of the long arm and leg bones, in the ribs, and in vertebrae in adults but
can also be made by the liver in babies
5. Explain the process of blood clotting.
When platelets are exposed to injured body tissue, they release an enzyme called thromboplastin. Thromboplastin
acts on a plasma protein called prothrombin changing it to an active form called thrombin. Thrombin acts on
another plasma protein called fibrinogen changing it into an insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction occurs in

the presence of calcium ions. The fibrin forms a mesh over the wound. This mesh traps red and white blood cells,
leading to the formation of a clot over the wound.
6. Describe the ABO blood groups
There are four main blood groups namely blood groups A, B, AB and O. Two types of antigens found on the
surface of red blood cells are antigen A and antigen B. The antigens determine the blood groups as shown in the
table below.
BLOOD ANTIGEN
GROUP
A Have antigen A
B Have antigen B
AB Have both antigen A and antigen B
O Lack both antigen A and antigen B
Antibodies found in blood plasma interact with antigens on the red blood cells. The two antibodies are antibody
a and antibody b. a person with a specific antigen does not possess the complimentary antibody.
BLOOD GROUP ANTIBGENS ON RED ANTIBODIES IN PLASMA
BLOOD CELL
A A B
B B A
AB A and B None
O None a and b
7. Explain the importance of determining the blood groups and Rhesus factors.
Safe blood transfusion is only important if blood groups and Rhesus factor are determined. This reduces the
chances of agglutination in the event of blood transfusion. Transplant of tissues and organs require determination
of blood groups and Rhesus factor. Some tissues may be rejected by the recipient because they would act like
antigen causing antibody- antigen reaction. Determination of Rhesus factor prevents disorders, such as haemolytic
disease of the foetus.
8. Explain the donor-recipient compatibility of blood groups.
An antigen reacts with a corresponding antibody making the blood cells to clump together. The antibody- antigen
reaction is called agglutination. Antigen A and antibody a will cause agglutination. Antigen B and antibody b will
also cause agglutination. A person with blood group AB does not have antibodies in the blood plasma. Therefore
blood group AB is a universal recipient. A person with blood group O lacks antigens and he is a universal donor.
Blood group A can only receive blood from blood groups A and O. Blood group B can only receive blood from
blood groups B and O. Blood group A can only donate blood to blood groups A and AB. Blood group B can only
donate blood to blood groups B and AB. Blood group AB can only donate blood to blood group AB. Blood group
O can only receive blood from blood group O.
9. Explain the importance of screening the blood for the purpose of transfusion.
Screening is important to ensure blood is safe and no disease causing micro- organisms are present that could
cause disease in the recipient. Screening would minimize transmission of diseases such as HIV and AIDS, syphilis
and hepatitis B.
10. Investigate common blood disorders.
Sickle cell anaemia: this is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin. As a result red blood
cells become sickle- shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low in the body.
Haemophilia: this is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for longer periods than normal due to poor
clotting of blood due to absence of blood clotting proteins.
Leukemia: it is the cancer of white blood cells. The patient makes an abnormally high number of immature white
blood cells.
Anaemia: an inability to transport enough oxygen can be detected by noting a lower normal number of red blood
cells. Describe the structure of the human heart.
11. Describe the structure of the human heart

The heart is made up of cardiac muscles which contract and relax without getting tired. The heart is enclosed in
a pericardium membrane which secretes a fluid that lubricates the heart when it is in pumping action. The coronary
artery supplies the heart with blood.
The four chambers of the heart are: the right atrium and left atrium the right ventricle and left ventricle. The atria
receive blood. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava. The left atrium
receives oxygenated blood through the pulmonary vein.
The ventricles pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through
the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through the aorta. The
left ventricle is much thicker than the right ventricle because the left ventricle pumps blood with a high pressure
to all parts of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs which is a shorter distance away. The valves
in the heart that prevent back flow of blood include: the semi-lunar valves found at the base of pulmonary artery
and aorta, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves found between the atria and ventricles.
to head
and body
to lungs
pulmonary aorta
artery
from head
and body semi-lunar
valve
pulmonary
vein
vena cava from lungs
right left
atrium atrium
tricuspid valve bicuspid valve
right left valve tendons

ventricle ventricle
muscle
12. Describe how the heart functions.

During atrial systole, the atria contract squeezing blood into the ventricles. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are
opened while semi lunar valves remain closed. During atrial systole, the ventricles are relaxed and fill up with
blood. When the ventricles are full, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves close while the semi lunar valves open. The
ventricles contract thereby pumping blood into arteries. The contraction of the ventricles is called ventricular
systole. When the atria contract, the ventricles relax to receive blood from the atria. The relaxation of the ventricles
is called ventricular diastole. This short phase is followed by the relaxation of the atria. The relaxation of the atria
is called atrial diastole. The relaxed atria draw blood from the veins. Blood from the right ventricle flows to the
lungs through the pulmonary artery where it is supplied with oxygen and becomes oxygenated. The oxygenated
blood then flows to the heart through
the pulmonary vein. From the left ventricle, blood is pumped to the whole body leaving the heart through the
aorta.
The heart beat is made up of one systole and one diastole. The contraction of the muscles of the ventricles arises
from within the heart muscle in a small area in the right atrium called the pacemaker. The pulse is the thumping
sensation in the blood vessels. It is as a result of blood flowing in wave-like movement as pumped by the heart.
The pulse rate is the same as heart beat.
13. Explain the causes of the coronary heart diseases.
Excessive intake of fatty foods causes coronary heart diseases. Fatty foods are easily converted to cholesterol
which in turn blocks the coronary arteries. Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to
promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the blood. When you are emotionally stressed, the body secretes high
levels of adrenaline which tends to promote accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream. Inhalation of harmful
gaseous compounds, for example carbon monoxide when the environment is polluted increases the chances of
suffering from a coronary disease.
14. Describe the ways of preventing coronary heart diseases.
Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods. Regular exercise improves blood circulation and reduces chances of
accumulation of cholesterol in arteries.
15. Describe the structure of the lymphatic system in relation to blood circulatory system.
The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic capillaries that join to form larger lymphatic vessels. The vessels
finally drain into the blood system at the vena cava just before it enters the heart. The lymph move along the
vessels by contraction of muscles surrounding them. The vessels have valves at intervals to prevent back flow of
lymph.
Lymphocytes produced in the lymph nodes defend the body against diseases by producing antibodies and
antitoxins. Lymph nodes have a network of fibres that trap bacteria which are then destroyed by the lymphocytes.

16. Compare tissue fluid and lymph to blood.
Blood contains blood cells while tissue fluid and lymph lack blood cells. Blood contains plasma proteins such as
fibrinogen while tissue fluid and lymph lack plasma proteins.
17. Describe the flow of lymph.
Lymph drains into the lymphatic vessels. The lymph vessels bring the lymph back to the heart through the vena
cava. Lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent back flow of lymph. Because the fluid in the lymphatic vessels is
at very low pressure, the contraction and relaxation of muscles help to squeeze the lymph back to the heart. In
addition, inhalation causes the negative pressure in the chest cavity which helps the lymph to drain towards the
heart.
18. Describe the structure of lymph vessels.
Lymphatic vessels are vessels that transport tissue fluid away from the tissues. The smallest lymphatic vessels
are the lymph capillaries. The lymph capillaries have closed ends and thin walls to allow tissue fluid to easily
enter the lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic capillaries join to form larger vessels called lymphatic vessels.
19. Describe the functions of lymph nodes in disease prevention.

White blood cells called lymphocytes are produced in the lymph nodes. Lymphocytes produce antibodies that
destroy bacteria.
20. Describe types of blood circulatory systems.
The two types of circulatory systems are closed and open circulatory systems. In closed circulatory system, the
circulating fluid or blood is always enclosed within tubes called blood vessels which transports towards and away
from the heart. This can be single or double circulation. In open circulatory system, blood is pumped by the heart
into the body cavity which is a series of body spaces collectively known as haemocoel.
21. Describe double circulation.

Blood passes through the heart twice during one complete circulation around the body. It involves pulmonary
circulation and systemic circulation. In pulmonary circulation, blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery and from the lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. The main purpose
of this circulation is to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood through the lungs. In
systemic circulation, blood flows from the left ventricle to the rest of the body through the aorta and from the rest
of the body to the right atrium through the venacava. The purpose of this circulation is to distribute oxygen around
the body and to collect carbon dioxide from body tissues.

22. Distinguish between the single and double circulation.
In single circulation, blood flows through the heart once to make a complete circulation while in double
circulation, blood flows through the heart twice to make a complete circulation.
23. Identify the main blood vessels in the double circulation.
24. Compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries have thick and muscular walls to withstand high pressure which cause rupture. The inner layer has elastic
fibres to allow them dilate so as to accommodate blood that flows in pulses. Arteries have a narrow lumen. They
have no valves except at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery. They carry oxygenated blood except the
pulmonary artery away from the heart.
Veins have thin and less muscular walls since they carry blood under low pressure. Blood flows steadily in veins.
They have a wider lumen and have valves at intervals. They carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein
towards the heart
Capillaries are thin walled minute blood vessels which run through the tissues. They have walls that are one cell
thick to allow substances to move in and out of them by diffusion.
EXCRETION
1. Describe the process of excretion.

This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms. The products of
excretion are called excretory products while the organs used to remove them are called excretory organs.
2. Explain the significance of excretion in animals.
Unwanted toxic substances of metabolism and by-products are removed from the body of an animal. If left to
accumulate, these waste products become poisonous and harm the organism`s normal body functions. Removal
of waste products from the body of the animal results in maintenance of a constant internal environment that is
required for normal physiological processes to occur. These include regulation of osmotic potential of body fluids,
regulation of pH and blood sugar levels.
3. Identify the internal structure of the kidneys.
4. Explain the mechanism of excretion in the kidneys.

During ultra-filtration, small molecules such as water, mineral salts, glucose and urea from the glomerulus are
filtered into the Bowman`s capsule of a nephron. It is caused by a build up of pressure in the glomerulus. The
pressure builds up due to the following reasons: the afferent end of the glomerulus is wider than the efferent end
and blood from arteries is under high pressure. During ultra-filtration, the red blood cells and large molecules
such as plasma proteins remain inside the glomerulus. The liquid that collects in the Bowmn`s capsule is called
the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate drains from the Bowman`s capsule by the renal tubule.
During selective reabsorption useful substances are reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the renal tubule
into the blood stream. The first (proximal) convolution reabsorbs all glucose, some water and some salt. The
second (distal) convolution reabsorbs salts and water. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis while mineral ions, glucose
and mineral salts are reabsorbed by active transport.
Osmoregulation takes place in the loop of Henle. If the body has very little water in it, the anti diuretic hormone
is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain. It causes water to be reabsorbed from the glomerulus into the
surrounding cells. This results in the production of small volumes of concentrated urine. But if the body has
enough water, anti diuretic hormone is not secreted and huge volumes of dilute urine are produced.
5. Identify the common disorders and diseases associated with the kidney.
Common disorders and diseases include kidney failure and acute renal failure. The malfunctioning of the kidneys
as a result of partial or complete damage of the nephron caused by bacterial or viral infection leads to kidney
failure. The infections result in inflammation of the nephron leading to a variety of kidney diseases known as
nephritis.
Glomerular nephritis originates from the infection of other body parts like throat causing an antibody- antigen
complex that blocks the glomeruli. The blockage hinders normal functioning of the kidney such that urea is not
excreted from the blood. This can result in mental disorientation, vomiting and confusion. Remedies of kidney
failure include: use of a broad spectrum of antibiotics, controlled diet, for example adequate intake of salt and
intake of fluids that can be used to rectify kidney failure.
Acute renal failure is a sudden decline in renal functioning caused by a drop in pressure due to excessive blood
loss, kidney infections and stones, trauma and shock.

High blood pressure can also lead to kidney failure. Arteries in the kidneys are damaged by high pressure
resulting in low blood supply to the kidneys. Kidneys are unable to regulate blood pressure hence more arteries
are blocked and stop functioning.
Kidney failure may be treated using two ways: kidney transplant and using a dialysis (kidney) machine. Kidney
plant involves a surgical operation during which a normal kidney from a donor is added to an individual
experiencing kidney failure. The transplanted kidney must be compatible with the recipient; otherwise there will
be tissue rejection.
A kidney machine is made of a dialysis tubule through the patient’s blood passes. The tubule is long and coiled
in order to increase the surface area for diffusion. The tubule is also thin and selectively permeable to allow small
molecules such as glucose, urea, salt and water to pass through but prevent large ones from doing so.
The dialysis machine also contains dialysis fluid which is a solution of salts and glucose in water and its
concentration equal to the normal concentration of the blood to prevent loss of glucose or any other essential
mineral salt from the patient’s blood. The patient’s blood is led from the vein in the arm and pumped through the
dialysis tubule, as blood flows through the dialysis tubule molecules of small size such as urea and salts diffuse
out of the blood into the dialysis fluid.
6. Investigate the role of the lungs in excretion.
Lungs excrete carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is excreted during the process of gaseous exchange in the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli across the alveolar walls.
7. Identify the structure of the human skin.
8. Describe the role of the human skin in excretion.

The skin plays a role in excretion of excess water, mineral salts and traces of urea through sweat.
HOMEOSTASIS AND OSMOREGULATION
1. Describe what homeostasis is.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. The conditions in the internal environment
which need to be kept constant include temperature, blood sugar, contents of tissue fluid, salt and water.
2. Identify important organs in homeostasis.
Important organs in homeostasis include the kidney, the skin and the liver.
3. Describe the role of the kidney in maintaining the balance of water and salt ions.
When the osmotic pressure of the body rises due to low amount of water caused by dehydration and reduced water
intake the pituitary gland is stimulated by the hypothalamus to secrete ant diuretic hormone. Anti diuretic hormone
causes kidney tubules in the nephron to be more permeable to water, more water is reabsorbed into the
bloodstream, restoring osmotic pressure of body fluids.
When the amount of sodium ions in the blood is low, the adrenal glands secrete aldosterone hormone which
causes the distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more sodium ions into the blood stream. When the concentration
of sodium ions in the blood is adequate, adrenal glands are less stimulated; hence less sodium ions are reabsorbed.
4. Describe the mechanism of thermoregulation by the skin.
In cold temperature the skin reduces loss of heat in the following ways:
-Erector muscles contract causing the hairs on the surface of the skin to stand upright. Air which is a bad conductor
of heat is trapped between the hairs preventing heat loss from the body.
-Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce the amount of blood passing through the skin.
This reduces heat loss.
-Shivering that is the rapid muscular contraction of skeletal muscles in the limbs. Heat is released due to
respiration that takes place in the muscles. Body temperature is hence brought back to normal levels.
In hot temperature the skin promote heat loss in the following ways:
-Erector muscles relax causing the hair to lie flat on the skin. This increases heat loss from the body by conduction
since no layer of still air forms.
-Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs increasing the amount of blood passing through the skin. This
allows more heat to be lost from the body by conduction.
-Sweating-sweat glands become more active and produce more sweat. The water in sweat absorbs heat from the
body in order to evaporate, thereby cooling the body.
5. Describe the role of the liver in the regulation of blood sugar and body temperature.
When the glucose level is above normal in the blood, the pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin which lowers
the level of glucose in the following ways: stimulates cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to
glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles and causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess
glucose to fats. It also stimulates liver cells to oxidize glucose to release energy.
When glucose levels are too low in the blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon which increases glucose levels in
the blood in the following ways: causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose and
causes fats (glycerol) and amino acids to be changed into glucose.
The liver produces and distributes heat because of many metabolic reactions that take place in it and the network
of blood vessels.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Describe what a hormone is.

Hormones are regulatory chemicals transported by blood to target organs.
2. Identify the endocrine glands in a human being.
3. Identify the hormones produced by the pancreas, adrenal, thyroid and pituitary glands.
• Pancreas: Insulin and glucagon:
• Adrenal: adrenaline ,
• Thyroid: Thyroxine ,
• Pituitary: Anti diuretic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, growth
hormone
4. Describe the functions of thyroxine, insulin, glucagon and adrenaline.

Hormone Function
Thyroxine •
controls the basal metabolic rate
•
controls normal development of the
skeleton
• Controls normal growth of the
brain.
Insulin • converts glucose to glycogen to
glucose
• Promotes convection of
carbohydrates to fats.
• Slows down the conversion of
protein to carbohydrates.
Glucagon • converts glycogen to glucose
Adrenaline • prepares the body for emergency

situations
Effects of over secretion of adrenaline
• increase in blood sugar level

• hypertension
• Excessive sweating and exhaustion.
Effects of under secretion of adrenaline
• Reduction in blood sugar level.

• rapid weight loss
Effects of over secretion of thyroxine
• abnormally high metabolic rate

• thin, restless and irritable
Effects of under secretion of thyroxine
• goitre-swelling of the neck due to enlargement of the thyroid gland

• retardation in physical and mental development in children
• low metabolic rate
The nervous system and sense organs

1. Identify main parts of the nervous system in a human being.
2. Describe what neurones are.

• Neurones or nerve cells are specialised cells through which information is carried in the nervous system.
• Sensory neurones transmit impulses from receptor to the central nervous system.
• Motor neurones transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
• Relay neurones connects sensory and motor neurones. Relay information from sensory to motor neurones.
3. Explain the path taken by an impulse through a spinal reflect arc
• A receptor detects a change in a condition (stimulus).A message is carried from the receptor to the central
nervous system by a sensory neurone. After processing, a message is sent from the central nervous system
to an organ (an effector) that carries out a response. A motor neurone carries this message.

Receptor sensory neurone central nervous system motor neurone effector
4. Describe what the spinal, cranial and the conditioned reflex actions are
• Spinal reflex action
Simple spinal reflex actions are inherited or inborn responses which produce the same response for a given
stmulus e.g. knee, jerking.
• Cranial reflex action

Cranial reflexes are mediated by the brain and pass along the cranial nerves. Examples are constriction and
dilation of the eye pupil, blinking of the eye, salivation in response to sight or thought of food.
• Conditioned reflex action

Conditioned reflexes are learned reflexes in which the final response has no natural relationship to the stimulus.
In an experiment, a Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov rang a bell when he fed dogs. The dogs then salivated in response
to the bell, even when no food was given. The natural stimulus the food had been replaced by an unnatural one
(the sound of the bell). Conditioned reflexes can be unlearned__ if the unnatural stimulus is not repeated with the
natural one __ if the food was produced without a bell over a period of time, the dogs would no longer salivate at
the sound of the bell.
5. Identify the main parts of the brain of a human being.

6. Explain the functions of the forebrain and the hindbrain.
• Cerebrum
1. Determines the level of intelligence, thinking, memory and imagination.
2. Controls voluntary movements such as movement of limbs, mouth, lips, tongue, neck, abdomen etc.
3. Responsible for the sensation of pain, temperature, touch, sight and hearing.
• Hypothalamus
1. Controls temperature and water
2. Controls feeding, talking and eating.
3. stimulates the pituitary to secrete hormones
• Cerebellum
1. Maintenances of balance or equilibrium through coordinated muscle movements.
2. Maintenances of normal body posture.
• Medulla oblongata
1. Controls the unconscious body actions such as swallowing, salivation, vomiting, and respiration,
breathing process, contraction and dilation of blood vessels.
7. Describe the effects of abuse of drugs on the nervous system
• Affect the breathing centre of the brain (depressants); destroy the neurones, and increase reaction time
• induce relief from pain, fatigue and alleviate depression
• lack of sleep and reduced sexual urge
• leads to loss of appetite
8. Explain the effects of tetanus infection

Tetanus toxin is a neurotoxin which inhibits transmission of impulses in the nervous system leading to muscular
tenseness. The tetanus toxin exerts its effect on the brain cells resulting in the formation of lesions especially in
the cortical region hence inhibiting brain functions. The tetanus toxin inhibits interneurone communication by
hindering synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter substance called acetylcholine. The tetanus toxin induces
muscular contractions leading to severe muscle spasms that are powerful enough to tear the muscles. This could
result in paralysis. The toxin also affects muscles that control breathing resulting in difficulty in breathing and
subsequent suffocation.
Sense organs
1. Identify the external and internal structures of the human eye.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

2. Explain the functions of the parts of eye.
Part of eye Function
Pupil allows light to enter the eye
Iris expands and contracts to control the amount

the light entering the eye
Sclera protects the eye against damage
Retina contains light sensitive cells, the rods and

cones/this is were images are formed
cornea transparent layer responsible for most of

the refraction of light
tear gland Particles or foreign bodies.it contains

enzymes lysozyme which attack bacteria.
conjunctiva It protects the cornea. its transparent and

protective membrane that covers
eyeball. the exposed part of the eye

3. Describe the accommodation of the eye.
• Accommodation is the automatic change in shape of the lens to ensure that a clear image is formed on the
retina.
Accommodation of near objects
• To bring the image of the near objet to focus, the lens should be made thicker or more convex. This is
achieved through the contraction of ciliary muscles and relaxation of suspensory ligaments.
Accommodation of distant objects
• To bring the image of distant object to focus, the lens should be made thinner or less convex. This is
brought about by the cilliary muscles relaxing while the suspensory ligaments becoming tight (contract)
thereby pulling the edge of the elastic lens.
4. Describe the causes of short and long sightedness.
Causes of long- sightedness:
This is an eye defect caused either due to the eyeball being too short or the lens being too thin. The shortness of
the eyeball leads to focusing the rays behind the retina. The thinness of the lens makes it not able to converge the
light rays on the retina. Instead the image is formed behind the retina.
Causes of short- sightedness:
This is an eye defect in which either the eyeball is longer than normal such that the parallel rays from distant
objects are brought to focus in front of the retina or the lens is too thick that it bends the parallel rays of light from
an object converging them to focus in front of the retina. This leads to formation of blurred image.
5. Explain the correction of short and long sight.

Correction of long – sightedness:
Long a sightedness can be corrected by wearing spectacles with convex lens which bends the light rays inward
the process called convergence. The rays are now focused on the retina hence the image is clear.
Correction of short sightedness:
This is done by wearing spectacles with concave lenses, also referred to as diverging lens. Concave lenses diverge
the light rays ensuring that they are focused on the retina hence the image becomes clear.
6. Investigate the common causes and methods of preventing blindness.

Causes of blindness
Vitamin A deficiency affects the rods (which are sensitive to low light intensity) leading to less synthesis of
retinal; a photo chemical substance. The rods eventually get damaged.
• The adult filarial worm migrates through the subconjunctival tissues in the eyes of humans and find there
way to the retina affecting the rods.
• Diabetes mellitus due to excess levels of sugar in the blood and high blood pressure damages the blood
vessels in the eye.
Prevention of blindness
• Eating foods rich in Vitamin A, surgery can be conducted to remove adult worms and taking antbiotics to
treat filarial worms.
7. Describe the structure of the human ears.
The human ear is made up of outer, middle and inner ears.

Outer ear
The pinna directs sound waves into the external auditory canal. The external auditory canal has hairs and some
cells that secrete wax which trap dust and micro-organisms preventing from reaching the inner part of the ear.
Middle ear
The ear drum vibrates under the impact of sound waves. The ear ossicles namely hammer (malleus), the incus
(anvil) and stirrup (stapes) amplify the vibrations. The Eustachian tube balances pressure on both sides of the ear
drum.
Inner ear

The cochlea is fluid filled, coiled tube that transmits vibrations from the middle ear to the sensitive nerve cells,
where they are converted into a nerve signal.
Semi- circular canals are fluid –filled canals that play an important role in balance and orientation in human body.
The auditory nerve carries impulses from the ear to the brain.
8. Explain the functions of the parts of the ear.

Part of ear Function
Eear drum Vibrates under the impact of sound.
Forms the boundary between the outer ear

and the middle ear.
Ear ossicles The ear ossicles amplify the vibrations and

form a sound transmitting bridge from the
ear drum across the middle ear cavity to the
inner ear.it connect the eardrum to the oval
window.
Eustachian tube Connects the middle ear to the pharynx.it

allows entry or exit of air into or out of the
middle, which balances the air pressure on
both sides of the eardrum.
cochlea The cochlea is fluid filled, coiled tube that

transmits vibrations from the middle ear to
the sensitive nerve cells, where they are
converted into a nerve signal.
semi circular canals Contains hairs which detect changes in the

position of the head relative to gravity.it is
specialise in maintaining balance and
posture.
9. Describe causes and methods of preventing deafness.

Deafness refers to the loss of hearing due to defective ears.

Causes of deafness
• infection of the ear

• Injury to the hearing centre in the brain, cochlea, and auditory canal.
• damage to the ear drum or cochlea due to very loud music loud music or quarry blasts
• Hereditary abnormality of the ear ossicles which cause non-conduction of the sound from the outer ear.
Preventing of deafness
• avoid loud noise

• use of good cleaning method
Describe the role of the skin as a sense organ
• The skin contains sensory cells which can be stimulated by changes in temperature and pressure. Some
are sensitive to touch and pain. When stimulated the sensory cells send nerve impulses to the brain. The
brain then gives the response either in the form of the reflex action or record an impression by which an
animal is aware of the stimulus.
The skeleton and locomotion
1. Identify various types of skeleton.

• Types of skeleton:
Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeletons.
2. Describe the functions of the skeleton.

• Functions of skeleton:
The skeleton support the body by providing a rigid frame work against such forces as compression, tension and
gravitational force. It gives shape to the body and provides points of attachment to for muscles.
The skeleton protects delicate internal organs against physical injury. eg the heart and lungs protected by the rib
cage, the brain protected by the skull, spinal cord by the vertebral column etc.

Structure and locomotion-muscles which contract to cause movement are attached to the skeleton.
The skeleton of an insect
1. Investigate the structure and composition of an exoskeleton.

The exoskeleton of an insect is completely external to the body. Covering the body surface is a layer called a
cuticle. This is a non-living structure secreted by the layers of the epidermis .The cuticle is divided into two main
layers, the epicuticle (outer layer) and procuticle (inner layer).The epicuticle is a very thin layer and is covered
with wax. Theprocuticle is further divided into two sub-layers, called the exocuticle and endocuticle. Both contain
chitin, which strengthens the exoskeleton. Beneath the procuticle is a single layer of cells called the epidermis.
The epidermis produces cells for the upper layers of the cuticle. The epidermis enables the insect to form a new
exoskeleton when it has shed the old one.
2. Identify joints and muscles in the limbs of a grasshopper.

• Joints and attachment of muscle (flexors and extensors) in the limbs of a grasshopper
The mammalian skeleton
1. Identify the bones of the axial and the appendicular skeletons.

Types of Skeleton
The axial skeleton
skull
sternum
the rib cage
vertebral column
The appendicular skeleton consists of the:
pectoral girdle-scapula( shoulder bone),clavicle(collar bone)
pelvic girdle
Upper limbs- humerus, ulna, radius
Lower limbs- femur, tibia, fibula
2. Explain a bone as a living tissue.

A bone is considered a living tissue because it contains blood, lymph and nerves. The spongy bone is filled with
red bone marrow that forms red blood cells. The central cavity is filled with yellow bone marrow which makes
white blood cells. Abnormal division of cells in the bone marrow leads to cancer or leukemia. The tuberculosis
bacteria can enter an infected person`s bone marrow and stay dormant even after they have been treated with
antibiotics for the disease. TB bacteria are particularly likely to attack the vertebrae of the spine and the ends of
long bones. If not treated, the vertebrae may collapse and cause paralysis in the limbs.
Muscles and joints
3. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle.

A skeletal muscle is spindle shaped i.e. tapers at both ends. Each muscle has long fibres. When seen under a
microscope its fibres are seen to have stripes running over them. They are striped as such they are striated hence
the name striated muscles. For a muscle fibre to contract it requires energy. Each muscle fibre contains many and
larger mitochondria that supply energy to the muscle through cellular respiration.
4. Demonstrate the action of antagonistic muscles.

Muscles always work in pairs to bring about movement. They have an opposite effect on each other and are called
antagonistic muscles. When one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes. The biceps and triceps muscles in the
upper arm forms an antagonistic pair. The contraction of biceps and relaxation of triceps bends the arm. The
còntraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps straighten the arm.
The iris consists of circular and radial involuntary muscles that are antagonistic. When light intensity is high the
circular muscles of the iris contract while the radial muscles relaxes. The pupil constricts (becomes smaller) and
less light enters the eye. When light intensity is low, the circular muscles of the iris relax while the radial muscles
contract. The pupil dilates (becomes wider) and more light enters the eye to enable you to see in less light.
5. Compare the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint.
A ball and socket joint is one which allows movement in all planes (directions) including rotational movement.
The rounded head of one bone fits into a cavity in which the head of the other bone moves freely while a hinge
joint is a joint which permits movement in oneplane only. The depression in one bone allows the smooth condyles
of another bone to fit and articulate.
Gout is the form arthritis with the following symptoms: sudden inflammation, swelling, tenderness and severe
pain in one or more joints. Gout is caused by the built of uric acid in the blood. Uric acid is made when the body
breaks down certain foods e.g mushroom, meat, alcohol and converts some of the amino acids into uric acid. Gout

attacks are more common in cooler parts of the body and also in areas that experience more use of joints such as
the foot.
6. Identify the parts and functions of the synovial joint.
Functions of the synovial joint:

• Cartilage prevents friction and the grinding of bone against bone. It acts as a shock absorber.
• Ligament connects bone to bone and prevent dislocation of the joint. They keep the joint stable.
• Synovial fluid is a lubricating fluid that reduces friction in the joint and allow free movement. It also
supplies nutrients and oxygen to the parts of the joint and removes waste products.
• Synovial membrane secretes the synovial fluid.
7. Compare the joints, muscle attachment and movement in endoskeletons with those of exoskeletons
In endoskeletons synovial joints allow free movement in all directions. Antagonistic muscles are attached by
tendons to the living bones. The relatively light, hollow bones allow efficient movement. Movement takes place
in several directions and in different environments, such as water, land and the air.
In exoskeletons joints allow movement in one direction only. Antagonistic muscles are attached to special parts
on the inside of the cuticle of the exoskeleton. Small insects with exoskeleton can move fast on land, in water and
in the air. Large animals with exoskeletons will move slowly because a bigger exoskeleton is heavy.

Tropic and taxic responses
Tropic responses
1. Describe what tropic response is.

Tropic response or tropism refers to a growth movement by a plant in response to environmental
stimulus,egwater,light gravity and chemicals. The direction of growth is dictated by the direction of the
stimulus.This means that,a plant organ grows either towards or away from the source of stimulus.
2. Demonstrate growth responses exhibited by plants.
(a) Phototropism
This is the growth movement or bending of a plant in response to light coming from one direction. The
direction or orientation of a curvature is dependent on the direction from which light originates. If the plant bends
towards the direction of light, it is referred to as positive phototropism while if the curvature is away from the
light it is referred to as negative phototropism.
(b) Geotropism
This is a growth response towards the force of gravity. Roots are positively geotropic while stems are negatively
geotropic.
(c) Hydrotropism
This is the growth of the plant in response to water. Roots are positively hydrotropic because they grow into the
soil, which provide the constant water and mineral ions.
(d) Chemotropism refers to growth movement in response to chemical substances. If the substances are not
distributed uniformly in a given medium, growth curvature occurs in the direction of the concentration gradient.
If the curvature is towards the higher concentration the growth response is said to be positively chemotropic while
if it is towards the lower concentration, the growth response is said to be negatively chemotropic
3. Explain the effects of light energy and gravity on the growth of plants.
If a plant is exposed to light from one source the auxins migrate to the darker areas away from light. The bending
of the shoot tip is caused by differential growth rates of the shoot on the different sides. There is reduced growth
on the illuminated side and an increased growth on the shaded side. This is because the shaded side has higher

concentration of auxin which stimulates higher growth by encouraging cell division and cell elongation. The
illuminated side has a lower concentration of auxin hence a relatively lower growth rate.
In a horizontally oriented root, there is lateral displacement of auxin due to force of gravity leading to the
accumulation on the lower half of the root. The high concentration of auxin inhibits cell division and cell
elongation so the upper has a higher rate of cell division and elongation leading to a growth curvature of the root
downwards.
Taxic Responses
1. Describe what taxic response is.

This is the movement of the whole organism in response to the direction of an external stimulus. A taxis involves
orientation and movement directly to or away from one or stimuli such as light
2. Explain responses exhibited by invertebrates.
Woodlice and cockroaches move away from light to avoid exposure and desiccation. Cockroaches and wood lice
show negative phototaxis by moving away from light.
Growth and development
Growth in Plants
1. Explain the meaning of growth.

• Growth: Increase in number of cells, dry mass, complexity and size
2. Identify the regions of growth in stems and roots.

3. Identify differentiated cells in plants.
Ground Parenchyma Tissue Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Tissue *

Tissue Tissue
Function • Photosynthesis • Support in • Rigid support
• Food storage young stems, • Protection
• Healing and tissue roots, and
regeneration petioles

Cell Parenchyma cells Collenchyma Sclereid cells &fibre
Types in cells cells
This
Tissue
4. Explain the differentiation of primary and secondary tissues in plants.

Collenchyma
Differentiation: cell walls are unevenly thickened with cellulose and cells are tightly packed together
Function in the plant: provides strength and flexibility for stems and leaves
Parenchyma
Differentiation: cells have thin walls and large vacuoles
Function in the plant: used for storage of sugar, water and starches; some contain chloroplast for photosynthesis
Cambium
Differentiation: vascular cambium is found between the xylem and phloem in vascular bundles and contains
meristematic cells.
Function in the plant: responsible for the growth of xylem secondary growth and can be seen as annual rings in
older stems.
Sclerenchyma
Differentiation: cells are usually dead and hollow the cells walls contain lignin to make the cells strong
Function in the plant: provides the stems of plants with strength and support
Phloem
Differentiation: consist of long columns of sieve tube cells (with no nuclei) and companion cells (other living
cells)
Function in the plant: Transport of sugars
Xylem vessels
Differentiation: Develop into long hollow tubes (dead cells with no nuclei or cytoplasm) and strengthened with
lignin
Function in the plant: Transport of water and strengthening of the organs
Germination and development
1. Distinguish the structure of a dicotyledonous and a monocotyledonous seed.
• Structure of a dicot and a monocot seed.
2. Investigate conditions necessary for germination.

A water supply- germination starts with seed take up water. The seed swells up as water moves through it the
increase in water increases the metabolism inside the seed.
Presence of oxygen- as the metabolism of the seed increases, respiration increase. This requires more oxygen.
Although the seed respires anaerobically at first, it switches over to aerobic respiration as more energy is used by
the growing seed.
Favourable temperature-seed usually germinate in the warmer spring months. Enzymes change insoluble food
stores in the cotyledons to soluble, usable food. Enzymes need a favourable temperature to work efficiently
3. Demonstrate hypogeal and Epigeal germination.

Hypogeal germination refers to the elongation of the hypocotyls in monocots. As the shoot develops, the
cotyledons the seed remain underground.
Epigeal germination refers to the elongation of epicotyls in dicots. In seed, such as the bean seed, the cotyledons
grow above the ground during germination, and they become the first photosynthetic leaves
GRADE 12 SECTION
UNIT 1.0 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Fungi, Amoeba and Bacteria
1. Describe the different types of reproduction.

Ans:
Asexual Reproduction
• produce offspring from a single parent without fusion of gametes

• produce offspring by mitosis
• new organism exactly like its parent
Sexual Reproduction
• provides a mean of survival of the species under unfavourable conditions

• have a different genetic make-up from their parents
• a good chance for some of the offspring to adapt to the new environment
• sex cells & gametes are produced by meiosis
• sometimes an organism can produce both male & female gametes (hermaphrodite)
• fertilization (male gamete + female gamete) takes place which produce a zygote
2. Describe asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms
Ans:
Binary Fission (e.g. Amoeba)
1. Pseudopodia withdrawn
2. Nucleus divided into two
3. Two daughter Amoebas formed
Budding (eg. Yeast)
1. Parent cell produces small outgrowth
2. Outgrowth detaches from parent cell
3. A new cell formed
3. Describe the sexual and asexual reproduction in fungus.

ANS: Asexually fungi reproduce by means of spores. Once the spores are dispersed from the parents they germinate, if
conditions are suitable. Sexually fungi reproduce by means of haploid cells from two different mycelia. The nuclei of the
two different mycelia fuse to form a diploid zygote then meiosis occurs to form haploid spores.
Asexual reproduction in bread mould( Nshima mould)

Structure of rhizopus
spores
sporangium
developing
sporangium
hyphae of the
mycelium
4. Explain the importance of fungi and bacteria
Ans: Decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling
Disease causing effects e.g. Ringworm and Bacillary dysentery. Production of a food and alcohol, source of food
(mushroom)
Vegetative Reproduction
5. Describe different methods of natural propagation.

Ans: Different methods of natural propagation: Runners, rhizomes, corms, buds, suckers, stem tubers, root tubers, bulbs

Runner
6. Investigate different methods of artificial propagation

ANS: Budding, cuttings, grafting, layering

Budding
. A new bud is developed on parent plant
2. Adventitious roots formed & absorbed water and mineral salts for young plant
3. Parent plant develops green leaves for photosynthesis
4. Food stored in a specialized underground storage organ (not transport to parent plant)
5. Bud formed for growth in next growing season
6. Aerial shoot dies down in dry season
7. Underground storage organ remains dormant till next year
Cutting: a process by which a piece of branch, stem, root or leaf when planted grows into a new individual Other
methods: Grafting & Layering
➢ Plants which can use cutting: Cassava, African Violet,

Procedures:
➢ Select a healthy leaf

➢ Use a razor blade / sharp knife to cut it off
➢ Insert the leaf stalk into a small pot containing some suitable soil
➢ Tiny new plant will be formed within 6 - 8 weeks
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation
Advantages Disadvantages
rapid rate of reproduction overcrowding may occur which leads to competition

for water, space & light
can retain desirable characters as offspring are no genetic variation occurs which decreases the
genetically identical to parent ability to adapt to changes in the surroundings
large food reserves are provided for daughter plants diseases of the parent plant are rapidly transmitted
to the offspring
does not involve external agents or another plant
UNIT 2: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
1. Identify the parts of a typical flower.

ANS:

petal
anther
stigma
filament
style
ovary
ovule
recepticle
sepal
2. Describe the functions of various parts of a flower

ANS:
3. Distinguish between two different types of pollination.
Ans : Self-pollination this is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower or different
flower of the same plant species while cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of
another plant of the same species.
Note self-pollinated flowers have the following characteristics

• Bisexual, hermaphrodite flowers, for example marigold
• Anthers and stigmas ripen at the same time e.g. tomatoes
• Flowers remain closed until fertilisation has taken place e.g. garden peas
• The flowers are buried in the ground e.g. groundnuts
4. Distinguish between wind and insect pollination
Wind-Pollinated Flower Insect-Pollinated Flower
• generally larger & conspicuous

• brightly coloured, often with insect-guide
• generally small & inconspicuous • nectaries often present at the base of
• green or dull coloured, or no petals at all flower which produces nectar
• no nectar • often strongly scented
• no scent • anthers found inside the flower
• anthers hanging out of the flower • stigma found inside the flower
• stigma is large & feathery, exposed for • having small number of pollen grains
catching pollen grains which are rougher & heavier with spikes
• having large number of pollen grains • flowers appear in warmer season
which are lighter & with smooth surface
• flowers sometimes appear in colder &
drier season
5. Describe the process of fertilization in flowers.

Ans: Fertilization
• fusion of male gamete & female gamete to form a zygote

Process
• pollen grain lands on a stigma and then secretes sugary solution

• stimulates the development of pollen tube which grows down the style & ovary
• secretes enzyme to digest a pathway through style
• liberates male gamete in ovary & fuse with egg cell
6. Investigate ways in which seeds and fruits are dispersed.

Seed and fruit- dispersal is mainly by water, wind, animals and self-mechanism.
7. Explain the adaptation of fruits and seeds to mode of dispersal.

Ans: Different types of dispersal:
• by animal
 possess spines & hooks which cling to animals’ fur
 protected by hard seed coat which resists the action of animals’ digestive juice after eaten
• by wind
 some fruits are light & have large surface area to catch wind
• others: by explosion, by water

8. Explain the importance of fruit and seed dispersal.
• Importance of dispersal: For plant propagation, plant preservation and survival
UNIT 3: REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
1. Describe the process of reproduction in a frog

Frogs reproduce in water, male frogs call to attract females. It induces the female to release her eggs in water and the
male frog releases the sperms over the eggs. This is called external fertilisation because it takes place outside the
females’ body.
2 Identify male and female reproductive organs in human beings.
Ans:
oviduct (fallopian tube)
bladder
seminal vesicle
sperm duct
uterus ovary urethra prostrate gland

(womb)
erectile
cervix tissue
vagina
testis
penis
scrotum
2. Explain the functions of the different organs of the human reproductive system
Ans:
FALLOPIAN TUBES(OVIDUCT) The fallopian tubes are about 12 cm long and have ends that are funnel shaped. These
ends collect the egg after ovulation. Cilia and peristalsis move the egg along the tube. The egg will die in the tube if it is
not fertilised.
UTERUS: The uterus, also known as the womb, is made of involuntary muscle. It is lines with the endometrium. This
lining thickens with cells and blood every month. This happens in order to nourish the embryo (if present).
CERVIX: The opening of the uterus is called the cervix. The cervix separates the vagina from the uterus
VAGINA: The vagina is a muscular tube which allows the sperm to enter the female as well as the baby to exit. It is lined
with mucous secreting cells.
URETHRA The urethra opens near the vagina. The vagina is protected by folds of skin called the vulva. The hymen
partially blocks the entrance of the vagina. It is broken by sexual intercourse or with the use of tampons
3. Describe the biological changes associated with sexual development in human beings
At puberty, oestrogen causes the primary female sexual characteristics of the growth of the sex organs.
At puberty both oestrogen and progesterone cause the secondary female characteristics. They include:
a. The enlargement of the breasts

b. Widening of the hips
c. Increased body fat
d. Growth of public and underarm hair
e. General growth spurt in height
Male secondary sexual characteristics included:
1. hair growth on the face, underarm, chest and pubic region
2. enlarged larynx producing a deeper voice
3. wider shoulders
4. greater skeletal muscular development
5. growth in height and weight
4. Describe the menstrual cycle.
Ans: The menstrual cycle occurs every 28 days from puberty to menopause (the end of the female’s reproductive life). It
occurs only if fertilisation of the egg has not taken place.
The typical events of the menstrual cycle are:
Day 1 to day 5-
a. The endometrium breaks down and is shed from the body. This is called menstruation.
b. Meiosis occus in the ovary to produce a new egg surrounded by the Graafian follicle.
Day 6 to day 13-
a. Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle. Oestrogen also stimulates the endometrium to thicken again. One
Graafian follicle with one egg develops.
b. Oestrogen stimulates the production of LH (leuteinising hormone)
Day 14-
a. The surge of LH stimulates ovulation.

b. The egg enters the funnel of the Fallopian tube. It can be fertilised for the next 48 hours.

Day 15 to day 26-
b. The corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from the remains of the Graafian follicle. This produced progesterone
and some oestrogen. The progesterone causes the endometrium to continue to thicken. It also prevents new eggs
from forming.
c. The egg that was released at day 14 will die if it is not fertilised.
d. If fertilisation did not take place the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
Day 26 to day 28-
a. Oestrogen and progesterone levels decline.

b. The endometrium begins to break down.
c. Day one of the cycle begins.
5. Explain the processes of fertilisation and implantation in human beings.
Ans: Copulation is also called coitus or sexual intercourse. During this process the penis moves into the vagina in order
to deposit semen which contains sperm cells. The depositing of the semen is called insemination.
FERTILISATION ( EVENTS OF FERTILISATION)
a. After insemination the sperm will move up the Fallopian tubes.

b. If ovulation has occurred and an egg is present the egg will release a chemical that attracts the sperm.
This is called chemotaxis.
c. The sperm that reaches the egg will use an enzyme in its acrosomes to make an opening in the membrane
of the egg.
d. Once one sperm enters the egg (only the head enters) the egg forms a membrane that prevents other
sperm from entering.
e. The nucleus of the egg fuses with the nucleus of the egg. A diploid zygote forms.
f. Fertilisation may take place during days 11-16 of the menstrual cycle.

IMPLANTATION
About 6-9 days after fertilisation the fertilised egg becomes embedded into the lining of the uterus. The zygote has now
become an embryo. A membrane called the amnion develops around the ebbryo. This membrane will secrete amnion
fluid which surrounds and protects the embryo
6. Identify causes of infertility in human beings

Ans:
MALE INFERTILITY
The most common cause of male infertility is the low production of sperm. There are many causes of low sperm
production. Stress, alcohol and drug abuse, high temperature of the testes, and low testosterone production are all
causes
FEMALE INFERTILITY
Female infertility is the inability to conceive either by fertilisation failure or implantation failure. Egg cell formation or
ovulation may not occur due to a hormone imbalance. The egg cell may not be able pass to the uterus due to blockage
of the Fallopian tubes. Treatment with hormones may be successful. In-vitro fertilisation and implantation is often
used to treat female infertility.
7. Describe development of the embryo in the uterus.
EARLY DEVELOPMET OF THE ZYGOTE
1. The zygote divides many times by cleavage (increase in the number of cells by division but no overall increase in
size) to double its cell number. A solid clump of about 100 cells called the morula is formed.
2. About 5 days after fertilisation the morula develops into a hollow ball called a blastocyst. The outer cells of the
blastocyst form the trophoplast. This will become the membranes around the embryo. The inner cells, called the inner
mass will become the embryo.
3. The blastocyst is pushed down the fallopian tube and into the uterus for implantation.
DEVELOPMET OF THE EMBRYO (higher level)
The mesoderm cells further develop into the muscles and blood, the endoderm develops into the digestive tract and
lungs, and the ectoderm develops into the skin, nerves and brain.
The Gestation period is the length of time from fertilisation to birth. In humans it is generally 266 days (38
weeks/9months)
8. Describe health risks associated with foetal development

Ans: Health Risks: Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol and drugs/ herbal medicines during pregnancy
9. Describe healthy pregnancy and safe child birth

Ans: Healthy pregnancy: Antenatal services, good nutrition, exercise, giving birth at a health facility
Birth Control
10. Explain some methods of birth control

• Method of birth control include mechanical (Condoms, IUDs) surgical, hormonal and natural
Describe the benefits and possible risks of using contraceptives
• Benefits and Risks of Contraceptives: Benefits: Planned families, Risks: side effects (Disturbed menstrual cycle, weight
gain, and hormonal imbalance
UNIT 4: GENETICS
Genetics: the study of how characters are transferred or inherited from one generation to the next
Variation in Plant and Animal Species
1. Describe terms used in the study of genetics

Terms used in the study of genetics:
 Gene: A gene is a short length of DNA on a chromosome which is a unit determining an inherited character
 Alleles: Alternative forms of genes on the same position of the homologous chromosomes which control the
same character but have different expressions
 Chromosome: Genetic materials found inside the nucleus of a cell
 Genotype - the genetic composition
 Phenotype - the external appearance
 Homozygous (pure-breeding)with the same alleles in the same character
 Heterozygous (hybrid) with different alleles
 Dominant gene (or character)
 which expresses its effect even in heterozygous condition
 Recessive gene (or character)
 which expresses its effect only in homozygous condition
• Pedigree
• it shows the inheritance of one or more characters in different generations
 Test cross
 cross the organism with dominant character to an organism with homozygous recessive character
 to test whether the organism with the dominant character is homozygous or heterozygous
• Back cross
– cross an organism with one of its parent
2. Describe the variations in human beings.
Variation: the differences between individuals of the same species
Variation in human being: Eye colour, skin colour, finger print, tongue rolling, height
Observe variations in flowering plants
• Variations in flowering plant: Fruit structure and scent, height (tall, dwarf. Include leaf size, shape, and weight).
3. Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations.

continuous variation
– with a continuous range of intermediate values

– eg. height, weight, intelligence quotient, heart beat
discontinuous variation
– the character is clear-cut & not showing intermediates

– eg. tongue rolling, ear lobes and colour of corn
4. Describe the factors that cause variations among plant and animals of the same species.
 Meiosis
 homologous chromosomes separate independently from each other and pass into a different gamete (
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT). As a result, a great variety of gametes are produced
• Random Fertilization
• since fertilization is a random process, there are many possible different combinations of genes in a
zygote
 Mutation
 genetic make-up may suddenly change
 sometimes occur naturally
 rate may greatly increased if the organism is exposed to radiation, certain chemicals or neutron
bombardment
 most mutation are harmful
• Environmental Factors
cause variation in characters with continuous variation Factors that cause variations include climatic factors, nutrition
and soils.
Cell Division and Chromosomes
5. Describe the stages of cell division.

First Meiotic Division
 Chromosomes become visible

 Nuclear membrane disappears
• Homologous chromosomes pair up (not in mitosis)
• Crossing-over (not in mitosis) may occur between homologous chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of cell randomly
• The 2 members of each homologous chromosome separate from each other and move towards the opposite
poles of the cell
• Nuclear membrane reforms
• Followed by cytoplasmic cleavage
Second Meiotic Division
• Separation of chromatids of each chromosome

• 4 daughter cells with half of the chromosome number of the parent cell are formed

• Occurrence of meiosis
• Plants: anthers and ovules
• Mammals: testes and ovaries
6. Explain the importance of mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Number of division 1 2
No. of daughter cells 2 4

produced
Type of cells produced Somatic (body) cells Gametes (sex cells)
Chromosome number of Same as parent cell Half of parent cell

daughter cells (diploid) (haploid)
Pairing of homologous No Yes

chromosomes
Occurrence Growing tissues Reproductive tissues

(gonads)
Role For growth and For gamete formation

replacement
 Produce haploid gametes which, after fertilization, can restore normal diploid conditions
 Produce genetic variations
Inheritance
7. Explain what a monohybrid inheritance is.

Monohybrid Inheritance:
• The inheritance of just one pair of contrasting characters

• Cross 2 pure breeding parents with contrasting characters
Demonstrate the inheritance of characteristics using the crossings

8. Explain the factors that determine the sex of a human being.
 in humans, sex is determined by sex chromosomes
 male : XY chromosomes
 female : XX chromosomes
• chromosomes other than sex chromosomes → somatic chromosomes which control normal body characters
• 22 pairs are identical in both sexes (human)
• autosomes
• The 23rd pair is different in male and female
• sex chromosomes
9. Explain the inheritance of sex linked characteristics.

Ans:All the genes carried on the sex chromosomes are transmitted along with those determining the sex of an organism-
a characteristics is sex linked if the gene that controls it is found on the X or Y chromosome. Examples of sex linked
characteristics in humans include red-green colour blindness, haemophilia and hairy ears
10. Describe the mechanism of ABO blood groups inheritance

Ans: The A, B, AB or O phenotype is determined by three alleles designated IA, IB and IO. IA and IB are both dominant to
IO, but IA and IB are co-dominant. Therefore individuals with alleles IA and IB will have AB blood group.
11. Describe what mutation is

Ans: Permanent changes in structure of chromosomes and genes
Identify the causes of mutation.
12. Explain effects of mutation

Ans: Causes of mutation: Natural radiation (nuclear emission, and x-rays, ultra-violet light.
13. Describe the uses of mutations
Ans: Uses of mutations: Induced mutation in Agriculture. (Polyploidy plants).
S
UNIT 5: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Classification:
Classification is the grouping of living organisms according to similar structures and functions.
Taxonomy: the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms
1. Identify various types of plants.
Ans: Types of plants: Chlorophytes (Algae), Bryophytes (mosses, ferns), coniferous plants and flowering plants
2. Identify various types of animals.
Ans: Types of mammals: reptiles, amphibians, birds, arthropods and protozoa.
3. Formulate a simple key for classification of plants and animals.
Ans: Simple key for classification is known as Dichotomous keys.

It is a tool used by biologists to identify an unknown organism
It is simply a series of paired statements of anatomical description that leads to an identification
4. Use a simple classification key to identify plants and animals.
Dichotomous key for identification of animals
 1. a) animal has a spine…………………..go to 2

b) animal has no spine………..…invertebrate
2. a) animal has no gills and fins……..…. go to 3
b) animal has gills and fins…………….. Fish
3. a) animal has no scales…………..........go to 4
b) animal has scales………………..….reptile
4. a) animal has feathers …………………..bird
b) animal has no feathers ……………..go to 5
5. a) animal has hair…………………….mammal

b) animal has no hair………………..amphibian
Dichotomous key for identification of plants
1a Fruits occur singly ....................................................... Go to 3
1b Fruits occur in clusters of two or more ......................... Go to 2
2a Fruits are round ....................................................... Grapes
2b Fruits are elongate ................................................... Bananas
3a Thick skin that separates easily from flesh .............Oranges
3b Thin skin that adheres to flesh .............................. Go to 4
4a More than one seed per fruit ............................ Apples
4b One seed per fruit ............................................ Go to 5
5a Skin covered with velvety hairs .................... Peaches
5b Skin smooth, without hairs ........................... Plums
UNIT 6: THE SOIL
1. Demonstrate soil composition. Ans: Soil composition: Air, micro-organism, soil particles, humus
2. Describe the types of soil and their properties.

Ans:Types and Properties of soil: types; Clay, Loam and sand soils
3. Describe factors that make soil fertile.
Ans: Factors that make soil fertile: Air, micro organisms, moisture, mineral elements, organic matter, pH
4. Investigate causes of loss of fertility in soil.
Ans:Causes of loss of fertility in soil: Deforestation, poor farming methods, late burning, overgrazing, leaching,
harvesting
5. Explain methods of improving and retaining soil fertility.
Ans:Methods of improving and retaining soil fertility: Suitable pH, weeding, application of fertiliser, crop rotation,
conservation farming

UNIT 7: ECOLOGY
Biotic and Abiotic Interactions
1. Explain the term ecology.

Ans: Ecology: is the study of relationships that organisms have with each other and their environment.
2. Explain the terms used in ecology
Ans:
 Habitat: the place where an organism lives An organism in any habitat is never an independent unit.
 Ecological niche: the function of an organism or the role it plays in the habitat.
 Population: a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area at a given time.
 Community: when different populations of plants and animals live together and interact within the same
environment
 Ecosystem: an ecological system formed by the interaction of living organisms and their non-living environment
(both biotic and abiotic factors)
 A functioning ecosystem uses both energy and materials (inorganic nutrients)
Feeding Relationships and Energy Flow
3. Design a food chain.

c. Ans:
14. Design a food web.

Ans:

15. Describe the way energy flows along food chains and food webs.
Ans:
Energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy that other organisms can eat as food. This means that it is
transferred through the entire food chain until it reaches the top most consumers.
16. Describe the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
Ans: In the process of being transferred from trophic level to another, energy is also lost. How does this take place?
other uses After an herbivore eats some food, it produces faeces. So the energy in the undigested food is not passed on
to the primary carnivores which are at the next trophic level. The remaining chemical energy /food is used by the
herbivore for a number of functions such as cellular respiration, tissue repair, body movement and cell division/ growth.
• The ratio of energy at one level compared to the next higher level is called the conversion efficiency.
• 10% as the average conversion efficiency from one trophic level to the next.
17. Construct pyramids of numbers, bio-mass and energy
Ans: Pyramids are graphic representations of the relative amounts of energy or matter at each trophic level. May be:
Energy Pyramid, Biomass Pyramid OR Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of Numbers: These allow you to compare the number of organisms present in each trophic level at a particular
time. They are usually upright but may be upside down.

Biomass Pyramid
This shows the amount of dry mass at each trophic level
Energy Pyramid
Pyramid of energy allows us to compare the amount of energy passing through each trophic level. They are always
upright.
Population
18. Explain the term population.

Ans: different species in a community.
19. Investigate factors that cause change in population size.

Ans: Factors that lead to changes include natural disasters, disease, immigration, emigration, and wars.
Carbon and Nitrogen, Water Cycles
20. Describe how carbon and nitrogen are cycled within an ecosystem.
Ans:

The carbon cycle
21. Describe what the water cycle is.

Ans:
sun
rain
transpiration
evaporation
impervious
rock layer

22. Investigate key features of an ecosystem.
Ans: Features of an ecosystem: Community and Non-living part of environment (Use a pond as an example).
23. Explain the effects of Agriculture on an ecosystem.

Ans: leads to water, soil and air pollution.
24. Describe the effects of deforestation on soil stability and climate
Ans: Effects of deforestation: Soil erosion, global warming
Pollution
25. Describe the undesirable effects of pollution.

Ans: Undesirable effects of pollution on water, air and land
26. Determine measures to prevent pollution

Ans: Measures to prevent pollution: waste management. Use of filters in chimneys. Include the conversion of sulphur
dioxide to sulphuric acid by passing it through a tank of water
Conservation
27. Identify the importance of conserving plant and animal species.

Ans: Importance of conserving plant and animal species is that it helps to maintain biodiversity and also helps to prevent
endangered species from going into extinction
28. Explain how to reuse, reduce and recycle materials.

Ans: 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
29. Investigate the importance of sustainable use of resources

Ans: Sustainable use of resources: Avoid deforestation, over fishing, over hunting; encourage game keeping
BIO-DIVERSITY
Investigate diversity of organisms in a given locality.
1. Investigate the importance of diversity of organisms in given locality

Ans: equilibrium of organisms in the ecosystem
2. Explain how some organisms are adapted to the environment

Ans: adaptive characteristics of fish, insects, mammals and plants.
3. Investigate the impact of human activity on organisms

Ans: Impact of human activities on organisms: Refer to hunting, fishing, and charcoal production. Also refer to the
threatened extinction of the African elephant.
4. Describe the economic reasons for maintaining bio-diversity.

Ans:for tourism, medicinal plants and animal, source of food


BIOLOGY MADE EASY - Copy-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIOLOGY MADE EASY - Copy-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIOLOGY MADE EASY - Copy-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FOR GRADES 10, 11 AND 12

ANDREW SAKALA-BIOLOGY TUTOR

FOR MORE INFOR CONTACT-0965804907

ALSO AVAILABLE IN STORE ARE:

ENGLISH P1 MADE EASY

MATHS MADE EASY

SCIENCE MADE EASY

Contains Past Examination Questions and Answers from Different Papers.

“Conceive, Believe and Achieve”

1|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

Which cells are able to move on their own.

4.The diagram below shows a cell taken from a leaf of a plant.

Which of the labelled parts make up the protoplasm?

2|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

6.The diagram below shows a cell taken from a leaf of a plant.

3|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

(a) List and identify the functions of structures labelled A and B.

(a) Identify the parts labelled A and B.

4|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

(a) Identify the cells X and Y and structure labelled Z.

(b) What are the functions of the cells labelled X and Y.

5|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

13. The figure below shows an experiment on osmosis.

6|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

(a) (i) Identify the parts labelled A and B. [2]

(d) Describe how magnification is determined when using a microscope. [2]

2017 GCE BIOLOGY P2

7|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

1.The diagram below shows the skull of an animal.

3.Below are the enzymes that digest proteins in man.

8|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

5.The diagram below shows the breakdown of a food substance.

What is substance Y and enzyme Z?

2010 BIOLOGY P1 Q10

Identify enzyme K and products M and L.

Enzyme K Product M Product L

9|Page BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

7.The diagram below shows the digestive system of a human being.

(I) Fats [4]

(ii) Proteins [4]

10 | P a g e BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

10.The diagram below shows the human digestive system.

(a) Select the letter where

(c) State the roles of the liver in

11 | P a g e BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

(ii) Explain the role of bile salts in digestion?

(d) Name 2 common ailments of structure C.

12 | P a g e BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

2. Why is light important for photosynthesis, it provides

Carbon dioxide Concentration Temperature / o C

4. The process that can reduce the rate of photosynthesis is

13 | P a g e BIOLOGY MADE EASY BY ANDREW SAKALA 0965804907

5. The diagram below shows a longitudinal section through the phloem.

Name a substance that is Conducted across the sieve plates

6. The diagram below shows an experiment to investigate photosynthesis

Under what conditions would the plant produce most bubbles?

Dissolved Carbon dioxide Light Temperature

A. Present Bright Warm