CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS

TABLE OF CONTENT

UNIT -1 : Socio-Economic Structures

a) Capitalism
b) Socialism
c) Colonialism and Neo-Liberalism

UNIT – 2 : Discourses on Nationalism

Civic and Ethnic Nationalisms, Ideological Basis of Anti-Colonial

Nationalism (Gandhi, Mao, Frantz Fanon and Amilcar Cabral)

UNIT – 3 : Constitutionalism

Evolution of the Idea of Constitutionalism, Post-Colonial

Constitutionalism

UNIT – 4 : Federalism

Historical Context Federation and Confederation: Debates

Around Territorial Division of Power

UNIT – 5 : State and Regime Types

Capitalist, Welfare, Populist and Security State

UNIT – 6 : Electoral System

Definition and Procedures: Types of Electoral Systems (First Past

the Post, Proportional Representation, Mixed Representation

UNIT – 7 : Party System

Historical Contexts of Emergence of Political Parties, Types of

Parties and Party Systems
CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 1

Q-1 Define Capitalism. Do you agree that globalization is the face of modern
capitalism ? Elucidate.

Or

Globalization has affected the political processes of the nation-state. Discuss.

Answer - Introduction

During the early Renaissance, capitalism originated in the 15th and 16th centuries
. However, evidence of the capitalist system is also found in ancient civilizations. The
Industrial Revolution of the 18th century established capitalism as a dominant
mode of production, characterized by the division of 'work' and 'labour' in the
factory. Through the process of globalization, capitalism spread across the world
in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Simple meaning of Capitalism:

Capitalism: It is called that system or economic

system in which the means of production are owned
by some special people (capitalists), in which the main
objective of production is to obtain maximum profit.

Definition of capitalism according to different thinkers -

According to Adam Smith – Smith wrote in his book "The Wealth of Nations" in 1976
that in the capitalist system trade and industry are mainly operated for profit by private
individuals or companies. In this, competition and free market are of prime importance.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 2

According to Karl Marx – Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of

production are owned by the capitalists, while the working class is forced to sell its labour
power. This system is exploitative and gives rise to social inequality and class conflict.

According to G.D.H. Kohl, Capitalism is a system of production for profit under which
the equipment and materials of production are owned individually. And production is
mainly done by wage workers.

Modern Capitalism :

Modern capitalism, where private companies are free to make profits, can make more
profit through trading and investing in global markets. As a result, globalization gets
a boost. In modern capitalist economies, companies try to sell their products and
services not only in their own country, but all over the world.

1. For example, Apple ) : This is an American company that designs

its products in the US, manufactures their components in China and
other countries, and sells them all over the world. This reduces the
company's cost of production and helps them strengthen their
presence in the global market.

2. For example, a car company Toyota : Its parts are made in various
countries - engines in Japan, seats in Thailand, and electronics in
Germany. Then all these parts are combined to form the final product.
This allows companies to produce at different locations for the best
quality and cost.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 3

Globalization

Globalization is the Pattern of Modern Capitalism :

Yes, globalization can be considered the counterpart of modern capitalism.

Globalization and modern capitalism are closely intertwined, and the two
reinforce each other.

1. Globalization as Modern Capitalism :

Globalization is a complex and widespread process that has affected

various aspects of the global society and economy. Modern capitalism has
expanded international trade. This has led to an increase in global trade and
strengthened economic ties between different countries. Such neo-liberal
policies were adopted by most countries around the world in the 1990s
and became the dominant ideology of the new world economy.

2. Market Expansion :

Globalization has given an unprecedented boost to international markets,

giving companies the unique opportunity to sell their products and
provide services globally. As a result of this, companies have succeeded in

spreading their business activities beyond borders. Now companies are no

longer dependent on local markets, but they are providing their products
and services in markets across the world .

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 CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 4

3. Technological Development and Globalization :

Technological development has played a very important role in modern

capitalism. Globalization has accelerated the spread of technology,
making production processes more efficient and profitable. For example,
the Internet and communication technologies have made business
transactions simpler and faster.

4. Global expansion of global economic institutions :

In the 1990s, global financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF
(International Monetary Fund) promoted certain principles. These principles
were called the "Washington Conventions", and included permanence,
privatization, liberalism. Due to these policies, neo-liberal capitalism spread
to those countries of the world which were earlier far from them.

Impact of Globalisation on Political Responses of the Nation-State:

1

1 loss of state sovereignty:

In the era of globalization, the rise of international institutions, para-national organizations and global
pressure groups has weakened the policy-making capacities of states. U.N.Institutions like WTO, IMF
have exercised significant influence on the economic and social policies of states. In addition,
international social movements and NGOs have also begun to press national policies, forcing states to
strike a balance between their civil society and global demands.

2 Economic autonomy and globalization:

According to Kin'ichi Ohme, the nation-state has become an unnatural and dysfunctional entity in
controlling economic activity. The proliferation of global supply chains, multinationals, and financial
markets has weakened control over states' economic policies.
1

3 Changes in political and social structures:

Suzanne Strange has pointed out that the declining authority of the state has led to changes in political
and social structures. The state has now become part of various international and regional networks and

cooperatives, reducing their traditional role and jurisdiction.

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 CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 5

4 Technological development and the role of the state:

According to Robert Gilpin, the impact of globalization is the result of technological development.
Technological development has changed international relations and trade, which has also changed the
role of the state. States have adapted their policies according to these technological changes.

5 Transformational view of globalization:

According to David Held and Anthony Emsigrieve, globalization has transformed institutions, the
use and distribution of power. They believe that under globalisation, the state is likely to become
powerful in some areas and lose authority in some areas.

Evalutaion

Starting with the early Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century established
capitalism as a dominant economic system. Globalization in the 19th and 20th centuries spread it
around the world, leading to an unprecedented expansion of international trade and
investment. Globalization and capitalism are deeply intertwined and reinforce each other.
Globalization has expanded markets, fueled technological development, and increased the
influence of global economic institutions. It has challenged the sovereignty of states and
brought about changes in their economic and political structures. Modern capitalism has
strengthened global economic relationships through technological advances and international
trade, making global markets and companies more deeply interconnected.

Conclusion

Finally, we can say that globalization is a replica of modern capitalism because it

promotes the free flow of capital, goods, services, and labor on a global scale. These
lead to the global spread of capitalist principles, which intertwines globalization and
capitalism.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 6

Q. 2 – What do you understand by socialism? Critically analyse the reasons for

the rise and fall of socialism.
Answer – Introduction
From a comparative perspective in the
world, socialism emerged as an economic
system as an alternative to the capitalist
system, in the stages of whose development
Marxism, Leninism, Maoism etc. were
understood and tested, its main objective was
to create a more equal society. But despite initial success, the Soviet Union's socialist
system failed due to its internal weaknesses and external challenges.
Sociolism

Socialism is one of the modern political ideologies, in which the control of the
resources of production is based on collective or government ownership. It is
a socio-economic philosophy as well as a political theory and a social
movement.

Socialism according to thinkers : -

"Socialism is that policy or principle which aims at the distribution of the superior tax of
wealth and the production of wealth by subjecting it to a system practiced by a
democratic central authority." " Wacker Coker

"Socialism means control over all the basic means of property. This control will not be by
any one section of socialism but by the society itself and will be gradually established in
an orderly manner. ” Bernard Show

Major Causes of Rise of Socialism

Socialism in Western
Utopian Socialism Scientific Socialism
Political Thought

Under this, socialism is associated Karl Marx used the term "Utopian" "Scientific socialism" originates from

with political thinkers like Plato, for socialists. It deals with the socialist ideology propounded by

Karl Marx and Engels , his

Socrates, Plato's work "The establishing an exploitation-free
"Communist Manifesto" depicts the
Republic" (380 BC) included socialist system by critiquing
social class struggle.
socialism in the ideal state. contemporary reality.

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 CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 7

Major Causes of Rise of Socialism

The rise and development of socialism took place as a reaction against the
individualistic and monarchical system, which has been important for equality and
just system since ancient times, the stages of whose rise are explained as follows -
1. Socialism in Western Political Thought : In this, the rise of socialism begins with
the ideas of Plate, in which Plato prohibited property and family for the first two classes
of his ideal state, the ruling and military classes.
• Plato gave the idea of the termination of property and family in "The Republic" (380 BC).

• Sir Thomas Moore's "Utopia" (1516) advocated the abolition of private property and equal
rights.

• After the French (1789) and industrial revolutions, socialism emerged as a society based on

equality and cooperation.

2. In utopian socialism Socialism emerged in the 19th century, which was described
in detail by Jerome Blankie in his work 'History of Political Economy' (1839). The
main promoters of this socialist stream were Robert Owen, Charles Fourie, and St.
Simone.
1. Political thinkers during the 19th century were given the idea of getting
the facility of the person according to his ability as a social worker.

• The father of British socialism, Robert Owen (1771-1858), was a successful

industrialist, social worker and reformer, who presented his ideas related to
society in A New View of Society (in 1813).

3. In Scientific Socialism : The rise of socialism was a developmental process from

utopian socialism to scientific socialism, with progress toward an ethical and
idealistic scientific outlook.

• During this time the works of Karl Marx and Engels established socialism as a systematic
theory that inspired labor movements and social reforms on a global scale.

• Utopian socialists thought of establishing ideal communities with emphasis on economic

equality and eradication of social discrimination which encouraged socialism.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 8

The main reasons for the rise of socialism in the former Soviet Union

Socialist Background

Opposition to dictatorial
rule
Revolution of 1917

Role of the Bolshevik Party

The Soviet Union was founded with the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which socialism
was established by removing the rule of the Tsar, for which the events responsible are

as follows :

1. Socialist Background : During the monarchy system in Russia,

there was economic exploitation of workers and peasants, more
tax was taken from the peasants, which aroused the spirit of revolt
among the workers and peasants, which promoted socialist ideology in the Soviet
Union.

2. Opposition to dictatorial rule : Citizens were treated

discriminatorily because of the autocratic monarchy. During the
reign of Tsar Nicholas I, this despotism reached its peak which
further intensified the discontent. The 1905 shooting of Russian workers sparked
demonstrations against the Tsar.

3. Revolution of 1917 : In Soviet Union Russia, significant socialist

revolutions took place in February 1917 and October 1917 in
opposition to the dictatorial rule of the Tsar, which led to the removal
of monarchical system and the establishment of a socialist government.

4. Role of the Bolshevik Party : This party played a central role in

promoting socialism in the Soviet Union, whose main leader
Vladimir Lenin gave the slogan "Workers of the world unite".

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 9

Critical analysis of the major causes of the fall of socialism

1. Lack of utopian and scientific socialism : Under these, the effort to provide
facilities to the people of the society to the best of its potential was difficult to reach
in reality and economic reforms and political systems failed, resulting in a decrease in
its implementation and the attraction of socialism among the people to socialism,

which weakened socialism.

2. Inclination towards religion : In the Soviet Union, Marxist ideology had almost
eliminated spiritual thinking among the people, but due to contact with the outside
world, people's contact with other religions increased, which increased their religious
attachment, which again ended Marxist or socialist thinking.
3. Authoritarian rule : In socialism, resources could not be used properly for all, due
to which its systems faced situations like dictatorship and excessive control, and justice
could not be properly delivered to the people, due to which the trust and support for
socialism among the people decreased.
4. Lack of democracy : Socialism consists of government control over resources,
including lack of freedom of expression, excessive control of the government, and
restrictions on political groups and government authority over information, leading to
a lack of democracy, which led to a decrease in the attachment to socialism within the
masses and it went on to decline.
6. Lack of socialism in Soviet Union Russia : The Soviet Union was the greatest
supporter of Russian socialism, in which various conditions encouraged socialism, but
liberal policies such as perestroika and glasnost, excessive government control,
excessive military spending, weakness of leadership, etc. weakened socialism.
Conclusion: Thus socialism emerged as an alternative to capitalism, which contributed
significantly to the promotion of social equality by eliminating dictatorial rule and class
struggle, but excessive government control in socialism again promoted dictatorial
tendencies, which reduced the attachment of people to socialism, which led to the
decline of socialism.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 10

Q. 3 – Define colonialism. Examine different factors leading to the process of

decolonization.

Answer – Introduction

Colonialism is a type of economic and social

system in which one country is subordinate to
another country or has its privilege.
Decolonialism is against colonialism, where the
country remains committed to its
independence and security. Both the above
factors have created the center of disputes and conflicts in history. This process plays
an important role in the autonomy and development of countries.

Meaning of colonialism: Colonialism is the process in which a nation takes control

of other territories for its economic, social, and cultural advantage, which it knows as
colonization or colonization. In this process, the resources of the external nation are
used and developed.
Definition of Colonialism
Colonialism is a system in which one country or power establishes political, economic,
and cultural control over another country or region and exploits it for its own benefit.
In this process the resources, labour, and market of the colonized country are used to
increase the prosperity and power of the colonized country.
Meaning of decolonization: The process by which colonial powers are removed from
the territories under their control, thereby giving independence and self-government

to the colony, is called Decolonization.

Definition of Decolonization
Decolonization is the study that analyses the effects of colonialism on countries and
societies after it. It looks at how culture, identity, and power relations change in a post-
colonial world.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 11

Examine of the main factors of De-Colonization

1. Weakening of De-colonization : The weakening of

colonialism led to the rise of decolonization as it generated
interest for independence and autonomy for new nations.
• The demand for independence grew in the colonized areas,
which motivated them to move forward in support of decolonialism. His self-
confidence grew, which inspired him to fight for freedom and national dignity.
• They sought their self-sufficiency, and struggled to achieve freedom from foreign

interference. Movements against injustice grew, which aided in the defense of

freedom and human rights.

2. Anti-imperialist movement : The anti-imperialist

movement promoted de-colonialism. Through this there was a
unified movement in the colonized territories, which raised a
strong voice against foreign rule.

• This increased the demand for privatization and increased the colonized territories'
demand for their own economic control and independence.
• Simultaneously, the movement promoted national integration and universally
highlighted the importance of freedom.

3. Impact of World War II : World War II (1939-1945) was

an important event in the rise of decolonialism. In this war
period various nations demanded their independence and
struggled for independence.

• The anti-imperialist movement generated a unified movement in various colonized

territories, which inspired them to fight together against the foreign rule.
• For example, during this time India gained independence from Britain in 1947,
the Philippines from the colonies of the United States in 1946 .

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 12

4. Economic burden on superpowers : The superpowers had

to face many economic problems in forming their colonies.
These included heavy economic burdens, high debt, economic
inequality, lack of economic growth, and instability and
economic recession.

• These problems challenged the superpowers to lead their colonies on the path to
prosperity and equality.
• For example, France liberated its colonized country of Vietnam in 1954.

5. Struggle for Independence : It abolished colonization and

promoted de-colonization.. The reason for this was that the
nations struggling for independence rebelled for their self-
sufficiency and independence, so that they could get freedom
from colonial rule.

• Thus, the demand for independence weakened colonization and fueled

colonialism, and these conflicts helped many African colonies gain independence
by 1960.
• The termination of the Portuguese colonies from 1970-1974, the dissolution of the
Soviet Union from 1975 to 1991.

Conclusion: Countries pursued decolonization by dealing with the economic pressures

of colonialism, independence struggles, and imperialist movements. This helped in
independence and development.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 13

Q. 4 – What makes the Gandhian notion of nationalism stand out, from the other
discourses of nationalism?

Answer – Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent nationalist

thinker who fought for Indian independence
through truth, non-violence, and harmony in
his unparalleled struggle . He also adopted
nationalism from a social reformer and

religious point of view. According to his

nationalist ideas, the nation develops through prosperity, social justice, and self-
reliance. Gandhiji's thoughts emphasized the importance
of truth, non-violence, and harmony, which makes his
nationalism different from other writings.
Gandhian concept of Nationalism : Gandhi's nationalism
was special because he manifested it in his works rather than
in simple academic definitions. His political outlook was
inspired by his personal experiences and experiments.
From this, his nationalism became non-theoretical and
actionable, which helped him to realize his ideals with truth during the five-decade.

Briefly highlight the three main elements of Gandhi's nationalism.

1) Swarajya : Swarajya for Gandhiji meant the establishment of social and economic
justice with self-control and freedom. His aim was that power should be controlled by
the people, so that freedom and equality in society could be respected.
2) Communal Harmony : According to Gandhiji, communal unity plays an important
role in the development and prosperity of the nation. He talked about creating a
prosperous and inclusive society through diversity and tolerance.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 14

3) Non-violence: The path of non-violence was most important for Gandhiji. He

believed that non-violence is a major social and economic force against violence and
intolerance. He used non-violence to manifest the power of truth, love, and goodwill.

While analysing the characteristics and concepts emerging in Gandhiji's

nationalism, a clear difference is visible, which makes him different
from other nationalisms.

1. The prominence of social harmony : The importance of

social harmony was highly recognized in Gandhiji's

nationalism. For this, he presented excellent ideas against

the divisive elements of religion, caste and society.
2. Importance of Non-Violence : Non-violence was given an
important place in Gandhiji's nationalism. He encouraged
the use of non-violent means based on the philosophy of
non-violence in thought, action and action. It meant that
violence should not be used for freedom, but change should be brought about
through truth and non-violence.

3. Secular Society : Gandhiji's nationalism reinforced the

importance of secularism. He promoted the principle of
equality and respect for all religions and tried to unite the
society by standing upright against disputes related to religion.

4. Gandhi’s Communal Harmony : Gandhiji's nationalism

believed in the importance of communal harmony,
including the marginalized in society. His vision was that
society should be built through diversity and tolerance.

5. Inclusion of social masses : Gandhiji tried to organize

every section and community of the society inclusively, so

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 15

that a unified nation could be built and everyone could benefit equally with
prosperity.

6. Nations in Civilization : Gandhi saw the nation as a

civilization, blessed with people of diverse races and
religions. He encouraged tolerance and diversity.
7. Public activism : Gandhi's nationalism led the masses
to active participation, which led to a significant
change in the Indian independence movement.

Conclusion : Gandhiji's nationalism enhanced the importance of social harmony, non-

violence, secularism, and communal harmony. He emphasized the importance of unity
and cooperation of society.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 16

Q. 5 - Define constitutionalism and describe its historical development.

Answer – Introduction

Constitutionalism is an important political

theory that provides the fundamental basis for
the organization and operation of modern
states. With this in mind, constitutionalism
establishes a balance between different
branches of governance and protects
individual rights. This is critical to the authoritarian and federalistic dynamics of
political systems, which help build a structured and secure society.

Meaning of Constitutionalism : Constitutionalism refers to a political philosophy or

approach that emphasizes the importance of a constitution to govern a nation since
constitution is an important document of laws and rules that help in governing a nation
uniformly.

Major definitions of constitutionalism: -

• According to John Locke, - Constitutionalism, according to Locke,

entails a government that operates within the bounds of a
constitution, protecting natural rights and promoting the common
good.
• According to John Marshall, - Marshall, Chief Justice of the U.S.
Supreme Court, interpreted constitutionalism as judicial review,
empowering the courts to assess the constitutionality of government

actions.
Historical Development of Constitutionalism
Ancient Origin

Medieval and Renaissance Developments

Enlightenment and the Social Contract

Formation of Modern Constitutionalism

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 17

1. Ancient Origin : The ancient origins of

constitutionalism can be traced back to ancient
civilizations. The Code of Hammurabi in Mesopotamia
(circa 1754 BC) established a series of laws, based on the
principles of justice and equality. In ancient Greece, the
city-state of Athens shaped constitutional ideas.

• The system of democracy that emerged in Athens in the 5th century BC

reflected early forms of constitutional governance, emphasizing civic participation
and the rule of law.
• The reforms by the famous Athenian constitution called Solon and the
democratic system of Athens attempted to remove social and economic
inequalities and emphasize civic participation and the rule of law.

2. Medieval and Renaissance Developments :

Constitutionalism underwent significant development in
the medieval and Renaissance periods.

• Magna Carta (1215): This document, signed by King

John of England, limited royal rights and established the principle that the king is
also subject to the law.
• Model Parliament (1295): King Edward I of England convened a House of
Representatives, which included not only the nobility but also the common people,
thereby strengthening the idea of representative institutions.
• Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights (1689): In England, after the coup of King

James II, William and Mary signed the Bill of Rights, which established
parliamentary supremacy and limited royal powers.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 18

3. Enlightenment and the Social Contract : The

Enlightenment era and social compromise characterized
by intellectual change in the 17th and 18th centuries had
a profound impact on the development of
constitutionalism –

• Montesquieu: In his work The Spirit of the Laws” (1748), he presented the theory
of separation of powers, which served as a protection against tyranny.
• John Locke: In “Two Treatises of Government” (1689), he emphasized social
contract and natural rights, in which individuals sacrifice certain powers in order to
form a government.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: "The Social Contract" (1762), he presented the concept
of the common will, in which legitimate political power arises from the collective
will of the people.
• American and French Revolutions: Enlightenment principles inspired the U.S.
Constitution (1787) and the French Revolution (1789) during the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen, emphasizing individual rights and liberties.

4. Formation of Modern Constitutionalism : The

constitutional rise of the 19th century led to European
nations adopting written constitutions with democratic
principles and governmental boundaries.

• Major Constitutional Events: In Germany (1871), the Constitution of Bismarck

was adopted and the Constitutional Monarchy was adopted with a strong

executive and the Meiji Constitution by Japan established a constitutional

monarchy by combining traditional and Western ideas.
• Global Constitutional Developments: The United Nations (1945) and Human
Rights (1948) emphasized global human rights standards and new constitutions

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 19

emphasizing democratic governance and human rights were drafted after World
War II.
• 20th Century Civil Rights Movements : These movements influenced the
constitutional changes the Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. The main objective of
these movements was to highlight the issues of racial and gender inequality and
to contribute to wider constitutional rights.

Conclusion : Thus it can be said that constitutionalism has evolved from ancient to
modern times by giving constitutional form to various systems, which societies have
developed constitutional ideas in different eras, which helps in the understanding of
freedom, and their rights.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 20

Q. 6 – What do you understand by the federal system? Compare and contrast

various aspects of federalism in India and USA.
Answer – Introduction
In a federal system, power is distributed
between the central and state governments.
India and the US are prime examples of this
arrangement, but there are significant
differences in their federal structures. The
central government in India is more powerful
and can intervene over the states in special circumstances. State governments in the
US have more autonomy and can make their own laws and policies. Federal
government intervention is limited. Amending the U.S. Constitution is difficult.

Federalism : Federalism refers to a system of government in which the distribution of

power is divided between a central government and state or regional governments. Its

main objective is to establish a balanced and coordinated governance keeping in mind

the diversities of different regions and communities.

Definitions related to federalism :-

• According to Daniel Eljour, "Federal government is self-government and

participatory government." "
• According to Dicey, “In the federal government system, a balance is established
between the people's desire for centralization and decentralization because their
desire is for the creation of a union, not for the creation of unity.”
• According to Moore Forth, “The Union is a State of States.”

• The word federalism is derived from the Latin word "foedus", which means – mutual
agreement.

• Famous thinkers "Alexander Hamilton and James Madison" together created "The

Federalist Paper" (1788).

• After the First and Second World Wars, the form of federalism in the US expanded further,
with US President Ragin coining the slogan "neo-federalism" in the 1980s.

•
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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 21

Federal System in India

1. Distribution of Power: The Indian Constitution consists of three lists: the Union
List, the State List, and the Concurrent List. These lists clearly state which subjects
fall under the jurisdiction of the Central Government and the State Governments.
2. Status of the Constitution: The Indian Constitution is called a "rigid constitution"
because changing it requires a special procedure that involves a majority of both
houses of Parliament and the consent of the state legislatures.
3. Power of States: The centre is considered more powerful in the Indian federal
system. In special circumstances, the central government can intervene on state
governments, such as under President's rule (Article 356).
4. Linguistic and Cultural Diversity: States in India are formed mainly on linguistic
basis, which is characteristic of the federal structure.

Federal System in America

1. Constitutional Framework: The Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution lays

the foundation of federal principles, which state that powers that are not delegated
to the federal government remain with the states and the public.
2. Distribution of Power: Power in the US is clearly divided between the federal
government and the states. The powers of the federal government are limited to
only those subjects which are given in the constitution, all other powers are with
the states.
3. Status of the Constitution: The US Constitution is also a 'hard constitution', but it
is relatively difficult to amend. A complex process is followed at the federal level

for amendment.
4. Power of States: States are more autonomous in the US federal system. They can
govern their own law, justice system, and even tax system. Federal government
intervention is limited.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 22

5. Cultural Diversity: The formation of states in America is based on historical,

geographical and cultural factors, which strengthen the federal structure.

Major Differences Between US and India Federalism

1. Balance of Power: The central government in India is more powerful, whereas in the US,

the state governments enjoy more autonomy.

2. Flexibility of the Constitution: The Indian Constitution has more flexibility and the
amendment process is a bit easier, while the US Constitution is harder to amend.

3. Federal Interference: The central government in India has more power to intervene in the

affairs of the states, while in the US such interference is minimal.

4. Administrative Structure: There is more centralization in the Indian federal system,

whereas decentralization is more important in the US federal system.

Conclusion : Both India and the US present different models of federal systems. India

sees more centralization and control between the centre and the state, whereas in the
US the states are more autonomous and independent. These differences have arisen
as a result of the historical, social and political conditions of the two countries.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 23

Q. 7 – What is a Totalitarian Regime? Differentiate between authoritarianism and

totalitarian rule.

Answer – Introduction

Governance refers to the process and system

through which the rules, policies, and decisions
of the society are determined and implemented.
There are many systems of government, among
which democracy, authoritarianism, and
totalitarian rule are prominent. Each system
affects society and the lives of citizens in different ways.

Totalitarian rule : It is a political system in which the state has complete and

continuous control over all aspects of society. It is a form of modern dictatorship in

which power is concentrated in a single party. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,

Greater German Reich)

• Complete Control: The State has complete and continuous control over all spheres,

including personal life.

• Wide Publicity: Extensive propaganda and propaganda are used by the state, and there

is complete control over the media.

• Repression and Terror: Those who criticize or oppose the state are punished severely,

with terror and violence resorted to.

•
Authoritarianism rule: authoritarianism rule is a political system in which
centralization of power is in the hands of a few individuals or a small group. In this type

of government, individual freedom and political independence are limited. (China,

Jordan, Turkey)

• Centralization of Power: Power is concentrated at one centre, and it is often in the hands

of a leader or party.

• Lack of Political Freedom: Political freedom is limited and the opposition is suppressed.

• Publicity and Control: The media and means of communication are controlled by the

government, and they are used to promote its agenda.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 24

Difference Between Authoritarianism and Totalitarian Rule

To elaborate the main differences between totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, we

can keep the following aspects in mind :

1. Status of legitimacy: In totalitarian regimes, the position of legitimacy is often in

favor of the government whereas, in authoritarian regimes, the status of legitimacy

is more fair and determined through the justice system.

2. Limits of Power : In totalitarian rule, the limits of power are unchecked by the

government whereas, in authoritarian rule, the limits of power are determined by

the constitution or laws.

3. Status of Political Parties : In a totalitarian regime, the sovereignty of power is of

a single party or individual whereas, in an authoritarian regime, several political

parties have a conflicting position.

4. Status of Ideology: In a totalitarian regime, the government often encourages its

own ideas and currents whereas, in an authoritarian regime, freedom of ideology

is high and different views are supported.

5. Position of Judiciary: In a totalitarian regime, the position of the judiciary is often

in favor of the government whereas, in an authoritarian regime, the judiciary is

independent and attempts to ensure the naturalness of justice.

6. System of civil liberties : In a totalitarian regime, no one has the right to challenge

the ruling person or party, whereas in an authoritarian regime, no one has the right

to challenge the prevailing beliefs and the authority associated with them.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 25

Evaluation

There are several important differences between totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.
Power in a totalitarian regime holds sovereignty in the hands of a single party or

individual, whereas the sovereignty of power in an authoritarian regime is a conflict

between different political parties. In totalitarian regime, the government encourages

unity of ideology whereas, in authoritarian regime, freedom of ideology is high. The

position of the judiciary also differs in totalitarian and authoritarian rule, where in
totalitarian rule the judiciary is in favor of the government, whereas in authoritarian rule
the judiciary is independent.

Conclusion : Totalitarian regimes try to control both public and private aspects of life,
whereas authoritarian regimes are unable to try to control every aspect of life.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 26

Q. 8 – What do you understand by Electoral System? Discuss merits and demerits of first
pas1 the post system.

Answer – Introduction
Election system is a process in which people
regularly select their leaders by voting. Through ELECTORAL SYSTEM
this system, representatives are elected to
government positions, whereby people are
represented in the government . The electoral
system is the basic element of democracy which
gives the people the right to select the government. The election process is a means
of expressing public opinion about candidates and incorporating the voice of the
society into government decisions.

Electoral System : Electoral system is a system in which the public is given the
right to vote at regular intervals, so that they can choose their representatives
or government officials. It is an important democratic process which is
considered as the fundamental stream of democracy.

According to Duvergel, the “FIRST PAST THE POST system” encourages the
development of relatively stable political systems between two major parties.

First Past the Post System: The "First Past the Post" (FPTP) system means that
only the candidate who gets the first votes in the constituency is elected to win
the election. In this system, the candidate who gets the most votes is elected
even if he or she does not get a majority of the overwhelming votes.

• In this system, a candidate needs at least 50% + 1 vote out of the total
votes.
• This system is used in the U.S.A., Canada, and India.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 27

Some Important Features of First Past the Post (FPTP) System

1. Simplicity : The FPTP system is a simple and clear system in which voters have a
direct option to vote for their preferred candidate.
2. Stability: This system enhances the stability of elections as the winning candidate
needs to get the highest number of votes and not a majority.
3. Lack of inefficiency: Winning seats in the FPTP system requires at least 50%+1
votes, which does not require a simple majority.
4. People's Rights : This system makes the people direct and authoritative in
choosing the government, because the winning candidate is selected on the basis
of the maximum number of votes.
5. Clarity : The system allows the voters to clearly express the choice of the
candidates.

Some disadvantages of First Past the Post (FPTP) system

1. Unfair representation of majorities : The FPTP system often uses single-member

constituencies, which overwhelms majority support in any particular area. As a
result, the representation of small parties and minorities decreases and the
representation of large parties increases.
2. Lack of majority : In the FPTP system, the winning candidate needs a majority
alone, so that many times the candidate who gets the most votes is not even able
to gain the seat.
3. Compulsions and Neglect : In the FPTP system, there is an obligation to move
the same party or candidate in certain areas, thereby reducing the diversity of

views.
4. Impact of type of voting : In the FPTP system, many times voters do not have
unfair choices to other questions, because they are motivated to vote directly for
the candidate.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 28

5. Social inequality : In the FPTP system, it often happens that small parties or
communities with less population are under-represented, while large parties or
communities with a majority of population are over-represented.

Conclusion

Various electoral systems can be studied to address the defects of the FPTP system.
Each system has its advantages and demerits, but some systems increase the
likelihood of delivering better results in terms of equilibrium, representation, and social
adjustment.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 29

Q. 9 – Distinguish between one party, two- party and multi-party systems. Which
of these, according to you, is best suited for democracies? Give reasons.

Answer – Introduction

Party system plays an important role in running

the government. It represents different
sections and ideologies of the society
through different political parties, thereby
maintaining pluralism and diversity in
democracy. Through elections, the people can PARTY SYSTEM
choose representatives according to their wishes and ideas, the party system
decentralizes power, increases political participation, and streamlines the democratic
process.

Party System: It refers to the organization of political parties and their activities that
actively participate in the political process of a country. The main objective of the party
system is to hear the voices of different social, economic and cultural groups and to
incorporate their interests into the political decision-making process.

Types of Party System

One-party system Two-Party System Multi-Party System

The party system in which The party system in which The party system in which
only one party is dominant there is competition more than two parties play
is called one-party between the two major an active role in the
system. parties is called a two- electoral field is called
party system. multi-party system.

Example: China, North Example: USA, United Example: India, Italy,

Korea Kingdom Germany.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 30

Distinguish between one party, two- party and multi-party systems

1. One-party system: In this system, only one political party is

recognized and remains in power. Other parties are not allowed to
contest elections or take part in political activities.

Characteristics -

• Political control : In a one-party system, there is tight control

over power. One party is in power and has a monopoly over all government policies
and decisions. In this system, the decision-making process is faster as consensus
has to be built only within one party.
• Absence of opposition: In a one-party system, the opposition has no role. Any
kind of opposition voice is suppressed. It ensures stability in power and continuity
in governance, but it is contrary to democratic values.
• Lack of Freedom: There is a severe lack of freedom of expression and political in
a one-party system. There is no freedom to criticize or oppose the policies of the
government. There is strict control over the media and there is a lack of a free press.
• Examples: Communist Party of China, Workers' Party of North Korea.

2. Two-party system: This system consists of two major political parties that compete
to come to power. There may be other parties also, but they generally
do not succeed in coming to power.

Characteristics –

• Clear Choices : In elections in a bipartisan system, the public has

a clear choice, allowing them to vote according to their choice. It

makes the political process open and transparent.

• Change of power: In this type of system, change of power happens easily. The
people have the option to change the government through the electoral process.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 31

• Stability : The main reason for stability in a two-party system is through the
collusion of two different parties. When both parties get together to form a
government, there is more stability in setting up and working the government.
• Limited opportunities : In this type of arrangement, there is limited space for
small or new parties. It gives important space to both the major parties, allowing
them to put forth their views in front of the people.

Examples: Democratic and Republican parties of the United States, Conservative and
Labor parties of the United Kingdom.

3. Multi-party system : In this system there are many political

parties that compete to come to power. Coalition governments are
often formed because no single party alone gets an absolute
majority.

Characteristics –

• Diverse Representation : This system includes those who have articulated the
different interests of their groups, such as farmers, merchants, and labor unions.
• Coalition Governments: In this system, governments are usually formed, where
many parties are together, between which there is an agreement.
• Diversity of ideologies : Broad ideologies and groups get representation.
• Instability Potential : It consists of a diversity of ideologies and thinkers, who
consider different social issues.
• Examples: India, Italy, Germany.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 32

The best system for a democratic system

From a democratic point of view, a multi-party system is considered the best as it

provides representation to different ideologies and social groups. This ensures
greater participation and inclusiveness in governance.

1. Diversity of representation : The multi-party system gives different social,

economic and cultural groups the opportunity for representation.
2. Inclusivity : This system is more inclusive, so that the voice of all sections and
communities is heard in governance.
3. Competition of ideologies: There is healthy competition among different
ideologies, leading to better policies and decisions.
4. Conformity with democratic principles : This system promotes democratic
values such as freedom, equality and justice.

Conclusion : Thus, multi-party system can be considered more suitable for democratic
governance, provided it requires strong institutional structure and political culture.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 33

Short Notes

i. Mixed electoral system

ii. Women's participation in elections

iii. Party system in Britain and America

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 34

(i) Mixed electoral system

Introduction

Mixed electoral system is an electoral system

that blends proportionality and
majoritarianism. In this system, single
member plurality system and additional
member system are used. Examples of this
system are found in some countries such as
Germany, Italy, New Zealand, and the UK (Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly).

Mixed Electoral System : Mixed electoral system is a system that consists of a single
member plurality system and an additional member system.

The system aims to inculcate proportionality and majoritarian considerations,

leading to political patronage and social inclusion. This system is used in many
countries, such as Germany, New Zealand, and Italy.

Features of Mixed Electoral System

1. Preserving proportionality: The proportional distribution of seats is done by a

single-member plurality system, which preserves proportionality. In addition,
majority communities also get representation through the Additional Member
System (AMS).
2. Party List System : The party list system is used by AMS, which contains the list of
candidates. Voters have the facility to cast two votes – one for the candidate and
one for the party.

3. Excess of Representation : The use of mixed electoral system provides excess of

representation. It incorporates different communities and increases their
representation.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 35

4. Expansion of political support : The use of this system expands political support,
as it engages the majority communities and makes their voices heard.
5. Justice Representation: By using this system, just representation can be ensured,
so that the voice of all sections of society can be heard.

Conclusion : Mixed electoral system is an effective election system that balances

representation and fairness and organizes voting for different types of seats.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 36

(ii) Women's participation in elections

Introduction

Women's participation in elections is an

important and essential organ that enriches the
political process. Women play various roles in
society, such as voters, candidates, and
leaders. The importance of women's active
participation is not only in encouraging the
status of gender equality, but it also contributes significantly to the universal
advancement and development of the society.

• In 1894, New Zealand granted women suffrage for the first time. Subsequently,
Australia adopted it, which was closely followed.
• Then, women were granted the right to vote in Norway and Finland in 1914, while
the USA and the United Kingdom granted women suffrage in 1920 and 1928
respectively.

Women's participation in elections

1. As voters: Women exercise their right as voters. They go to the polling booths and
vote and represent their views. Women's participation as voters enhances fairness
and influence in the political process.
2. As candidates : Women also enter as candidates, who try to increase their
representation by joining political parties. Her candidature focuses on women's
issues and makes her voice heard.

3. As leaders : Some women participate in the political process through their

leadership, which makes them a source of inspiration and role model in society.
She encourages women to move forward through her leadership.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 37

4. Publicity and Publicity : Through social media and news media, women show their
participation by spreading election messages. They present their objectives and
issues on a public platform.
5. By joining social and political organizations : Some women participate by joining
their social and political organizations. These organizations play their role in raising
awareness to the people by focusing on their issues .

Conclusion: Women participate in elections, voters, candidates, leaders, campaigners

and social organizations. They become a source of inspiration in society and focus on
women' s issues, thereby contributing significantly to their participation in the
electoral process.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 38

(iii) Party system in Britain and America

Introduction

Party system is a type of political system in

which the citizens of a nation are divided into
different parties, which operate based on their
AMERICA BRITAIN
particular religious, social, or economic
beliefs and objectives. This system is prevalent
in democratic nations, it is very important to
run the governance system of any country, the importance of party system in
superpowers like Britain and America is deeply related to development issues.

Party System in Britain

Political parties developed with democracy in Britain. From the beginning, there were
two parties, which developed for different reasons. Such as the equality of population,
balance of class society after the 19th century, national unity, traditional elements, and
characteristics of political parties.

• Conservative Party: A changed form of the Tory Party, which previously supported
only the bourgeoisie, but after 1867 the common people were also included in it.
This group consists of a national organization of local bodies called the National
Union, and its second organization is the branch of the Parliamentary Party. The
leader is elected by these institutions.

• The Labour Party: Founded in 1899-1900, it relies on the support of trade union
members, as well as teachers, merchants, civilian employees, journalists, and
peasants. This party is organized on a federal basis and considers socialism as the
main one.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 39

Characteristic of Britain's party system

1. Two-party system - The main feature of political parties in Britain is that they are
divided into two different parties. Earlier these parties were Cavalier and Round Heads,
but now the Illiberal Party and the Labour Party are the main two parties.

2. Centralisation - An important feature of political parties in Britain is that their

organisation is central. The main reason for this is the similarity of population and the
small size of the country.

3. More membership – Political parties in UK have a higher number of members.

Here the branches of the parties are spread all over the country and they have many
formal members.

4. Discipline - Political parties in Britain are very disciplined. Here the teams act as
individuals and follow discipline.

5. Importance of the leader - The importance of the leader is very high in British
political parties. The leader becomes the centre of the party and is elected as the Prime
Minister in the general elections.

Party System in America

• The US has a two-party system, with the Republican Party and the Democratic
Party being the two major political parties. The historical reason for the origin of
these two parties was the economic and social divide in the northern and southern
parts of America.
• In the southern states plantation was based on economy while in the northern
states there was an effect of industrialization. At the union level, the people of the

north preferred to the representation of their industrial areas, while in the southern
states slavery was supported for the protection of plantation operations.

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CONCEPT IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS 40

• This split allowed the origin of 'Democratic Party' to be in the northern states and
the origin of the 'Republican Party' to the southern states.
• There is no significant difference in the ideology and working style of these two
parties in America. Both parties are in favour of nationalization and stopping the
spread of communism.
• In the US, the party system is not organized, and no team recruits members
regularly. Party Members need not accept any particular principle.

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