SCHOOL COUNSELLING

ASSIGNMENT
UNIT - 2

BY:
Sangeetha (612301103)
A. Amina Shabeera (612301106)
Noorul Shabeela (612301121)
T.M. Fathima Hilmiyya (612301113)
J. Fazeela Sulthana (612301114)
Vidya P. (612301130)
Developmental considerations: Physical, Social and Cognitive Development
of Children. Sangeetha (612301103)

Physical Development

● Physical development in children involves the progression of motor skills,

coordination, and overall physical health. Various factors influence physical
development, including genetics, nutrition, and physical activity. Children exposed to
healthy environments with adequate nutrition and regular physical activity tend to
develop better physically, showing improvements in motor skills and overall health.

Infancy (0-2 years):

● Rapid growth in height and weight.

● Development of motor skills, such as crawling, walking, and grasping.
● Sensory development; improvement in vision, hearing, and touch.

Early Childhood (2-6 years):

● Slower growth rate compared to infancy.

● Refinement of motor skills, both gross (running, jumping) and fine (drawing, using
utensils).
● Increasing control over bodily functions.

Middle Childhood (6-12 years):

● Steady growth in height and weight.

● Improved coordination and strength.
● Development of skills needed for sports and other physical activities.

Adolescence (12-18 years):

● Puberty brings rapid physical changes, including growth spurts and sexual maturation.
● Development of secondary sexual characteristics.
● Increased focus on body image and physical fitness.
Social Development

● Social development in children is shaped by interactions with family, peers, and other
socialising agents. The social development model suggests that children learn
behaviours through social interactions and the reinforcement they receive. This model
emphasises the importance of family, school, and peer relationships in teaching
children both prosocial and antisocial behaviours. Key constructs in social
development include opportunities for involvement, the degree of involvement, skills
to participate, and reinforcement from activities and interactions​​.

Infancy:

● Attachment to primary caregivers.

● Recognition of familiar people.
● Beginning of social smiles and interaction.

Early Childhood:

● Development of self-concept and self-esteem.

● Learning to interact with peers through play.
● Understanding and following social rules and norms.

Middle Childhood:

● Formation of friendships and peer groups.

● Development of empathy and understanding of others' perspectives.
● Increasing importance of social acceptance and group membership.

Adolescence:

● Identity formation and exploration.

● Increased influence of peer relationships and desire for independence from parents.
● Development of more complex social skills and understanding of social dynamics.

Cognitive Development

● Cognitive development refers to the progression of children's thinking,

problem-solving, and decision-making abilities. Influential theories like Piaget's
stages of cognitive development outline how children move through distinct stages of
thinking. Cognitive development is also impacted by the quality of early education
and parental involvement. Programs like the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project and
the Incredible Years Parent, Teacher, and Child Training Series have shown positive
effects on cognitive and social outcomes for children by providing structured learning
environments and supportive parenting techniques​​.
Infancy:

● Sensory exploration of the environment.

● Development of object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even
when out of sight).
● Beginning of symbolic thinking and language development.

Early Childhood:

● Rapid language acquisition and vocabulary growth.

● Development of memory and imaginative play.
● Beginning of logical thinking, though still egocentric (difficulty in seeing others'
perspectives).

Middle Childhood:

● Improved logical thinking and problem-solving skills.

● Development of concrete operational thinking (understanding of conservation,
classification, and seriation).
● Improved attention span and memory strategies.

Adolescence:

● Development of formal operational thinking (abstract and hypothetical reasoning).

● Improved metacognition (thinking about thinking).
● Increased ability to plan, organize, and make decisions.

● Individual Differences: Each child develops at their own pace, influenced by

genetic, environmental, and cultural factors.
● Interconnected Development: Physical, social, and cognitive development are
interconnected.
● Developmental Milestones: Understanding typical developmental milestones can
help in identifying any delays or concerns early on, allowing for timely interventions.
PIAGET’S THEORY : STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.

AMINA SHABEERA

Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive development that occur
as we move from infancy to adulthood.Cognitive development results from the interplay
between innate capabilities (nature) and environmental influences (nurture).

Children progress through four distinct stages, each representing varying cognitive abilities
and world comprehension: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage
(2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage
(11 years and beyond).

Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their own
cognitive development.According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of
information; instead, they actively explore and interact with their surroundings.This active
engagement with the environment is crucial because it allows them to gradually build their
understanding of the world.

Stages of Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of
children’s thought

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child
development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other
stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.
 Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought

Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

The Sensorimotor Stage

Age: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions
(moving around and exploring their environment).
● During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These
include: object permanence;
self-recognition (the child realises that other people are separate from them);
deferred imitation; and representational play.
● They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the
capacity to represent the world mentally
● At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that
they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them
when they disappear.
 ● The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental
representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Application in Early Childhood Education:

○ Sensory Activities: Incorporate activities that stimulate the senses, such as

playing with textured materials, musical instruments, and colorful objects.
○ Object Permanence Games: Engage infants in peek-a-boo and hide-and-seek
with toys to reinforce the concept of object permanence.
○ Exploratory Play: Provide a safe environment where infants can explore and
interact with their surroundings. Allow them to move freely to develop their
motor skills.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world
through language and mental imagery.
● During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the
ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other
than itself.
● A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is
not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
● Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but
cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging
to two or more categories simultaneously.
● Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to
think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

Application in Preschool and Early Elementary Education:

● Symbolic Play: Encourage imaginative play, role-playing, and the use of props to
help children develop symbolic thought. For example, using a block as a pretend
phone.
 ● Language Development: Integrate storytelling, singing, and conversations to
enhance language skills and internal representation of the world.
● Visual Aids: Use visual aids such as pictures, charts, and diagrams to help children
understand concepts, as their thinking is dominated by appearances.
● Hands-on Activities: Provide manipulatives like counting beads, building blocks,
and drawing materials to help children understand basic concepts through direct
interaction.
● Animism Understanding: Recognize that children might attribute life-like qualities
to inanimate objects and guide them gently in understanding the difference between
living and non-living things.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 – 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
● Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that,
although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
● During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of
plasticine returning to its original shape).
● During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel.

Application in Elementary Education:

● Logical Thinking Activities: Engage students in activities that require logical

thinking, such as solving puzzles, playing strategy games, and conducting simple
science experiments.
● Conservation Tasks: Use exercises that demonstrate conservation of mass, volume,
and number. For instance, show that water in different shaped containers can have the
same volume.
● Reversibility Exercises: Introduce problems that involve reversibility, such as
reversing steps in math problems or exploring cause and effect in science.
● Group Work: Encourage group activities where students can discuss and solve
problems together, helping them see different perspectives and reduce egocentrism.
The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

● Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried
out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and
perceptual constraints.
● During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing
to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and
fractions).
● They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of
specific examples.
● Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g.
if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they
could speculate about many possible consequences.

Application in Middle and High School Education:

● Abstract Thinking: Challenge students with abstract and hypothetical questions,

such as ethical dilemmas or theoretical problems in science.
● Scientific Reasoning: Promote scientific reasoning through experiments, hypothesis
testing, and engaging in scientific debates.
● Critical Thinking: Encourage critical thinking and the analysis of complex texts in
literature and history classes.
● Problem Solving: Present problems with multiple solutions and encourage students
to explore various outcomes and solutions.
● Discussion and Debate: Foster discussions and debates on various topics, allowing
students to develop and defend their ideas logically.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT - Noorul Shabeela (612301121)

● Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist and a teacher who developed a
theory on how social interactions influences children’s cognitive development. This is
widely known as Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
● He developed his theory around the same time Jean Piaget developed his theory, but it
differs from it in different ways such as,
● Vygotsky proposed that social learning comes before cognitive development in
children and that children construct knowledge actively. He suggested that cognitive
development in early childhood is advanced through social interaction with other
people, particularly for those who are more skilled.
● He also suggested that children internalise and learn from the beliefs and attitudes that
they witness around them.
● He emphasised the role of culture in shaping cognitive development.
● He stresses on the significance of language as the base of all learning.
SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
● Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process, which involves children's
engagement in their own learning and discovery within social interactions rather than
in isolation.
● He emphasised the importance of guided learning by educators or teachers, using
techniques like task demonstration and verbal instruction, which he termed
cooperative or collaborative dialogue.
● Learning occurs when a child understands, absorbs, and uses the information to guide
their own performance.
● An example is a child solving a sudoku puzzle with a teacher recommending
strategies, such as ruling out number positions based on horizontal and vertical
arrangements or writing possible options in pencil etc.The teacher's influence
diminishes as the child's competency increases.
● This guided learning technique is also prevalent in sports, where a coach or more
skilled peer demonstrates a skill before the student attempts it. For instance, a soccer
coach might first dribble a ball through cones to set an example for students.
CONCEPT OF MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER (MKO):
● This theory emphasises the importance of guiding children's learning through
interactions with a more knowledgeable other (MKO).The more knowledgeable other
(MKO) could be anyone with a greater understanding of the task or concept that the
child is trying to complete or learn, such as a parent, caregiver, teacher, peer, or
mentor.
● The theory applies not only to academic learning but also to recreational activities,
like playing games or using technology. In these cases, a peer or older child often acts
as the MKO.
● Additionally, an MKO could be an electronic tutor, where a program guides learning
through voice prompts or videos.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD):

● The concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) explains a child's potential
for cognitive development when guided through a task rather than doing it in
isolation.
● When a child is given a task slightly above their current ability, the ZPD refers to the
child’s capability to complete it with the help of a more knowledgeable person.
● The ZPD is described as the distance between the actual developmental level assessed
independently and the potential developmental level assessed with the guidance of
peers, mentors, or teachers.
● The presence of a MKO is essential in helping a child in the zone of proximal
development.
● The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages in terms of a learner's skillset.
● Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance - This refers to tasks that the
learner can perform independently.
● Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance - This is referred to as their zone of
proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the guidance of a more
knowledgeable other to help them complete the task.
● Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance - This refers to tasks that the
learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more knowledgeable person.
INSTRUCTIONAL SCAFFOLDING:

Instructional scaffolding is a guided learning method where a student is paired with an

educator who has more experience with the task or process. The educator should understand
the student's current level and how to address it.

Techniques for instructional scaffolding include using visual aids (such as diagrams),
providing examples, working one-on-one with the student, and giving feedback. The goal is
to create an environment where the student feels comfortable asking questions until they can
perform the skill independently.

Benefits of scaffolding include:

● Motivating the learner by assisting with difficult aspects of a task

● Minimising frustration for the learner
● Providing a faster learning experience

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY, CULTURE AND LANGUAGE:

● Vygotsky viewed language as an essential tool for communication and a means to

understand culture and behaviour. This theory also emphasised on cultural realities,
stating that the cognitive development of children who are in one culture or
subculture, such as middle class Asian Americans, may be totally different from
children who are from other cultures. Therefore, it would not be fitting to compare the
developmental milestones of children from one culture to those of children from other
cultures.
● He emphasised the critical role of language in cognitive development.
● According to Vygotsky's theory, social interactions are crucial in helping children
develop their ability to use language. He identified three stages/forms of language in
the development process:
1. Social speech: Communication between children and others, typically starting around
age 2.
2. Private speech: Self-directed speech that has not yet been internalised, usually
beginning around age 3.
3. Silent inner speech: A child's internal monologue, typically developing around age 7.
 ● Vygotsky believed that this process of internalising speech and language was essential
to cognitive development. He viewed private speech as a method of self-regulating
behaviour and a tool for accelerating understanding.
● He suggested that children who engaged in private speech regularly would be more
socially competent than those who did not. Private speech helps children exercise
their imagination, practice problem-solving skills, and organise their thoughts.
● Private speech often appears when a child is having difficulty with a task and is used
to guide their thoughts and actions by organising and regulating them.
● Jean Piaget theorised that private speech diminished with age as children became
more socialised and adjusted to external speech. In contrast, Vygotsky believed that
private speech disappeared as it became silent and internalised.

APPLICATIONS IN CLASSROOM/SCHOOL SETTING:

One method of application is 'reciprocal teaching,' where teachers and students work together
to clarify and understand a concept before students are asked to repeat or apply it in another
context. For example, while reading a paragraph of text, the teacher and students
collaboratively:

● Summarise
● Question
● Clarify
● Predict

This collaborative process allows students to learn the concept in a social context before
internalising it for independent application.

Techniques such as 'scaffolding' is used to teach students according to their level of ability.
The teacher structures the learning and gradually reduces their role over time, allowing the
student to learn within their ZPD and then tackle tasks independently or move on to more
challenging tasks.

Vygotsky's theories also inform contemporary ideas about collaborative learning, such as
pairing less capable students with more advanced peers to facilitate learning. Discussion
groups, small group learning, and collaborative exercises in schools and universities are
implemented based on social learning theories.
Understanding what tasks, processes, and concepts fall within a student's ZPD is crucial. For
instance, if a student has just mastered their tables, basic division might be in their ZPD.. The
teacher might demonstrate a division problem and the method to solve it before asking the
student to try it themselves. This linear structure of learning is widely applied in educational
institutions.

CHALLENGES TO APPLY VYGOTSKY’S THEORY IN CLASSROOM? SCHOOL SETUP:

Limited Time and Resources: Teachers may not have sufficient time or resources to address
each student's individual needs.

Misjudging the ZPD: Teachers might inaccurately assess a student's ZPD, leading to
frustration for both the student and teacher.

Large Class Sizes: Managing a large class with varying ability levels can make it difficult to
implement ZPD effectively.

Rigid Lesson Plans: If the lesson plan does not accommodate scaffolding, it may be
challenging to adapt and provide the necessary support.

Lack of Awareness of ZPD: Teachers who are unaware of a student's ZPD may find the
techniques ineffective.

CRITICISMS:

Lack of Experimental Tests:

● Vygotsky's theories were primarily supported through observation, which has raised
concerns about the validity of his findings.

Active Participation in Learning:

● Vygotsky's emphasis on active participation does not account for instances where
children show slower cognitive growth.
● Critics suggest that genetics might also play a role and that passive learning should
not be disregarded entirely.
Social Interaction:

● The theory does not fully explain why some children develop slowly despite strong
social support.
● Critics argue that his theories are vague and underdeveloped.

Language as the Foundation of Learning:

● Vygotsky's assertion that language is a crucial tool for social interaction and learning
has been questioned.
● Some activities can be learned through physical actions, hands-on processes, or
observational techniques, suggesting that language is not always the primary
foundation for learning.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

● The ZPD concept has been criticised for its lack of specificity and for encompassing
various models of cognitive development in a broad manner.
● It does not always explain why some students struggle with certain tasks despite
having assistance.

COMPARISON BETWEEN VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET'S THEORY:

Aspect Vygotsky's Theory Piaget's Theory

Cultural Impact Emphasizes the role of culture in Describes universal stages of

cognitive development; no cognitive development; stages are
specific stages. consistent across cultures.

Stages of No specific stages; development Four distinct stages: Sensorimotor,

Development is continuous and influenced by Preoperational, Concrete
social interactions. Operational, Formal Operational.

Learning Process Learning is inherently social; Learning is mostly independent;

emphasizes social interaction and individual exploration is key.
guided learning.
Role of Language Language and thought begin Thought precedes language;
separately and merge; private language develops as a result of
speech is significant. cognitive growth.

Adult Guidance Adult guidance is crucial; uses Peers provide perspective and social
the zone of proximal awareness; less emphasis on adult
development for structured guidance.
learning.

Urie Bronfenbrenner Bioecological theory

- J. Fazeela sulthana(612301114)

● Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) was a Russian-born American psychologist whose

lifelong research was dedicated to childhood development.
● Bronfenbrenner was born in Moscow on April 29, 1917.
● At the age of six, he and his family moved to the United States, settling in upstate
New York. His father, Alexander Bronfenbrenner, worked as a neuropsychologist
providing care to developmentally disabled persons, which had a large impact on
Urie's choice of profession.
● Upon completion of his doctoral degree, he enlisted in the U.S. military, serving as a
psychologist in several military units during World War II.
● After the war, he held various psychology-related positions until landing at Cornell
University in the Department of Human Development as an assistant professor. There
he began his lifelong research on child development.
The five ecological system:

Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the child’s environment is a nested arrangement of

structures, each contained within the next. He organised them in order of how much of an
impact they have on a child. Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one
system on a child’s development depends on its relationship with the others.

Microsystem :

The microsystem is the first level in Bronfenbrenner’s theory and includes the things and
people the child interacts with directly every day. This means the child's parents, siblings,
friends, teachers, and neighbours are all part of their microsystem.

In this system, relationships go both ways. For example, a child can affect their parents, and
parents can affect the child. How people in this environment interact with the child can shape
their development.

For example, if parents spend time reading with their child and providing fun learning
activities, it can help the child’s language and thinking skills. On the other hand, if a child is
bullied by friends at school, it might hurt their self-esteem. The child isn’t just affected by
others, they also have an impact on those around them.

Mesosystem :

The mesosystem is about how different parts of a child’s life connect and affect each other.

For example, if a child's parents and teachers work together and share information, it helps
the child do better in both home and school. But if the parents and teachers argue or blame
each other for problems, it can create stress for the child.

The mesosystem also includes how family and friends interact. For instance, if a child’s
friends are involved in drugs, it might affect the family environment. Similarly, if siblings
fight a lot, it can also impact the child’s friendships.
Exosystem :

The exosystem is part of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and includes the larger social systems that
don’t directly involve the child but still affect their immediate environment.

For example, if a parent has a stressful job, it can impact how much time and energy they
have for their child, and how they act at home. Decisions made by the local school board, like
how much money is given to different school programs, affect the quality of the child's
education.

Broader things like government rules, media, and community services also play a role. For
instance, if there are cuts to arts programs in schools, a child might miss out on music and art
activities. On the other hand, if a new library opens in the community, it can provide more
resources for the child. Even though the child doesn’t interact with these larger systems
directly, they still influence the child’s everyday experiences.

Macrosystem :

The macrosystem is about the big-picture cultural and societal factors that shape a child’s
development. It includes things like cultural beliefs, social attitudes, and overall conditions in
society. Unlike the other systems, the macrosystem isn’t about specific places or people but
rather the broader culture and society the child is part of.

For example, in cultures where traditional gender roles are emphasised, boys might be
expected to act in certain ways, like being more dominant. Socioeconomic status also plays a
role; kids from wealthy families often have more opportunities for education compared to
kids from poorer families.

Even within the same culture, different families might have different beliefs and practices.
So, while the macrosystem sets the general cultural context, individual families might
interpret and apply these cultural norms in their own unique ways.
Chronosystem :

The chronosystem is about how changes over time affect a child's development. It looks at
how events and transitions in a child’s life and in the world around them can impact their
growth.

These changes can be things the child can expect, like starting school, or unexpected events,
like parents getting divorced or moving to a new city. Historical events also matter, such as
growing up during a financial crisis or a war.

As children grow up, their physical and mental changes, like going through puberty or
moving to a new school, interact with new social expectations. Aging also plays a role, as
how people view and treat someone can change as they get older. So, the chronosystem is all
about how all these time-related changes and events shape a child's development throughout
their life.

The Bioecological system :

Bronfenbrenner shifted his focus to how ongoing, everyday interactions in a child's

immediate environment affect their development. Instead of just looking at how different
environments impact the child, he began to emphasise the importance of the regular,
persistent interactions the child has. In other words, he started paying more attention to how
daily, lasting relationships and experiences with people like parents, teachers, and friends
shape a child's growth over time.

● Bronfenbrenner also suggested that to understand the effect of these proximal

processes on development, we have to focus on the person, context, and
developmental outcome, as these processes vary and affect people differently
(Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).
● While his original ecological systems theory emphasised the role of environmental
systems, his later bioecological model focused more closely on micro-level
interactions.
● The bioecological shift highlighted reciprocal processes between the actively evolving
individual and their immediate settings. This represented an evolution in
Bronfenbrenner’s thinking toward a more dynamic developmental process view.
 ● However, the bioecological model still acknowledged the broader environmental
systems from his original theory as an important contextual influence on proximal
processes.
● The bioecological focus on evolving person-environment interactions built upon the
foundation of his ecological systems theory while bringing developmental processes
to the forefront.

Classroom applications:

● According to the theory, teachers and parents should maintain good communication
with each other and work together to benefit the child and strengthen the development
of the ecological systems in educational practice.
● Teachers should also be understanding of the situations their student’s families may be
experiencing, including social and economic factors that are part of the various
systems.
● According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should
positively shape the child’s development.
● Likewise, the child must be active in their learning, both academically and socially.
They must collaborate with their peers and participate in meaningful learning
experiences to enable positive development (Evans, 2012).
Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Theory

- Fathima Hilmiyya (612301113)

General Overview

● Moral Development and Cognitive Growth:

○ As children mature, they develop the capacity for more complex moral
reasoning.
○ Altruism and empathy tendencies increase with age.
○ Adolescents are better at perspective-taking, social problem-solving, handling
interpersonal relationships, and recognizing themselves as social beings.
○ These abilities contribute to moral development.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

● Heinz’s Dilemma:
○ Scenario:
■ A woman is dying of cancer. A druggist has a potentially life-saving
drug, charging $2,000 per dose.
■ Heinz, the woman’s husband, can only gather $1,000 after borrowing
money.
■ The druggist refuses to sell the drug for $1,000 or accept delayed
payment. Desperate, Heinz steals the drug.
○ Question:
■ Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not?
○ Purpose:
■ To explore moral reasoning and the concept of justice.
■ Kohlberg studied responses to such dilemmas to understand moral
development stages.

Key Points:

● Moral reasoning development is linked to cognitive development.

● Kohlberg’s research highlighted the progression of moral reasoning through various
stages.
● Justice is a central theme in Kohlberg’s dilemmas.
Kohlberg's Levels and Stages of Moral Development
Moral development in Kohlberg’s theory bears some resemblance to Piaget’s, but Kohlberg’s
model is more complex. On the basis of thought processes shown by responses to his
dilemmas, Kohlberg (1969) described three levels of moral reasoning, each divided into two
stages

Level I: Preconventional Morality (Ages 4 to 10)

● Stage 1: Orientation toward Punishment and Obedience

○ Description:
■ Children obey rules to avoid punishment.
■ Focus on the physical form of actions and their immediate
consequences.
○ Example:
■ A child refrains from hitting a sibling to avoid being scolded by a
parent.
● Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose and Exchange
○ Description:
■ Children follow rules when it benefits them directly.
■ They act out of self-interest and understand reciprocal benefits.
○ Example:
■ A child agrees to share toys with a friend because the friend will then
share their toys in return.

Level II: Conventional Morality (Ages 10 to 13 or Beyond)

● Stage 3: Maintaining Mutual Relations, Approval of Others, the Golden Rule

○ Description:
■ Children aim to please and help others, developing their own ideas of
what a good person is.
■ They evaluate actions based on motives and intentions.
○ Example:
■ A child helps a friend with homework to be seen as helpful and kind.
 ● Stage 4: Social Concern and Conscience
○ Description:
■ Individuals are concerned with doing their duty and maintaining social
order.
■ They respect authority and believe in following rules.
○ Example:
■ A teenager follows school rules and respects teachers to maintain order
and fulfil responsibilities.

Level III: Postconventional Morality (Early Adolescence, Young Adulthood, or Never)

● Stage 5: Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Democratically Accepted Law

○ Description:
■ People value the welfare of society and the will of the majority.
■ They recognize that laws are social contracts that can be changed if
they do not serve the greater good.
○ Example:
■ An adult supports changes to laws that protect individual rights and
improve societal welfare, such as advocating for civil rights.
● Stage 6: Morality of Universal Ethical Principles
○ Description:
■ Individuals follow internalized principles of justice and equality.
■ They act according to their conscience and ethical principles, even if it
conflicts with laws.
○ Example:
■ A person engages in civil disobedience, such as protesting against
unjust laws, guided by their commitment to human rights.
Summary

● Level I: Preconventional Morality

○ Stage 1: Avoid punishment.
○ Stage 2: Self-interest and reciprocal benefits.
● Level II: Conventional Morality
○ Stage 3: Seek approval and act with good intentions.
○ Stage 4: Maintain social order and fulfill duties.
● Level III: Postconventional Morality
○ Stage 5: Uphold social contracts and individual rights.
○ Stage 6: Follow universal ethical principles and justice.

Limitations of Kohlberg’s Moral Theory:

1) Link Between Judgment and Behavior:

● Advanced moral reasoning is associated with less antisocial behaviour.
● Higher moral reasoning does not guarantee moral behaviour; situational factors play a
role.
2) Cultural Limitations:
● Kohlberg’s stages reflect Western values and institutions.
● Moral reasoning varies significantly across cultures, with non-Western societies
focusing more on interpersonal relationships.
3) Gender Limitations:
● Kohlberg’s theory may be biased towards male patterns of moral development.
● Alternative frameworks are needed to better understand female moral reasoning.
4) Stages 5 and 6 Criticism:
● Stages 5 and 6 may not represent the most mature stages of moral development for all
individuals, focusing too much on philosophical reflection (Gibbs, 1995).
5) Recent Research Doubts:
● Some recent studies question the clear delineation of Kohlberg’s stages (Eisenberg &
Morris, 2004).
● Children as young as six can exhibit flexible moral reasoning about laws and
lawbreaking (Helwig & Jasiobedzka, 2001).
 6) Variability in Ages and Stages:

● High cognitive development does not always equate to high moral development.
● Cognitive development is necessary but not sufficient for moral development.

References:

Feldman, R.S. (2017). Development Across the LifeSpan, Global Edition. Pearson Higher Ed.

Papalia, D., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., (2009). Human Development, Eleventh Edition.

McGraw Hill.
SOLUTION FOCUSED THERAPY

- Noorul Shabeela (612301121)

Solution Focused counselling is a brief therapy which focuses on solution finding rather than
looking at the history of the problem.

Developed by Steve de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg, and others in the 1970s.

Core Elements:

● Non-expert stance: The counsellor does not position themselves as an expert.

● Client’s language: Focuses on how clients describe their problems and solutions.
● Minimal sessions: Keeps sessions to the minimum necessary.
● Gradual change: Values making changes slowly.
● Problem-solution separation: Recognizes that problems and solutions are not directly
connected.

Focuses on the client's strengths, competence, and possibilities instead of their deficits,
weaknesses and limitations.

Takes a positive approach to the client and puts emphasis on the generation of solutions based
on the strengths and assets of the client.

Emphasis on client’s language and believes on client’s capacity to be self-directed at

changing.

Key assumptions:

Murphy (2008) delineated the following assumptions of solution focused counselling.

1. If it works, do more of it. If it doesn’t work, do something different.

○ Solution-focused counselling emphasises a pragmatic approach: identify what
works and do more of it. If a technique isn’t effective, try a different approach.
The value of a method is judged by its practical impact on promoting change
and achieving client goals.
2. Every client is unique, resourceful, and capable of changing.
○ Counsellors should adopt a curious stance, recognizing and utilising each
client’s unique strengths and resources. Viewing clients as capable and
resourceful allows for meaningful goal-setting and solution development, even
while acknowledging the seriousness of their problems.
3. Cooperative relationships enhance solutions.
○ The quality of the client-practitioner alliance is crucial for effective
counselling. Building relationships based on mutual respect and shared goals,
while accommodating clients’ goals and feedback, enhances the likelihood of
successful outcomes.
4. Client feedback improves outcomes.
○ Obtaining formal feedback from clients about their progress and the
counselling relationship can significantly increase the effectiveness of the
counselling process.
5. No problem is constant.
○ Problems are not static; they vary in intensity and occurrence.
Solution-focused counsellors look for exceptions or fluctuations in the
problem, explore the conditions under which they occur, and encourage clients
to replicate these conditions to foster more frequent positive outcomes.
6. Big problems do not always require big solutions.
○ Small changes can lead to significant improvements. Solution-focused
counselling operates on the principle that even minor adjustments can have a
ripple effect, leading to larger and more meaningful changes.
PROCEDURE OF SFBT: T.M. Fathima Hilmiyya (612301113)

Solution focused work can be seen as a way of working that focuses exclusively or
predominantly on these things:

a) Supporting people to explore their preferred futures. how they envision their preferred
future.

b) Exploring when, where, with whom and how pieces of that preferred future will happen.

c) The SFBT therapist then helps the client to identify times in their current life that are
closer to this future.

SFBT TECHNIQUES:

1) Miracle Questions

It asks the client to consider life without the problem by setting up a scene where a miracle
happens and the problem is gone.

"Suppose that while you are sleeping tonight and the entire house is quiet, a miracle happens.
The miracle is that the problem which brought you here is solved. But because you are
sleeping, you don’t know that the miracle has happened. So, when you wake up tomorrow
morning, what might be the small change that will make you say to yourself, 'Wow, something
must have happened—the problem is gone!'"

Rationale: The miracle question is a technique that therapists use to assist clients to think
"outside the square."Asked this way, miracle questions help clients open up to future
possibilities.

2) Exception Questions

Exception questions allow clients to identify times when things have been different for them.
Finding times when the problem wasn’t so much of a problem.
Examples of exception questions include:

​ "Tell me about times when you felt happiest."

​ "What was it about that day that made it a better day?"
​ "Can you think of a time when the problem was not present in your life?"

Rationale: By exploring how these exceptions happened, a therapist can empower clients to
find a solution. It can motivate the client to work towards the solution.

3) Scaling Questions

Scaling questions invite clients to perceive their problems on a continuum. Generally, scales
are from 1 to 10. When working with a client who is dealing with anxiety, for example, a
therapist might say:

"If 10 is the most anxious and 1 is the most relaxed, what number would you put
yourself on right now?"

Questions like these are usually followed with questions related to scaling, such as asking the
client to explain why they chose the number they did and why their number is not one lower.
They'll likely also ask the client how they will know they are moving up the scale.

Rationale: They're a helpful way to track progress toward goals and monitor change.

4) The past success question:

It focuses on the client’s ability to deal with similar problems in the past.

"Have you ever been able to solve such a problem before?"

Rationale: This type of questions give the client a ‘ray of hope’ and trust his/her own self to
overcome the present challenge.

5) The platform question:

Explores the client’s triggers and recent triggering situation.

"What has made you bring you to your current position?"

Rationale: It helps the therapist become aware of the client’s window of tolerance and their
triggers and plan the intervention accordingly.

6) Coping Question:

"How did you manage to cope before you gave up?"

Rationale: This question helps clients recognize their own resilience and past strategies that
worked for them. It shifts the focus from current struggles to past successes, reinforcing their
ability to handle difficulties.

7) Indirect Compliments:

"Wow, how did you achieve it?"

Rationale: Indirect compliments subtly highlight the client’s strengths and achievements.
This boosts self-esteem and encourages them to acknowledge their capabilities without
feeling patronised.

8) "What is Better?" Question:

"Think about your situation. What is better now?"

Rationale: This question prompts clients to identify positive changes, no matter how small. It
fosters a sense of progress and motivates them to continue working towards their goals by
focusing on improvements.

9) Observation Question:

"Could you, between now and our next conversation, notice which things are a bit
better?"

Rationale: This encourages clients to be mindful of positive changes in their daily lives. It
helps build an awareness of incremental progress and reinforces a solution-focused mindset
by looking for and appreciating improvements.
Application of SFBT in school settings:

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) is particularly well-suited for school settings for the
following reasons:

1. Time-Efficiency

● Short Duration: SFBT is designed to be brief, typically involving fewer sessions

than traditional therapies. This aligns well with the busy schedules in schools, where
extended therapeutic engagement might not be feasible.
● Quick Impact: The focus on immediate solutions and actionable steps helps achieve
noticeable progress in a short time frame.

2. Strengths-Based Approach

● Positive Focus: SFBT emphasizes strengths and resources rather than problems and
deficits. This is empowering for students, fostering a positive self-image and
encouraging resilience.
● Goal-Oriented: Students and school staff collaboratively set goals, creating a sense
of ownership and motivation to achieve them.

3. Practical and Concrete

● Actionable Solutions: The approach is practical, focusing on what can be done in the
present and future to improve the situation. This fits well with the structured and
goal-oriented nature of educational environments.
● Small Steps: By breaking down goals into manageable steps, SFBT helps students
and educators make steady progress, reinforcing a sense of accomplishment.

4. Adaptability and Flexibility

● Broad Applicability: SFBT can be applied to a wide range of issues, from academic
challenges to behavioural concerns, making it versatile in a school setting.
● Flexible Delivery: It can be used in individual sessions, group settings, or even
integrated into classroom management strategies.
Benefits of SFBT:

1. Immediate Observable Changes:

○ Clients, parents, and teachers desire quick solutions.
○ SFBC helps in bringing about rapid behavioral changes, motivating clients.
2. Action-Oriented Approach:
○ Focuses on actionable steps for the client.
○ Example: A student struggling with time management can be guided to create
a structured daily schedule.
3. Brief and Cost-Effective:
○ Requires fewer sessions, making it less expensive.
○ Example: A student with anxiety may see improvement in just a few sessions.
4. Strengths-Based Focus:
○ Emphasizes the client’s strengths, skills, and resources.
○ Example: A student with low self-esteem is encouraged to recognize and
utilise their unique talents and achievements.
5. Symptom Reduction:
○ Can reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression.
○ Example: A student experiencing social anxiety learns coping strategies and
gradually participates more in group activities.

Limitations of Solution Focused Brief Approach (SFBT)

1. Short-Term Focus:
○ SFBC primarily aims at short-term solutions, which may not address
deep-seated or long-term issues.
○ Example: A student with ongoing family problems might need more in-depth
therapy to achieve lasting resolution.
2. Superficial Solutions:
○ May provide superficial solutions without addressing underlying causes.
○ Example: A student’s behavioral issue might be temporarily resolved, but the
root cause, such as trauma, remains unaddressed.
 3. Limited Exploration of Emotions:
○ Focuses more on solutions and less on exploring emotions and feelings.
○ Example: A student dealing with grief might need more emotional support
than SFBC typically provides.
4. Not Suitable for All Clients:
○ May not be effective for clients who need to explore their past or who have
complex psychological issues.
○ Example: Students with severe mental health disorders like schizophrenia may
not benefit from SFBC alone.
5. Overemphasis on Positive Thinking:
○ The emphasis on positive thinking might overlook legitimate negative
experiences and feelings.
○ Example: A student might feel invalidated if their genuine struggles are
downplayed in favour of focusing only on positive aspects.
6. Inconsistent Outcomes:
○ May produce inconsistent outcomes due to the variability in client engagement
and problem complexity.
○ Example: While one student may quickly benefit from SFBC, another with
similar issues might not see the same results.
7. Risk of Simplification:
○ The approach might simplify complex problems, leading to incomplete
solutions.
○ Example: A student’s repeated absenteeism might be addressed with quick
fixes, but underlying issues like bullying or family problems might not be
fully resolved.

References:

Adıgüzel, İ. B., & Göktürk, M. (2013). Using the solution focused approach in school

counselling. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 106, 3278–3284.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.378

PsyD, J. C. (2024, March 25). What is Solution-Focused Brief Therapy? VerywellMind.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-solution-focused-brief-therapy-2337728
Strength Based Therapy : Fazeela Sulthana and Amina Shabeera

Strength based therapy is the type of counselling that focuses on a person’s strengths and
positive qualities rather than their problems or weaknesses, it helps individuals build on what
they are good at and what has worked well for them in the past to overcome challenges and
achieve their goals.

SBT helps people recognise and use their past strengths to handle current challenges. It
shows them that they already have the skills needed to deal with tough situations and teaches
them how to use these skills more effectively .This therapy helps people look back at times
when they successfully handled difficult situations. Even if they didn't realise it then, they
were using strengths.

When strength based therapy can help:

1.Boosting self esteem and confidence :

This therapy helps people feel better about themselves by focusing on what they are good at.

Eg: If someone feels down because they struggle with public speaking, a therapist might
highlight their excellent writing skills. This shift in focus can help the person feel more
confident and positive about their abilities.

2. Trauma :

For those recovering from trauma ,focusing on strengths can build resilience

3. Depression and anxiety :

By focusing on strengths this approach can help people become more empowered and
capable, which reduces feelings of depression and anxiety.

Eg: A person with anxiety might be good at problem solving. The therapist can help them use
this strength to plan and manage anxiety triggering situations,making them feel more in
control.
4. Couple and family relationships:

Strength based therapy helps couples and families by encouraging them to recognize and
appreciate each other's strength, improving communication and reducing conflicts.

5. Career counselling:

This therapy helps teenagers understand who they are and what they are good at. It helps
them build a strong sense of self by focusing on their strengths.

Eg: A teenager named Alex who is unsure about his identity and feels lost. Through SBT alex
realises he is very empathetic and good at listening to his friends, this helps him feel more
confident and understand that he has valuable qualities.

In career counselling, SBT helps individuals identify their strengths and match them with
potential careers. This makes it easier for them to choose jobs.

How to apply in schools:

Starts by finding out what each student is good at or enjoys. This could be through
assessments,observations or conversations.

Eg: if the student is good at art let them handle the creative aspects of a project.

Group work:

Create groups with a mix of different strengths. This ensures that students can learn from
each other and that each group has a variety of skills.

Positive feedback:

Focus on what students are doing well. Encourage them by highlighting their strength and
how they contribute to the group.

REFERENCES:
Adıgüzel, İ. B., & Göktürk, M. (2013). Using the solution focused approach in school

counselling. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 106, 3278–3284.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.378

Feldman, R.S. (2017). Development Across the LifeSpan, Global Edition. Pearson Higher Ed.

Papalia, D., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., (2009). Human Development, Eleventh Edition.

McGraw Hill.

PsyD, J. C. (2024, March 25). What is Solution-Focused Brief Therapy? VerywellMind.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-solution-focused-brief-therapy-2337728

Psychological Approaches and Methods to counselling

Contents:
 Adlerian
Behaviorism
Rogerian
CBT
Reality Therapy with Choice Theory

Notes by:Vidhya.P(612301130)

Adler’s Theories in School Counseling

Central Belief:

● Humans are social creatures and must learn to cope effectively as community
members (Adler, 1956b).
● Behaviors and actions are directed by social needs.

Childhood Development:

● From infancy, children work to understand the world around them and become
competent.
● Efforts to understand and become competent can be blocked or thwarted.
● Being blocked leads to a belief that one is inferior and weak.

Impact of Home Environment:

● Authoritarian homes worsen the situation by preventing the child from expressing
independence and competence.

Elementary School Students:

● Can overcome insecurities developed earlier by learning to work in cooperation with

others.
● Cooperation aimed at self-improvement leads to self-fulfillment.
● Greatest benefit comes when efforts contribute to the common good (e.g., classroom).

Adlerian Counseling Goals:

● Aimed at gaining insight into self.

 ● Learning to live effectively in school and other social settings (Daniels, 1998).

Background of Alfred Adler

● Profession: Viennese physician and psychoanalyst.

● Association with Freud: Close associate; broke with Freud in 1911 over core
assumptions of psychoanalysis, particularly infantile sexuality.
● Relocation: Moved to Long Island, New York, in 1926.
● Key Disagreement: Adler focused on motivation and the child's future, while
Freud analyzed past experiences and early memories.
● World War I: Served in the Austrian Army Medical Corp, worked in a children's
hospital.
● Post-War: Opened a clinic, trained teachers in his psychological methods (Boeree,
2006).
● Legacy: Considered the first of the neo-Freudians, alongside Erik Erikson,
Abraham Maslow, and Otto Rank.

Adlerian Concepts

1. Feminism and Power Dynamics:

● First Psychological Study of Feminism: Adler's work addressed the power dynamics
between males and females.
● Cultural Norms: He critiqued societal norms that held boys in higher esteem than girls
and promoted aggression in boys while encouraging girls to be demure and shy
(Rigby-Weinberg, 1986).
● Masculine Protest: Adler used this term to describe the cultural pressure on parents to
raise boys to be “real men”—brave, powerful, and stoic. Boys struggling to meet
these ideals may retreat into power fantasies, leading to vengeance, resentment,
overwhelming avarice, and ambition in young adulthood (Daniels, 1998).
● Striving for Superiority: Adler later replaced "masculine protest" with this term to
better reflect his American experience, describing male assertiveness and the training
boys receive to behave in "male-appropriate ways."
2. Feelings of Inferiority:

● Inborn Inferiority: According to Adler, each infant is born with feelings of inferiority
(Adler, 1956a). This inherent sense of inadequacy motivates individuals to strive to
overcome these feelings.
● Motivation: These feelings of inferiority drive children to become more powerful and
successful, seeking a superior role in their lives and recognition from others as
capable.
● Manifestations in Children: Examples include a child insisting on dressing themselves
or controlling their bedtime.
● Striving for Superiority: This is a central theme in life. For example, pursuing higher
education and careers, like becoming school counselors, is a way to overcome
feelings of inferiority and achieve professional success.
● Inferiority Complex: If these attempts are thwarted, the resulting overwhelming
feelings of inferiority can lead to an inferiority complex, characterized by a sense of
being incapable and less deserving, leading to hopelessness, depression, and a loss of
motivation.

3. Birth Order:

Impact on Personality:

● Only Children: Often pampered and protected by nervous parents, leading to unique
developmental experiences.
● Firstborns: Initially experience life as only children but must adjust when siblings are
born, often feeling deprived of attention and affection. This can lead to disobedience,
regression, or withdrawal. However, they benefit from a richer linguistic environment
and may become precocious, assuming a teacher-like role within the family
(Thurstone & Jenkins, 1931).
● Subsequent Children: They compete for parental affection and develop distinct
temperaments and interaction styles. Each child finds a unique role within the family
dynamic.
Factors Influencing Birth Order Impact:

● Gender: The gender of each child influences their role and interactions within the
family.
● Spacing Between Births: The time period between births also affects personality
development and family dynamics (Zajonic, 1976).

Methods of Adlerian Counseling in Schools

Central Belief:

● Children misbehave due to faulty logic about how the world works.
● Misbehavior arises when children’s natural striving to overcome weaknesses is
thwarted.
● Problem behaviors are categorized into: attention seeking, power struggles, revenge,
and inadequacy (Fallon, 2004).

Changing Behaviors:

Goal: Transform feelings of weakness into constructive and positive behaviors (Thompson &
Henderson, 2007).

Productive Approaches:

● Teach children more productive ways of behaving and interacting with others.
● Utilize methods such as play therapy, storytelling, and role-playing.
● Implement neo-behavioral management techniques, e.g., reinforcing positive attention
when appropriate behaviors occur.

Addressing Specific Behaviors:

Attention Seeking:

● Reinforce positive attention in appropriate contexts.

● Recognize and respond to the underlying need for attention rather than the disruptive
behavior.

Power Struggles:
 ● Educate teachers to avoid power struggles by understanding the child's need for
control and autonomy.
● Recognize both direct and passive forms of aggression.
● Offer choices between two positive options to reduce resistance.
● Avoid ultimatums that harden resistance, e.g., "If you don’t, you will be sent to
time-out."
● Use collaborative problem-solving techniques to engage students in finding solutions.

Revenge:

● Understand that behaviors designed to hurt others often stem from the child’s pain of
not being likeable or possibly being abused.
● Use clear class rules and natural consequences to address inappropriate behaviors.
● Natural Consequences: Allow the natural outcome of actions to teach responsibility
(e.g., forgetting lunch results in being hungry, breaking equipment means not being
able to use it).
● Provide opportunities for the child to make amends and repair relationships.
● Encourage empathy development through perspective-taking activities.

Inadequacy:

● Address feelings of hopelessness and despair in children who believe they are seen as
incapable.
● Use empathetic counseling paired with positive experiences of success.
● Provide small tasks that offer opportunities for positive reinforcement, such as filing
brochures or collating pamphlets, allowing counselors to affirm the child's work and
abilities.
● Set achievable goals to build the child’s sense of competence and self-worth.
● Encourage a growth mindset by praising effort and progress rather than inherent
ability.

Overall Strategy:

● Utilize empathetic and supportive approaches in one-on-one counseling sessions.

● Focus on creating positive experiences that build self-esteem and confidence.
● Emphasize natural consequences to teach responsibility and accountability.
 ● Encourage productive behavior and social interactions through structured activities
and positive reinforcement.
● Foster a sense of belonging and community in the classroom.
● Help children develop social interest by involving them in group activities that
promote cooperation and mutual respect.
● Implement preventive strategies, such as creating a supportive classroom environment
and establishing clear, consistent expectations.
● Train teachers and staff in Adlerian principles and techniques to create a cohesive and
supportive school culture.
● Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions and adjust strategies as
needed.

Behaviorism in School Counseling

Foundation of Behaviorism:

● Dominated American university psychology departments for most of the 20th century.
● Core understanding: Children's actions and behaviors result from experiences with the
environment.
● Humans enter the world as blank slates (tabula rasa), equipped with reflexive
responses but no prior learning or habits (Locke, 2004/1690).

Observable Behaviors:

● Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors rather than the child's inner world.
● The goal is to modify behaviors in a productive direction through environmental
interactions.

Operant Conditioning

Core Concepts:

● Operant Conditioning: Association between a behavior (operant) and its

consequence. Children are likely to repeat behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes
(Skinner, 1954).
 ● Behavior-Reward Cycle: The behavior must occur first, followed by a contingent
reward, to reinforce the behavior.

Types of Reinforcers:

● Positive Reinforcers: Rewards that increase the likelihood of a behavior. Can meet
primary needs (food, drink, sleep) or secondary needs (praise, stickers, affection).
● Negative Reinforcers: Removal of an unpleasant condition following the desired
behavior. For example, a child cleans their room to stop parental nagging.
● Economic Rewards: Used in education, such as paying students for attending
tutoring sessions or scoring well on tests (Guernsey, 2009).

Application in School Counseling

Behavior Modification:

● Identify and use effective reinforcers to encourage positive behaviors.

● Token Economy: Students earn tokens for positive behaviors, which can be
exchanged for rewards.
● Behavior Contracts: Agreements outlining specific behaviors and their associated
rewards or consequences.

Managing Inappropriate Behaviors:

● Extinction: Behaviors that are not rewarded will eventually diminish. Ignoring
inappropriate behavior can lead to its reduction.
● Consistent Consequences: Adults must consistently apply consequences to avoid
reinforcing negative behavior patterns. Inconsistent enforcement can increase the
frequency and intensity of inappropriate behaviors.

Addressing Specific Student Needs:

● Understand what is rewarding to each student to effectively modify behavior.

● Avoid inadvertently reinforcing negative behaviors, such as giving attention to
disruptive actions.

Behavioral Interventions in Practice

Positive Reinforcement:

● Use praise, tokens, or privileges to reinforce desired behaviors.

● Ensure rewards are meaningful to the student to effectively change behavior.

Negative Reinforcement:

● Remove unpleasant conditions when desired behaviors occur.

● Use consistently to encourage positive behavior changes.

Ignoring Inappropriate Behaviors:

● Ignore minor disruptive behaviors to reduce their frequency.

● Be consistent and avoid giving in to demands that reinforce negative behaviors.

Behavioral Contracts and Token Economies:

● Set clear expectations and rewards through behavior contracts.

● Implement token economies to motivate and reinforce positive behaviors.

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA):

● Identify the causes and functions of problem behaviors.

● Develop tailored interventions to address specific behavior issues.

Modeling and Role-Playing:

● Demonstrate desired behaviors for students to imitate.

● Use role-playing to practice and reinforce positive social interactions.

Goals of Behaviorism in School Counseling

● Promote Positive Behaviors: Encourage behaviors that contribute to academic success

and social well-being.
● Reduce Problem Behaviors: Decrease behaviors that interfere with learning and social
interactions.
● Increase Self-Regulation: Help students develop the ability to manage their own
behavior.
 ● Support Academic Achievement: Create structured and supportive learning
environments.
● Foster Positive Social Interactions: Teach and reinforce appropriate social behaviors.

Rogers’s Person-Centered School Counseling

Philosophy and Approach:

● Humanistic Psychology: Focuses on individuals' inherent potential for growth and

self-actualization.
● Person-Centered Approach: Emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and
genuineness in counseling relationships.

Background:

● Early Influences: Carl Rogers was raised in a strict Christian household, which shaped
his early values and perspectives (Rogers, 1961).
● Educational Journey: Initially studying agriculture at the University of Wisconsin,
Rogers later pursued graduate studies at Union Theological Seminary in New York
City and Teachers College of Columbia University, focusing on child development
and guidance under Leta Hollingworth (Thompson & Henderson, 2007).

Development of Client-Centered Therapy:

● Encounter with Otto Rank: During his time at a child guidance clinic in Rochester,
New York, Rogers was exposed to Otto Rank's ideas on individual will and
therapeutic relationships (Rank, 1978/1936).
● Influence of Rank: Rank’s emphasis on personal will and client-centered therapy
significantly impacted Rogers’s therapeutic approach, leading to the development of
client-centered therapy (Rogers, 1980).
● Integration and Refinement: Rogers integrated Rank’s concepts into his work with
troubled children and families, refining the client-centered counseling model (Rogers,
1939).

Key Principles:
 ● Client-Centered Therapy: Focuses on the client’s subjective experience and
self-exploration rather than therapist interpretation or diagnosis.
● Unconditional Positive Regard: Providing acceptance and support without judgment,
fostering a trusting therapeutic relationship.
● Empathy and Genuineness: Essential qualities for counselors to understand and relate
to the client’s experiences authentically.

Application in School Counseling:

● Empowerment and Growth: Facilitating students' self-discovery and personal growth

through empathetic listening and non-directive counseling.
● Enhancing Self-Concept: Helping students develop a positive self-image and
confidence in their abilities.
● Supportive Environment: Creating a safe space where students feel valued and
understood, promoting emotional well-being and academic success.

Impact and Legacy:

● American Psychological Therapy: Rogers’s client-centered approach marked a

departure from traditional psychoanalytic methods, emphasizing personal growth and
autonomy.
● Continued Influence: The principles of client-centered therapy remain influential in
modern counseling practices, promoting student-centered approaches in educational
settings.

Nondirective Counseling in Rogerian Approach

Philosophy and Approach:

● Phenomenological Perspective: Focuses on understanding the child’s subjective

experiences and perceptions rather than objective reality.
● Active Listening: Essential for counselors to fully engage with and comprehend the
child’s world without interpretation or judgment (Rogers, 1977).

Characteristics of Nondirective Counseling:

 ● Immediate Focus: Unlike psychoanalysis, which delves into unconscious processes,
nondirective counseling centers on the child’s present experiences and interpretations.
● Phenomenological Approach: Emphasizes the child’s personal perspective on their
feelings, thoughts, and experiences, rather than objective truth.

Counselor’s Role:

● Active Listener: Engages attentively with the child’s narrative, focusing on what the
child reveals without interpreting or guiding the conversation.
● Avoidance of Interpretation: Counselors refrain from analyzing or interpreting the
child’s statements, allowing the child’s narrative to unfold naturally.

Congruence as a Goal:

● Definition: Congruence refers to the alignment between the child’s self-concept and
their ideal self-image (Rogers, 1992).
● Psychological Change: Counseling aims to facilitate personal growth and reduce
incongruence, which may lead to anxiety and maladaptive behaviors (Rogers, 1942).

Impact of Nondirective Counseling:

● Promoting Self-Exploration: Encourages children to explore their emotions and

experiences in a supportive environment.
● Enhancing Self-Understanding: Facilitates self-awareness and acceptance by allowing
children to articulate their inner world without judgment or advice.

Application in School Counseling

● Empowering Students: Supports students in developing autonomy and resilience by

fostering self-reflection and self-expression.
● Creating a Safe Space: Establishes a trusting environment where students feel
validated and understood, promoting emotional well-being.

Carl Rogers's 19 Propositions

Rogers's 19 propositions provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and

implementing client-centered counseling, emphasizing the importance of the child's
subjective experience, self-concept development, and personal growth. Adapted for modern
contexts, these principles continue to guide effective therapeutic practices in school
counseling and beyond.

1. Continually Changing World: Children exist in a continually changing world of

experiences (phenomenal field) where they are at the center.
2. Perception of Reality: Children react to and perceive their phenomenal field, which
becomes their subjective reality.
3. Organized Reactivity: Initially, children react as organized wholes to their
phenomenal field.
4. Inborn Tendency: Children have an innate tendency to actualize, maintain, and
enhance their experiences, aiming for self-regulation and autonomy.
5. Purposeful Actions: Children's actions are purposeful and goal-directed attempts to
satisfy perceived needs in the present moment.
6. Role of Emotions: Emotions accompany and guide children's goal-directed behaviors
based on their perceived significance for survival and enhancement.
7. Internal Frame of Reference: Understanding children's actions requires viewing
them from their internal frame of reference.
8. Development of Unique Self: A portion of the perceptual field gradually becomes
differentiated, leading to the development of a unique self.
9. Formation of Self: The structure of a child’s self is formed through interactions with
the environment and others, shaping perceptions, characteristics, and relationships.
10. Development of Values: Children begin to form a rudimentary system of values
based on direct experiences and introjected values from others, which may become
distorted.
11. Symbolization of Experiences: Children symbolize, perceive, and organize
experiences in relation to their self-concept, ignoring or distorting experiences
inconsistent with it.
12. Consistency with Self-concept: Most of children's behaviors are consistent with their
personal self-concepts.
13. Unsymbolized Behavior: Behavior may occur without being symbolized,
inconsistent with the self-concept, and not owned by the child.
14. Psychological Adjustment: Adjustment occurs when all sensory and visceral
experiences are symbolically assimilated into a consistent relationship with the
self-concept.
 15. Maladjustment: Maladjustment arises when significant experiences cannot be
symbolized or integrated into the self-concept, causing psychological tension
(incongruence).
16. Perceived Threats: Experiences inconsistent with the self-concept are perceived as
threats, leading to rigidity in maintaining the self-concept and maladaptation.
17. Revision of Self-concept: Under certain conditions of safety, experiences inconsistent
with the self-concept can be examined and the self-concept revised.
18. Understanding Others: Accepting all experiences into a consistent self-concept
enhances understanding and acceptance of others as separate individuals.
19. Evolving Values: As children integrate more experiences into their self-concept, their
value system evolves, especially when earlier introjections are re-evaluated and
replaced.

Application in Counseling:

● Techniques: Active listening, reflection, empathy.

● Goals: Facilitate self-exploration, promote congruence, support personal growth.
● Challenges: Requires patience, cultural sensitivity, and adaptation for diverse
contexts.

Principles of Rogerian Counseling in Schools:

Nonauthoritarian Approach:

● Counselors treat children as capable of making positive changes in their lives.

● Change is facilitated when children are encouraged to be self-directed and make wise
choices.

Warmth, Authenticity, and Congruence:

● Counselors are genuine, authentic, and transparent in their interactions.

● They do not present a facade but offer genuine support and assistance.

Unconditional Positive Regard:

● Counselors accept children unconditionally, without judgment or criticism.

● This fosters an environment where children feel safe and valued.
Empathy as Key Tool:

● Empathy is central to Rogerian counseling, where counselors strive to understand the

child's perspective deeply.
● It involves sensing the child's emotions, fears, and confusion as if the counselor were
experiencing them.

Open-Ended Questions:

● Counselors use open-ended questions to encourage children to express themselves

fully.
● This approach promotes dialogue and helps children articulate their thoughts and
feelings.

Active Listening and Reflection:

● Counselors practice active listening, giving full attention to the child's verbal and
non-verbal cues.
● They reflect back the child's feelings and thoughts to demonstrate understanding ("I
hear you saying...").

Ownership Statements:

● Reflective statements begin with "I," indicating the counselor's personal

understanding and empathy.
● This helps clarify the child's feelings and resolves conflicts gently.

Gentle Challenge and Clarification:

● Challenges to inconsistencies in the child's thoughts or feelings are approached gently

and with sensitivity.
● Clarifications aim to deepen the child's self-awareness and understanding.

Maintaining Professional Boundaries:

● While empathizing deeply, counselors maintain a professional role distinct from the
child's experiences.
● This ensures a supportive yet objective stance in helping the child.
 ● Implementation in School Counseling:
● Therapeutic Dialogue: Establishing a safe space for children to explore their feelings
and experiences.
● Supportive Environment: Encouraging children to explore their emotions and
thoughts without fear of judgment.
● Personal Growth: Facilitating personal growth by empowering children to make
decisions and choices autonomously.
● Skill Development: Helping children develop emotional intelligence and
communication skills through empathetic interactions.

Problems with Rogerian Methods in Schools:

1. Boundary Testing and Misinterpretation:

○ Boundary Testing: Students may test the counselor's nonjudgmental stance
by making provocative remarks about teachers or others, assuming the
counselor's empathy implies agreement.
○ Misinterpretation: This can lead to misunderstandings within the school
community if students perceive the counselor's empathy as endorsement,
causing conflicts or misunderstandings among staff and students.
2. Practical Issues in School Settings:
○ Scheduling Challenges: Schools operate on tight schedules with limited
flexibility. Rogerian counseling, which often requires multiple sessions over
extended periods, can be difficult to schedule without disrupting students'
academic activities like tests or labs.
○ Teacher Resentment: Teachers may become resentful if they perceive that
counseling sessions are causing students to miss class time, impacting both the
student's academic performance and classroom dynamics.
3. Documentation and Evaluation:
○ Vague Terms and Lack of Operational Definitions: Terms used in Rogerian
counseling, such as empathy and non-directivity, can be subjective and
challenging to operationalize objectively.
○ Difficulty in Measurement: The subjective nature of the approach makes it
hard to quantify or document its effectiveness in terms that satisfy traditional
assessment metrics used in educational settings.
 4. Developmental and Clinical Considerations:
○ Lack of Adaptation for Developmental Differences: Rogerian methods may
not account adequately for the developmental stages and needs of children at
different age levels.
○ Applicability to Diverse Student Populations: It may not address specific
challenges posed by young children, those with disabilities, or students with
significant mental health issues who may require more structured
interventions.

Aaron Beck's Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in School Counseling

1. Overview of CBT:

● Aaron Beck adapted Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) by Albert Ellis,
emphasizing less confrontational techniques and grounding interventions in scientific
principles (Beck, 1979; Sussman, 2006).
● Beck introduced the concept of "automatic thoughts," which are spontaneous,
distorted thoughts that occur parallel to ongoing interactions, influencing emotions
and behaviors negatively (Goode, 2000).

2. Counseling Approach:

● Building a Therapeutic Relationship: Establishing trust is crucial in the initial

sessions. Collaboratively setting goals with the student is central to CBT (Sussman,
2006).
● Goal Setting: Questions like "How would you like to be different by the end of
counseling?" help prioritize and set a counseling agenda.

3. Methods in CBT Sessions:

● Session Structure: Each session begins with reviewing the agenda and identifying
session goals. Open-ended questions explore recent experiences or daily routines to
gauge mood states and behavioral patterns.
 ● Cognitive Restructuring: The core of therapy involves challenging and replacing
inaccurate beliefs. Students are taught to adopt a scientific approach to their thoughts,
questioning the validity of automatic negative thoughts (Sussman, 2006).
● Homework Assignments: Between sessions, students practice new cognitive
strategies. They record incidents where they challenged automatic thoughts and their
outcomes, often through email entries to the counselor (Goode, 2000).

4. Advantages in School Settings:

● Efficiency: CBT typically requires about 10 sessions, initially weekly and then
spaced out as improvement occurs. This approach minimizes counselor workload
while maintaining efficacy (Beck, Freeman, & Davis, 2004).
● Efficacy: CBT is well-established as effective for various issues like depression,
anxiety, and personality disorders encountered in school settings. Its structured
approach ensures consistent outcomes (Beck, Freeman, & Davis, 2004).

William Glasser's Reality Therapy and Choice Theory in School Counseling

1. Overview of Reality Therapy:

● Developed by William Glasser, Reality Therapy focuses on choices individuals make

in their relationships to cope with unmet needs or unpleasant situations (Glasser,
1998).
● The counselor's role is to help students replace ineffective behaviors with more
positive relationship-building strategies and effective ways to meet their needs.

2. Core Principles:

● Here-and-Now Focus: Counseling focuses on current behaviors and their

consequences, rather than exploring past traumas or issues.
● Responsibility: Emphasizes personal responsibility for one's choices and behaviors.
Rejects terms like mental illness and focuses on improving behaviors and
relationships (Glasser, 1998).

3. Choice Theory:
 ● Based on 10 axioms, Choice Theory asserts that all behavior is chosen and aimed at
satisfying five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun
(Glasser, 2000).
● Ten Axioms of Choice Theory:
1. The only behavior I can control is my own.
2. All anyone can give another person is information.
3. At heart, long-lasting psychological problems are problems of relationships.
4. The problem relationship is always part of our present life and linked to our
behaviors.
5. Problems in our past inform what we are today, but we can only satisfy our
basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.
6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures (our visualizations) in
our Quality World.
7. All we do is behave.
8. All behavior is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling, and
physiology.
9. Of these, only acting and thinking are under the individual’s direct control. We
can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose
to act and think.
10. All behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most
recognizable.
● Quality World: Each person's unique vision of a fulfilling life, composed of mental
images of desired people, objects, and values.

4. Methods in School Counseling:

● Seven Steps of Reality Therapy:

1. Build a Good Relationship: Establish trust and rapport with the student.
2. Examine Current Behavior: Explore what the student is currently doing in
problematic situations.
3. Evaluate Effectiveness: Assess whether the behavior is helping the student
achieve their goals.
4. Develop Alternatives: Brainstorm and discuss alternative behaviors.
5. Commit to Alternatives: Choose and commit to trying selected alternatives.
 6. Review Commitment: Later, assess the effectiveness of the chosen
alternatives without punishment or excuses.
7. Accept Consequences: Encourage students to accept the natural
consequences of their behaviors and learn from them (Glasser, 1998).

5. Additional Concepts from Glasser's Approach:

● Universal Needs: Glasser identifies five basic needs—survival, love and belonging,
power, freedom, and fun—as motivations for all human behavior.
● Quality World: Each individual's unique mental image of a fulfilling life, guiding
behavior and choices.
● Role of Behavior: Emphasizes that behavior is chosen and purposeful, aimed at
satisfying needs and achieving goals.
● Avoidance of Labels: Rejects labels like mental illness, focusing instead on
improving behaviors and relationships through personal responsibility and choice
(Glasser, 1998).

6. Advantages in School Settings:

● Practical Application: Provides practical strategies for improving interpersonal

relationships and behavior management.
● Empowerment: Empowers students by teaching them to take responsibility for their
choices and behaviors.
● Focus on the Present: Effective for addressing current issues and enhancing student
resilience and adaptive behaviors (Glasser, 1998).
● Glasser's Reality Therapy and Choice Theory offer a structured approach to school
counseling, focusing on empowering students to make positive choices in their
relationships and behavior. By emphasizing personal responsibility and the pursuit of
fulfilling needs, this approach aims to enhance students' well-being and academic
success
REFERENCE :

Introduction to Counseling by sage publications :chapter 6

Read more about choice therapy on choice therapy