QUESTION ONE:

a. With ranges, a single rule can handle multiple addresses, reducing the number of
forwarding rules required and simplifying the routing table. Instead of maintaining an
entry for each host, the router can match packets based on a defined range, improving
memory usage and lookup speed.
b.
Address: 227.174.255.45
Binary: 11100011.10101110.11111111.001011011
Range Check:
o Range for Link 0: 11100000 00000000 00000000 00000000 - 11100000
00111111 11111111 11111111 (does not match)
o Range for Link 1: 11100000 01000000 00000000 00000000 - 11100000
01000000 11111111 11111111 (does not match)
o Range for Link 2: 11100001 01000001 00000000 00000000 - 11100001
01111111 11111111 11111111 (does not match)
Since it matches none, it defaults to Link 3.

Address: 224.44.186.27
Binary: 11100000.00101100.10111010.00011011
Range Check:
o Range for Link 0: 11100000 00000000 00000000 00000000 - 11100000
00111111 11111111 11111111
o This address matches the range for Link 0, so it is forwarded to Link 0.

Address: 225.85.211.48
Binary: 11100001.01010101.11010011.00110000
Range Check:
o Range for Link 2: 11100001 01000001 00000000 00000000 - 11100001
01111111 11111111 11111111
o This address matches the range for Link 2, so it is forwarded to Link 2.

QUESTION TWO:
a. Main difference:
Aloha: devices can transmit data whenever they want, without synchronization. This
can lead to frequent collisions if multiple devices transmit simultaneously.

Slotted Aloha: In Slotted Aloha, time is divided into discrete slots, and devices are
only allowed to transmit at the start of these time slots. This scheduling reduces the
chance of collision since two devices must transmit at the same slot to collide.
 Efficiency:
Aloha has a lower throughput because the lack of time slots results in more frequent
collisions.
Slotted Aloha has a higher maximum efficiency of about 36.8%, as limiting
transmissions to time slots halves the probability of collisions, nearly doubling the
throughput.

b.
If The probability that a single device transmits in a slot is a. Then the probability that
the other M−1 devices do not transmit is (1−a) M−1.

So: P(success) = M. a.(1-a) M-1

The efficiency is maximized when M.a = 1 and the maximum efficiency = 0.367

c.
Slotted Aloha: Each device transmits in randomly selected time slots leading to
potential collisions if multiple devices select the same slot.
Pros:
- Simpler to implement
- Flexible with the number of devices
Cons:
- Potential for collisions
- Lower efficiency due to random access

TDMA: The time is divided into distinct time slots, with each slot assigned to a
specific device thus no collisions.

Pros:
- No collisions
- Higher efficiency

Cons:
- Requires synchronization
- Less flexible with fluctuating numbers of devices

QUISTION FOUR:

a. P(idle) = 1 – a
P(collision) = 0
P(success) = a

b.
P (k node don’t transmit) = (Nk). (1- a) k . aN-k
 c. P(idle) = (1 – a)10
(1 – a)10 = 0.1
a = 1 – (0.1)1/10 = 0.206

QUISTION SIX:
a. Max total aggregate throughput = 6 * 150Mbps = 900Mbps

b. Reducing the number of hubs for example using 1 hub instead of 3 but this will
come at the expense of performance since all 15 hosts will share the same 15Mbps
link which will decrease the per-host throughput and increased collision rate.

c. Replacing hubs with switches. Since switching the hubs with switches in each
department would allow each host to have a dedicated 150 Mbps link, eliminating
collisions within each LAN.

QUISTION SEVEN:
a. Key Data Structure: The forwarding table enables interaction between routing and
forwarding by mapping destination IP prefixes to output interfaces. Routers
forward packets by performing a longest prefix match on the destination IP.
Forwarding Based on Source Address Only: Not typically used in IP networks, as
forwarding is destination-based. However, policy-based routing (PBR) can use
source-based rules if needed.
b. Forwarding Based on Both Source and Destination Addresses: Uncommon in
standard IP networks but possible in advanced setups like multipath routing or
software-defined networking (SDN) to meet specific policies or optimizations.

QUESTION EIGHT:
Purpose: Fragmentation allows large packets to traverse networks with smaller MTUs
by breaking them into smaller pieces.
Destination: All fragments of a packet are sent to the same destination.
Size: Fragments are usually the maximum size allowed by the network’s MTU, but
the last fragment may be smaller.
Reassembly: Fragments are reassembled at the destination to prevent delays and
reduce processing load on intermediate routers.

QUESTION TINE:
Subnet 1: 200 interfaces → Requires at least 28 =256 addresses (/24).
 Subnet 2: 500 interfaces → Requires at least 29 =512 addresses (/23).
Subnet 3: 150 interfaces → Requires at least 28 =256addresses (/24).
Subnet 4: 1000 interfaces → Requires at least 210 =1024 addresses (/22).

Subnet 4 (Largest): /22

 Subnet 4 requires 1024 addresses.
 Prefix: /22 (10 host bits)
 Range: 165.32.48.0 to 165.32.51.255
Subnet 4 Address: 165.32.48.0/22

Subnet 2: /23
 Subnet 2 requires 512 addresses.
 Prefix: /23 (9 host bits)
 Starting Address: 165.32.52.0
 Range: 165.32.52.0 to 165.32.53.255
Subnet 2 Address: 165.32.52.0/23
Subnet 1: /24
 Subnet 1 requires 256 addresses.
 Prefix: /24 (8 host bits)
 Starting Address: 165.32.54.0
 Range: 165.32.54.0 to 165.32.54.255
Subnet 1 Address: 165.32.54.0/24

Subnet 3: /24
 Subnet 3 requires 256 addresses.
 Prefix: /24 (8 host bits)
 Starting Address: 165.32.55.0
 Range: 165.32.55.0 to 165.32.55.255
Subnet 3 Address: 165.32.55.0/24