COMMUNICATION: HISTORY AND FORMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define communication.
2. Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times.
3. List the five forms of communication.
4. Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
5. Review the various career options for students who study communication.
Communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving
verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been
rephrased and refined over many years. In order to get a context for how
communication has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the
field.

A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies
communication, let us focus on human communication. Even though all animals
communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to
communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality. For
example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols to discuss a concept that
summarizes many aspects of teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past
and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what
allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories.
It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food and baby, but its ability to
use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However,
humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do
today.
Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may
remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound
like that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just
think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these
words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence
of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this
primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans
who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools,
impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring
who were also more predisposed to communicate. This eventually led to the
development of a “Talking Culture” during the “Talking Era.” During the period of
human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only
medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had.
The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral
to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a
more settled, agrarian way of life. As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and
began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food,
they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record
transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that
symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of
grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record
keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.
During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers
turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became
more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were
needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it.
The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and
bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling
elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex.
The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication,
however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the
ability to read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In
fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.
The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in
communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and was
marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written
texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audio-visual Era,” which only lasted 140
years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph,
telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted
from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a
new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of
digital and personal media signalled the beginning of the digital age.
The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also
influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of
study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the production
of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever
found were written about communication. Although this essay and book predate
Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the
communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest,
are the most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such
as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric, which refers to speaking well and
persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician,
for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This
leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical
communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient
or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to
persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about
rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor, or communicator. So
when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest
ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical speaker.
The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in
discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and
speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among
rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and
citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began.
Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed by Roman orators like Cicero.
Cicero contributed to the field of rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five
canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and
memory. Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things
in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons. Arrangement refers to the
organization of speech, style refers to the use of language, and delivery refers to the
vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. Memory is the least studied of the five
canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and
then repeat large amounts of information. The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s
marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge,
which led to an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of
human existence. This focus on academic development continued into the 1900s and
the establishment of distinct communication studies departments.

Forms of Communication
Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts.
The five main forms of communication are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group,
public, and mass communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal
vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal
communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for
example, communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal
stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike
other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside
our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to
count as communication. So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no
one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication is communication with ourselves that takes place in our

heads.
© Thinkstock
Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or
talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment. For example,
a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy
person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal
communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an
understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and
how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier
example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept because other
people associated her communication behaviours with shyness and may have even
labelled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant. As with the other
forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate
social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the
ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness.
Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it, like, laughing aloud
because we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to
pass time. In both cases, intrapersonal communication is usually unplanned and
doesn’t include a clearly defined goal. We can, however, engage in more intentional
intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become
more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own
behaviours. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a
thought or action.
The main distinction between intrapersonal communication and other forms of
communication is that it is not created with the intention that another person will
perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates
consumption of their message is very important.
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives
mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and
ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal
communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal
communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study
within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational
communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication.
After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.
Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is
interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than
intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal
oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfils instrumental and relational
needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting
someone to fulfil a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a
committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets
relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since
this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is
the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and
communication conflict most frequently occur here. Couples, bosses and employees,
and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication,
and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal
communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among
others, to maintain positive relationships.
Group Communication
Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to
achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college,
and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating,
group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for
group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more
team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part
of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many
contexts.

Since many businesses and organizations are embracing team models, learning about
group communication can help these groups be more effective.
© Webhaptic
Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal
communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals
in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group
communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work
together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goal-
oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person;
for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented
communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole
group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving
a business from one office to another.
You know from previous experience working in groups that having more
communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the
challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as
deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem
from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since
group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and
may have pre-existing relationships or develop them during group interaction,
elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too.
Public Communication
Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one
person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public
speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like
group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic,
professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group
communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal,
and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.
Public communication is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group
communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes
many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an
audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to
see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with
which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is
very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example,
although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with
audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-face with them so
they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback.
Mass Communication
Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many
people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and
magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although
they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic
media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication
channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are
other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass
communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A
certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication
message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message.
This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire
crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a
television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted
through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the
message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. A
president’s State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very
formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news
interview is not.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the

personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a
personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication
messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t
inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public
communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass
communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or
send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the
immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new
media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more
immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags
(#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television
hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via
social media and may even share the feedback on the air.
The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with
it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This
power makes mass communication different from the other levels of
communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other
levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important
to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and media
often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and
who is included and excluded in various mediated messages. E