Limit

Neighbourhood of a point

Def 1.Let cϵR then a subset S of R is called a neighbourhood of c if ⱻ an open interval (a,b) s.t cϵ(a,b)⊆ S.

Clearly Set S must be uncountable .

Def 2. Let cϵR and δ>0 then the open interval (c-δ,c+δ)is said to be a δ-neighbourhood of c and it is
denoted by Nδ(c) or N(c,δ). Clearly , δ- neighbourhood of c is an open interval whose mid point is c.For
different small positive real values of δ, we will get infinite number of δ-neighbourhood of c. If the point
x=c is deleted from the set (c-δ,c+δ) or the set (c-δ,c)U(c,c+δ) is called deleted δ-neighbourhood of c
and is denoted by Nδ(c).

Note.

1.Sets of N,Z, Q ,Qc are not neighbourhood of its elements while R is the neighbourhood of its elements.

2.An open interval always neighbourhood of each of its elements.

3.A closed interval is neighbourhood of each of its elements except its end points.

4.A non-empty finite set is not neighbourhood of any of its elements.

5.Any superset of neighbourhood of any point is also the neighbourhood of that point.

6. The intersection of two neighbourhoods of any point is also neighbourhood of that point.

Limit of a variable

Let a is a real constant and x is a real variable. Now consider two infinite sequences {a+1,
a+1/2,a+1/3,a+1/4,….} and {a-1,a-1/2,a-1/3,a-1/4, …..}. If the variable x takes successively the values of
the first sequence and the numerical difference of the assumed values of x and a i.e the value of

|x-a| can be made less than any pre-assigned positive number ,however small ,then it can be said that
the variable x approaches a from the right hand side by taking the values greater than a . This is
symbolically represented by , x→a+0 or x→a+.

Again, if x takes the values of second sequence successively and the value of |x-a| can be made less
than any pre-assigned positive number , however small, then it can be said that the variable x
approaches a from the left hand side by taking the values less than a. This is symbolically represented
by, x→a-0 or x→a-

Combining all cases , we can say that limit of variable x is a and denoted by limx=a or x→a.

Limiting value of a function

Assume that x is a real variable ,a is a real constant and f(x) is single-valued function of x. Now if x
gradually approaches a by taking values which are always greater than a and if the corresponding values
of f(x) exist and if these values approach a finite constant l1 , then l1 is called the right hand limiting
value of f(x). in other words, when x→+a, if ⱻ a finite constant l1 such that the numerical difference
between the value of f(x) and l1 I.e the value of |f(x)-l1| can be made less than any pre-assigned positive
quantity, however small, then l1is called right hand limiting value of f(x) and denoted by limf(x)=l1 when
x→a+ or f(a+0)=l1.

Again if x gradually approaches a by taking values less than a and if the corresponding values of f(x) exist
and if these values tends to a finite constant l2 i.e the numerical difference between the value of f(x) and
l2 (|f(x)-l2|) can be made less than any pre-assigned positive quantity, however small ,then l2 is called the
left hand limiting value of f(x) and is denoted by limf(x)=l2 when x→a- or f(a-0)=l2.

It is clear from the above discussion that, if we are interested in finding the limit of f(x) at x=a , the first
thing we have to make sure that f(x) is well-defined in the neighbourhood of x=a and not necessarily at
x=a I.e x=a may or may not be in the domain of f(x) as we have to just examine the tendency of f(x) in
the neighbourhood of x=a.

Now following possibilities may arise as follows:

(a)if l1 =l2=l i.e f(a+0)=f(a-0) or R.H.L=L.H.L and both limits limf(x) when x→a+ and x→a- exist then f(x)
possesses a limit l when x→a.

(b) if l1≠l2 or R.H.L≠L.H.L then f(x) does not possess a limit.

(c) if f(a+0) or f(a-0) or both f(a+0)and f(a-0) is or are indeterminate then f(x) does not have any limit.

(d) From (b) and (c) , it is clear that f(x) will not possess a limit if

(i) f(a+0) is indeterminate

(ii) f(a-0) is indeterminate

(iii) f(a+0)≠f(a-0)

(e) if Dom(f) is (a,b)or [a,b]or (a,b]or [a,b) then limf(x) when x→a will exist if limf(x) at x→a+ exists and
similarly limf(x) when x→b will exist if limf(x) at x→b- exists.

(f)If a function has erratic behavior in the neighbourhood of x=a then its R.H.L and/or L.H.L is not fixed or
non-unquie number then its limit does not exist.

Indeterminate Forms

If direct subsititution of x=a while evaluating limf(x) at x→a leads to one of the following forms
0/0,∞/∞,∞-∞,1∞,00,∞0,∞.0 then it is called indeterminate form.
Infinity(∞) is a symbol and not a number . it is just used for a variable which continuously increases and
passes through all the limits. Thus the statement x=∞ is meaningless ,we should write x→∞.

Similarly -∞is a symbol for the behavior of a variable which continuously decreases and passes through
all limits. Thus the statement x=-∞ is meaningless, we should write x→-∞.

Also, 1/x→0 if x→+∞ and 1/x→0 if x→-∞.we can not plot ∞ on paper. Infinity does not obey laws of
elementary algebra. So ∞+∞=∞ is indeterminate and ∞-∞ is indeterminate.

L’Hospital’s Rule

lim f ( x )
This rule states that , if x→a reduces to 0/0 or ∞/∞ form then differentiate numerator and
g (x )
'
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
denominator till this form is removed i.e, x → a =
x→ a provided later limit exists. But if it again
'
g (x ) g (x)
' ''
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
take form 0/0 or ∞/∞ then x→a
=
x→ a
=
n→a and this process is continued till 0/0 or
' ''
g (x ) g (x) g (x)
∞/∞ form is removed.

Frequently used series Expansion

1.ex=1+x+(x2/2!)+(x3/3!)+(x4/4!)+……

2.ax=1+(xloga)+(x2(loga)2)/2!+(x3(loga)3)/3!+…… where aϵR+

3.(1+x)n=1+nx+n(n-1)x2/2!+n(n-1)(n-2)x3/3!+….. where nϵR and |x|<1

4.log(1+x)=x-x2/2+x3/3-x4/4+……. Where xϵ[-1,1]

5.( xn-an)/(x-a)=xn-1+axn-2+a2xn-3+…..+an-1

6.sinx=x-x3/3!+x5/5!-x7/7!+…..

7.cosx=1-x2/2!+x4/4!-x6/6!+…..

8.tanx=x+x3/3+2x5/15+17x7/315+…..

9.sin-1=x+12x3/3!+1232x5/5!+123252x7/7!+…..

10.tan-1x =x-x3/3+x5/5-x7/7+…. (Gregory’s series)

1
11.( 1+ x ) x = e(1-x/2+11x2/24+…..)

Evaluation of Limits
Here all the problems of evaluation of limits are divided into five catagories as follows:

1.Limit of algebraic functions

2.Trigonometric Limits

3.Logarithmic Limits

4.Exponential Limits

5.Miscellaneous Forms

Limit of Algebraic Functions

In this section, we evaluate limit of algebraic functions when variable tends to a finite or infinite
value.while evaluating algebraic limits then 0/0,∞/∞ and ∞-∞ arise which we will discuss here.

(i)0/0 form

This form can be resolved by factorization method, rationalization method or by using the formula
n n
lim x −a
x→a
=n a
n −1 which are discussed below.
x−a

(a)Factorisation Method

In this method, numerators and denominators are factorised .The common factor are cancelled and
rest output is the result.

(b)Rationalisation Method

Rationalisation is followed when we have fractional powers (like 1/2,1/3) on expressions in numerator
or denominator or both. After rationalization terms are factorised which on cancellation gives the
result.

(c)Based on Standard formula

n n n
lim x −a lim ( 1+ x ) −1
1. x → a =n a
n −1 ,n is a rational number. 2. x → a =n
x−a x

(ii)Algebraic Function of ∞Type

(a)∞/∞

First we should know the limiting values of ax(a>0)as x→∞ which is given
x
lim a = ∞ if a>1
x→ ∞
 1 if a=1

0 if 0≤a<1

This type of problems are solved by taking the highest power of the terms tending to infinity as common
from numerator and denominator. That is after they are cancelled and rest output is the result.

(b)∞-∞ Form

Such problems are simplified (generally rationalized first, thereafter they generally acquire ∞/∞ form.

Important Result

If m,n are positive integers and a0 ,b0≠0 and non-zero real numbers then

lim ¿ n
a 0 x +a 1 x
n−1
+ a2 x
n−2
+¿ ... .. + an equals to 0 if m<n
x→ ∞

m m−1 m−2
b 0 x +b 1 x + b2 x + …⋅ bm a0/b0 if m=n

∞ if m>n and a0b0>0

-∞ if m>n and a0b0<0

Trigonometric Limits

lim sin x
1. x → 0 =1 ,x is measured in radian unit (in circular system)
x

lim tan x
2. x → 0 =1, x is measured in radian unit (in circular system)
x
1
lim sin x
3. x → 0 =1
x
−1
lim tan x
4. x → 0 =1,
x
0
lim sin x
5. x → 0 =π/1800
x

6. lim
x →0
cos x =1
 lim sin ( x−a )
7. x → a =1
x−a

lim tan ( x−a )

8. x → a =1
x−a

lim sin x
9. x →∞ =0
x

lim cos x
10. x →∞ =0
x

lim tan x
11. n →∞ does not exist.
x

Logarithmic and Exponential Limits

lim log ( 1+ x )
1. x → 0 =¿ 1
x
x
lim ⅇ −1
2. x → 0 =1
x
x
lim a −1
3. x → 0 = lna
x

4.Exponential limits of the form 1∞

lim f ( x )
f ( x )=lim g ( x ) =0 then
x→a

(i)if lim
x →a x →a
g(x )
lim ( 1+f ( x ) ) =ⅇ g ( x)
x →a

lim ( f ( x ) −1 ) g ( x )
(ii)when lim f ( x )=1 , lim g ( x )=∞then lim f ( x )g ( x )= ⅇ x →a

x →a n→ a ϰ →a

Particular cases:

( ) ( )
x 1 x
1∕ x 1 λ
(iii)lim ( 1+ x ) =e (ii) lim 1+ =e (v)lim ( 1+ λx ) x =eλ (vi) lim 1+ =eλ
x →0 x→ ∞ x x →0 x→ ∞ x

Miscellaneous Form

00 form
When lim f ( x ) ≠ 1 but f(x) is positive in the neighbourhood of x=a. in this case, we write
x →a
g ( x) lim g ( x ) log f ( x )
{f(x)}g(x)=eln{f(x)}^g(x) lim [ f ( x ) ] =ⅇ
x →a

x →a

∞0form

Let f(x) be a single valued function in x s.t lim f ( x ) takes ∞0 form where a is some real number then
x→ a

assume given limit as L and then take ln bothside . After it will take 0/0 form or ∞/∞ form which can be
further solvable by LHospital rule.

Left hand and Right hand Limits

Let y=f(x) be a single valued function in x and aϵR then limf(x) will exist if L.H.L=R.H.L or f(a-0)=f(a+0) at
x→a.

Sandwich/squeeze Theorem

If f,g,h are three functions such that f(x)≤g(x)≤h(x) ꓯ x in some interval containing the point x=c and if
lim f ( x )=lim g ( x )= L then lim g ( x )=L where c may be finite number or +∞ or -∞ and similarly L also
x →c x →c x →c

may be finite or+∞ or -∞.

Fundamental Theorem of limit

1.Let x be a real variable and f(x) and g(x) are two real single valued functions of x and a,l,m,c are four
finite quantities . suppose lim f ( x )=l and lim g ( x )=mthen we have ,
x →a x →a

(a)lim ¿{c.f(x)}=c.lim f ( x )
x→ a x→ a

(b)lim ¿[f(x)±g(x)]=lim f ( x )±lim g ( x )

x→ a x→ a x →a

(c)lim
x→ a ( x →a )(
¿[f(x).g(x)]= lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x→a )
lim f ( x )
lim ¿
(d) x→ a [f(x)/g(x)]=
x →a
where lim g(x)≠0
lim g ( x ) x →a
x→a

2.if limf(x)=l at x→a and limg(y)=g(l) at y→l where y=f(x) and a,l,g(l) are finite quantities then limg{f(x)} at
x→a exists and limg{f(x)} at x→a =g{limf(x)} at x→a=g(l).

3.if f(x)≤g(x) in the neighbourhood of the point x=a [but x≠a] then limf(x)≤limg(x) at x→a
4.lim f ( x )=lim f ( a+ h )
x →a h→ 0

5.if u→0 when x→0 and lim f ( x )=lim f ( u )

x →a u→ 0
Important Results
f (x) g (x )
lim λ −λ
1. To solve the problem of the form x→a where lim f ( x )=lim g ( x )=0 , λ ∈ R + , put x=a+z
x →a x →a
f ( x )−g ( x )
f ( a+ z ) g ( a+ z )
lim λ −λ
then given limit converts into z →0 which can further be solved by using the formula
f ( a+ z )−g ( a+ z )

[ ]
x
lim a −1 λ {f ( a+ z )− g (a +z )}−1
(
g a+ z
⋅ )
where lim f ( a+ z ) −g ( a+ z )=0 .
=ln a ( a>0 )as lim λ
x→0
x z→0 f ( a+ z )−g ( a+ z ) z→0

2.To solve the problem of the form lim ¿ log h(x) f(x) where lim f ( x )=lim h ( x )=0 then use the base
x→ a x →a x →a
∞
changing formula of logarithm and given limit converts into form.
∞

3.lim
x →0 [ ]sin x
x
= 0 , lim
x →0[ ]
tan x
x
=1 where [.] represents G.I.F.

4.(1+x)n≈ 1+nx as x→0 (Binomial approximation)