§14.

4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations

Tangent Planes

Linear Approximations

Differentials
Tangent Planes
Suppose a surface S is given by z = f (x, y ), and P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is
a point on S. Clearly, z0 = f (x0 , y0 ).
Tangent Planes
Suppose a surface S is given by z = f (x, y ), and P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is
a point on S. Clearly, z0 = f (x0 , y0 ).
To find the equation of the tangent plane to S at P, observe that
there are two particular curves through P on S:
I the intersection curve of S with the plane y = y0 :

r1 (x) = hx, y0 , f (x, y0 )i, where x is a parameter

I the intersection curve of S with the plane x = x0 :

r2 (y ) = hx0 , y , f (x0 , y )i, where y is a parameter

Tangent Planes
Suppose a surface S is given by z = f (x, y ), and P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is
a point on S. Clearly, z0 = f (x0 , y0 ).
To find the equation of the tangent plane to S at P, observe that
there are two particular curves through P on S:
I the intersection curve of S with the plane y = y0 :

r1 (x) = hx, y0 , f (x, y0 )i, where x is a parameter

I the intersection curve of S with the plane x = x0 :

r2 (y ) = hx0 , y , f (x0 , y )i, where y is a parameter

The tangent vectors of both curves at P, that is,

r10 (x0 ) = h1, 0, fx (x0 , y0 )i, r20 (y0 ) = h0, 1, fy (x0 , y0 )i

are tangent to the tangent plane to S at P.

Therefore, the normal vector of the tangent plane is given by

i j k
n = r10 (x0 ) × r20 (y0 ) = 1 0 fx (x0 , y0 )
0 1 fy (x0 , y0 )
= h−fx (x0 , y0 ), −fy (x0 , y0 ), 1i

The reference point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ), then the scalar equation of

the tangent plane is

−fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) − fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ) + (z − z0 ) = 0

We usually rewrite it as

z − z0 = fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

Example
Fine the tangent plane to the paraboloid z = 2x 2 + y 2 at the point
(1, 1, 3).
Example
Fine the tangent plane to the paraboloid z = 2x 2 + y 2 at the point
(1, 1, 3).

Solution. Let z = f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + y 2 , then

fx = 4x, fy = 2y

fx (1, 1) = 4, fy (1, 1) = 2
So the equation of the tangent plane is

z − 3 = 4(x − 1) + 2(y − 1)

Or
z = 4x + 2y − 3
Linearization

Recall that the equation of tangent plane to the surface

z = f (x, y ) at P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is

z = z0 + fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

= f (x0 , y0 ) + fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

The linear function

L(x, y ) = f (x0 , y0 ) + fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 )

is called the linearization of f at (x0 , y0 ).

Example
Find linearization of f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + y 2 at (1, 1).
Example
Find linearization of f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + y 2 at (1, 1).

Solution.
fx = 4x, fy = 2y
f (1, 1) = 3, fx (1, 1) = 4, fy (1, 1) = 2
So the linearization of f at (1, 1) is

L(x, y ) = 3 + 4(x − 1) + 2(y − 1) = 4x + 2y − 3

Linear Approximations
Given f (x, y ) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ D, we try to approximate f (x, y ) via
linearization at (x0 , y0 ). More precisely, we hope

f (x, y ) ≈ L(x, y ), if (x, y ) is close to (x0 , y0 ).

Linear Approximations
Given f (x, y ) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ D, we try to approximate f (x, y ) via
linearization at (x0 , y0 ). More precisely, we hope

f (x, y ) ≈ L(x, y ), if (x, y ) is close to (x0 , y0 ).

Bad Example: Consider

 xy
 , if (x, y ) 6= (0, 0),
f (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2
 0, if (x, y ) = (0, 0).

d d
fx (0, 0) = f (x, 0) = 0, fy (0, 0) = f (0, y ) = 0
dx dy
So the linearization of f at (0, 0) is

L(x, y ) = 0 + 0(x − 0) + 0(y − 0) = 0.

However,
f (x, y ) 6≈ L(x, y ) = 0,
no matter how close (x, y ) is to (0, 0). Indeed, approach (0, 0)
along the line y = x, that is, take (x, x), we have

x2 1
f (x, x) = 2
= >0
2x 2
no matter how x → 0.
Further, one can see that the function f (x, y ) is NOT even
continuous at (0, 0): take another path, say y = 0, and let x → 0,
get
x0
f (x, 0) = 2 = 0.
x + 02
Differentiability

Consider z = f (x, y ) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ D. Suppose x changes from x0

to x0 + ∆x and y changes from y0 to y0 + ∆y . Then the
corresponding increment of z is

∆z = f (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y ) − f (x0 , y0 ),

which represents the change in the value of f when (x, y ) changes

from (x0 , y0 ) to (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y ).
Differentiability

Consider z = f (x, y ) and (x0 , y0 ) ∈ D. Suppose x changes from x0

to x0 + ∆x and y changes from y0 to y0 + ∆y . Then the
corresponding increment of z is

∆z = f (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y ) − f (x0 , y0 ),

which represents the change in the value of f when (x, y ) changes

from (x0 , y0 ) to (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y ).
Definition
f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) if

∆z = fx (x0 , y0 )∆x + fy (x0 , y0 )∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y

where ε1 , ε2 → 0 as (∆x, ∆y ) → (0, 0).

By definition, if f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ), then
I f is continuous at (x0 , y0 );
I the linear approximation of f at (x0 , y0 ) is valid, that is,

f (x, y ) ≈ L(x, y ), whenever (x, y ) is close to (x0 , y0 ).

By definition, if f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ), then
I f is continuous at (x0 , y0 );
I the linear approximation of f at (x0 , y0 ) is valid, that is,

f (x, y ) ≈ L(x, y ), whenever (x, y ) is close to (x0 , y0 ).

Theorem
If fx , fy exist near (x0 , y0 ) and are continuous at (x0 , y0 ), then f is
differentiable at (x0 , y0 ).
Example
Show that f (x, y ) = e xy is differentiable at (1, 0) and find its
linearization there. Then use it to approximate f (1.1, −0.1).
Example
Show that f (x, y ) = e xy is differentiable at (1, 0) and find its
linearization there. Then use it to approximate f (1.1, −0.1).

Solution.
fx = ye xy , fy = xe xy
exist and are continuous everywhere, in particular at (1, 0). So f is
differentiable at (1, 0). The linearization is

L(x, y ) = f (1, 0) + fx (1, 0)(x − 1) + fy (1, 0)(y − 0)

= 1 + 0(x − 1) + 1(y − 0) = y + 1
Example
Show that f (x, y ) = e xy is differentiable at (1, 0) and find its
linearization there. Then use it to approximate f (1.1, −0.1).

Solution.
fx = ye xy , fy = xe xy
exist and are continuous everywhere, in particular at (1, 0). So f is
differentiable at (1, 0). The linearization is

L(x, y ) = f (1, 0) + fx (1, 0)(x − 1) + fy (1, 0)(y − 0)

= 1 + 0(x − 1) + 1(y − 0) = y + 1

Linear approximation:

f (1.1, −0.1) ≈ L(1.1, −0.1) = −0.1 + 1 = 0.9

Differentials
Now assume that z = f (x, y ) is differentiable. Write differentials
dx and dy - infinitesimal change of x and y . The total differential
dz is defined by
∂z ∂z
dz = fx dx + fy dy = dx + dy .
∂x ∂y
Differentials
Now assume that z = f (x, y ) is differentiable. Write differentials
dx and dy - infinitesimal change of x and y . The total differential
dz is defined by
∂z ∂z
dz = fx dx + fy dy = dx + dy .
∂x ∂y

Take dx = ∆x = x − x0 and dy = ∆y = y − y0 , then

dz = fx (x0 , y0 )(x − x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y − y0 ).

In other words,

f (x, y ) ≈ L(x, y ) = f (x0 , y0 ) + dz

or
∆z = f (x, y ) − f (x0 , y0 ) ≈ dz,
whenever (x, y ) is close to (x0 , y0 ).
Example
Let z = f (x, y ) = x 2 + 3xy − y 2 .
I find the total differential dz;
I If x changes from 2 to 2.05 and y changes from 3 to 2.96,
compare ∆z and dz.
Example
Let z = f (x, y ) = x 2 + 3xy − y 2 .
I find the total differential dz;
I If x changes from 2 to 2.05 and y changes from 3 to 2.96,
compare ∆z and dz.
Solution.
I fx = 2x + 3y and fy = 3x − 2y , then

dz = fx dx + fy dy = (2x + 3y )dx + (3x − 2y )dy .

I dx = ∆x = 2.05 − 2 = 0.05 and

dy = ∆y = 2.96 − 3 = −0.04, then

∆z = f (2.05, 2.96) − f (2, 3) = · · · = 0.6449

dz = (2 · 2 + 3 · 3) · 0.05 + (3 · 2 − 2 · 3) · (−0.04) = 0.65

Note tha ∆z ≈ dz, but dz is easier to compute.
Example
The base radius and height of a circular cylinder are measured as
10cm and 25cm, respectively, with a possible error in measurement
of as much as 0.1cm in each. Use differentials to estimate the
maximal error in the calculated volume of the cylinder.
Example
The base radius and height of a circular cylinder are measured as
10cm and 25cm, respectively, with a possible error in measurement
of as much as 0.1cm in each. Use differentials to estimate the
maximal error in the calculated volume of the cylinder.
Solution.
The volume V of a cylinder with base radius r and height h is
V = πr 2 h. Then
∂V ∂V
dV = dr + dh = 2πrhdr + πr 2 dh,
∂r ∂h
where r = 10, h = 25, dr = dh = 0.1, get

∆V ≈ dV = 2π10 · 25 · 0.1 + π102 · 0.1 = 60π cm3