Data Base Management System 1

B.Tech. 5th Sem.

CS/AL-502: Database Management System

Unit-1
What is Data?
Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of
forms like text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or electronic
memory, etc.
Word 'Data' is originated from the word 'datum' that means 'single piece of information.'
It is plural of the word datum.
In computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement
and processing. Data is interchangeable.

What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and managed.
The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete
the data efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views,
and reports, etc.
You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find relevant
information.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students
and faculty etc.
Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database.
For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is
used in different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation,
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storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it
also maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that
defines the organization of data in the database.
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o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual
data in the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used
by applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data
integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Characteristics of DBMS
o It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the information.
o It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
o DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
o It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of failure.
o It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
o It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
o It is used to provide security of data.
o It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the requirements of
the user.

Advantages of DBMS
o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all
the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the
data among multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of
the database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic
backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if
required.
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o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical
user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS
o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and
large memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
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o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of
the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is
damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost
forever.

File system vs DBMS

Difference between File System and
DBMS File System Approach
File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual system. It is also
called a traditional based approach in which a decentralized approach was taken where
each department stored and controlled its own data with the help of a data processing
specialist. The main role of a data processing specialist was to create the necessary
computer file structures, and also manage the data within structures and design some
application programs that create reports based on file data.

DBMS
A database approach is a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful
way which can be accessed by different users but stored only once in a system. The various
operations performed by the DBMS system are: Insertion, deletion, selection, sorting etc.

There are the following differences between DBMS and File systems:

Basis DBMS Approach File System Approach

Meaning DBMS is a collection of data. In The file system is a collection of data.

DBMS, the user is not required to In this system, the user has to write
write the procedures. the procedures for managing the
database.
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Sharing of data Due to the centralized approach, data Data is distributed in many files, and
sharing is easy. it may be of different formats, so it
isn't easy to share data.

Data Abstraction DBMS gives an abstract view of data The file system provides the detail of
that hides the details. the data representation and storage
of data.
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Security and DBMS provides a good It isn't easy to protect a file under the
Protection protection mechanism. file system.

Recovery DBMS provides a crash recovery The file system doesn't have a crash
Mechanism mechanism, i.e., DBMS protects the mechanism, i.e., if the system crashes
user from system failure. while entering some data, then the
content of the file will be lost.

Manipulation DBMS contains a wide variety of The file system can't efficiently store
Techniques sophisticated techniques to store and and retrieve the data.
retrieve the data.

Concurrency DBMS takes care of Concurrent access In the File system, concurrent access
Problems of data using some form of locking. has many problems like redirecting
the file while deleting some
information or updating some
information.

Where to use Database approach used in large File system approach used in large
systems which interrelate many files. systems which interrelate many files.

Cost The database system is expensive to The file system approach is cheaper to
design. design.

Data Redundancy Due to the centralization of the In this, the files and application
and Inconsistency database, the problems of data programs are created by different
redundancy and inconsistency are programmers so that there exists a
controlled. lot of duplication of data which may
lead to inconsistency.

Structure The database structure is complex to The file system approach has a simple
design. structure.
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Data In this system, Data Independence In the File system approach, there
Independence exists, and it can be of two types. exists no Data Independence.
o Logical Data Independence
o Physical Data Independence

Integrity Integrity Constraints are easy to apply. Integrity Constraints are difficult
Constraints to implement in file system.
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Data Models In the database approach, 3 types of In the file system approach, there is
data models exist: no concept of data models exists.
o Hierarchal data models
o Network data models
o Relational data models

Flexibility Changes are often a necessity to the The flexibility of the system is less
content of the data stored in any as compared to the DBMS approach.
system, and these changes are more
easily with a database approach.

Examples Oracle, SQL Server, Sybase etc. Cobol, C++ etc.

Database System architecture

Three schema Architecture

o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-
level architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications
and physical database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down
into three different categories.

The three-schema architecture is as follows:

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In the above diagram:

o It shows the DBMS architecture.
o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various
database levels of architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from
external level to conceptual schema.
o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the
conceptual to internal level.

1. Internal Level
o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage
structure of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored
in a block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities

o Storage space allocations.
For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc.
o Access paths.
For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers and
sequencing.
o Data compression and encryption techniques.
o Optimization of internal structures.
o Representation of stored fields.

2. Conceptual Level
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o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual
level. Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and
also describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data
structure are hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.
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3. External Level
o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called
as subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is
interested and hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

Mapping between Views

The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There must
be correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond with each
other. DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of schema. This
correspondence is called Mapping.

There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture:

o Conceptual/ Internal Mapping
o External / Conceptual Mapping

Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal level.
Its role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the conceptual
level and files and data structures of the internal level.

External/ Conceptual Mapping

The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual level.
Its role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the conceptual
view.

Data Models
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Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency
constraints of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a
database at each level of data abstraction.

1) Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and
columns within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-
between relationships. Tables are also called relations. This model was initially
described by Edgar F.
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Codd, in 1969. The relational data model is the widely used model which is primarily used
by commercial data processing applications.

2) Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as

objects and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and
relationship is an association among these entities. This model was designed by Peter Chen
and published in 1976 papers. It was widely used in database designing. A set of attributes
describe the entities. For example, student_name, student_id describes the 'student' entity.
A set of the same type of entities is known as an 'Entity set', and the set of the same type of
relationships is known as 'relationship set'.

3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions,

encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model supports a rich type system that
includes structured and collection types. Thus, in 1980s, various database systems following
the object- oriented approach were developed. Here, the objects are nothing but the data
carrying its properties.

Schemas and instances

Data model Schema and Instance
o The data which is stored in the database at a particular moment of time is called an
instance of the database.
o The overall design of a database is called schema.
o A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database. It represents the logical
view of the entire database.
o A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key, views,
columns, data types, stored procedure, etc.
o A database schema can be represented by using the visual diagram. That diagram
shows the database objects and relationship with each other.
o A database schema is designed by the database designers to help programmers
whose software will interact with the database. The process of database creation is
called data modeling.
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A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a schema like the name of record type,
data type, and constraints. Other aspects can't be specified through the schema diagram.
For example, the given figure neither show the data type of each data item nor the
relationship among various files.
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In the database, actual data changes quite frequently. For example, in the given figure, the
database changes whenever we add a new grade or add a student. The data at a particular
moment of time is called the instance of the database.

Data Independence
o Data independence can be explained using the three-schema architecture.
o Data independence refers characteristic of being able to modify the schema at one
level of the database system without altering the schema at the next higher level.

There are two types of data independence:

1. Logical Data Independence

o Logical data independence refers characteristic of being able to change the
conceptual schema without having to change the external schema.
o Logical data independence is used to separate the external level from the
conceptual view.
o If we do any changes in the conceptual view of the data, then the user view of the
data would not be affected.
o Logical data independence occurs at the user interface level.

2. Physical Data Independence

o Physical data independence can be defined as the capacity to change the
internal schema without having to change the conceptual schema.
o If we do any changes in the storage size of the database system server, then the
Conceptual structure of the database will not be affected.
o Physical data independence is used to separate conceptual levels from the
internal levels.
o Physical data independence occurs at the logical interface level.
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DBA (Data Base Administrator)

Explain the role of the Database Administrator in DBMS?

A database administrator (DBA) is a person or group in charge of implementing DBMS in

an organization. The DBA job requires a high degree of technical expertise. DBA consists
of a team of people rather than just one person.
The primary role of Database administrator is as follows −
• Database design
• Performance issues
• Database accessibility
• Capacity issues
• Data replication
• Table Maintenance

Responsibilities of DBA
The responsibilities of DBA are as follows −
• Makes the decision concerning the content of the database.
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• Plans the storage structure and access strategy.
• Provides the support to the users.
• Defines the security and integrity checks.
• Interpreter backup and recovery strategies.
• Monitoring the performance and responding to the changes in the requirements.

Skills required for DBA

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The skills required to be a successful DBA are as follows −

• Database designing.
• Knowledge of Structured Query Language (SQL).
• Know about distributed architecture.
• Knowledge on different operating servers.
• Idea on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS).
• Ready to face challenges and solve the problems quickly.

ER (Entity Relationship) Model in DBMS

o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model.
This model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified
system.
o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and
easy to design view of data.
o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an
entity- relationship diagram.

For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student will be an
entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be another entity

with attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a relationship between
them.

ER Diagrams
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An Entity Relationship Diagram is a diagram that represents relationships among entities
in a database. It is commonly known as an ER Diagram. An ER Diagram in DBMS plays a
crucial role in designing the database. Today's business world previews all the
requirements demanded by the users in the form of an ER Diagram.

Component of ER Diagram
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1. Entity:
An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can
be represented as rectangles.
Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department etc. can

be taken as an entity.

Entity in DBMS can be a real-world object with an existence, For

example, in a College database, the entities can be Professor, Students, Courses, etc.
Entities has attributes, which can be considered as properties describing it, for example,
for Professor entity, the attributes are Professor_Name, Professor_Address,
Professor_Salary, etc. The attribute value gets stored in the database.
Example of Entity in
DBMS Let us see an
example −
<Professor>
Professor_ID Professor_Name Professor_City Professor_Salary
P01 Tom Sydney $7000
P02 David Brisbane $4500
P03 Mark Perth $5000
Here, Professor_Name, Professor _Address and Professor _Salary are
attributes. Professor_ID is the primary key

Types of DBMS Entities

The following are the types of entities in DBMS –

Strong Entity
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The strong entity has a primary key. Weak entities are dependent on strong entity.
Its existence is not dependent on any other entity.
Strong Entity is represented by a single rectangle
Continuing our previous example, Professor is a strong entity here, and the primary
key is Professor_ID.

Weak Entity
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The weak entity in DBMS do not have a primary key and are dependent on the parent
entity. It mainly depends on other entities.
Weak Entity is represented by double rectangle.
Continuing our previous example, Professor is a strong entity, and the primary
key is Professor_ID. However, another entity is Professor_Dependents, which is our
Weak Entity.
<Professor_Dependents>
Name DOB Relation
This is a weak entity since its existence is dependent on another entity Professor, which
we saw above. A Professor has Dependents.

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't
contain any key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

2. Attribute
The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent
an attribute.
For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.
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a. Key Attribute
The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It
represents a primary key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text
underlined.
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b. Composite Attribute
An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute.
The composite attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected with

an ellipse.

c. Multivalued Attribute
An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a
multivalued attribute. The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.
For example, a student can have more than one phone number.

d. Derived Attribute
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An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute. It can be
represented by a dashed ellipse.
For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another attribute
like Date of birth.
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3. Relationship
A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus is

used to represent the relationship.

Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship
When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known as
one to one relationship.
For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship
When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an entity
on the right associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many
relationship.
For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the
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only specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship
When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an entity
on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.
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For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many students.

d. Many-to-many relationship
When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many
relationship.
For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many employees.

Generalization
o Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more entities of lower level
combine to form a higher level entity if they have some attributes in common.
o In generalization, an entity of a higher level can also combine with the entities of the lower level
to form a further higher level entity.
o Generalization is more like subclass and superclass system, but the only difference is the
approach. Generalization uses the bottom-up approach.
o In generalization, entities are combined to form a more generalized entity, i.e., subclasses are
combined to make a superclass.

For example, Faculty and Student entities can be generalized and create a higher level entity Person.
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Specialization
o Specialization is a top-down approach, and it is opposite to Generalization. In specialization, one
higher level entity can be broken down into two lower level entities.
o Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set that shares some distinguishing
characteristics.
o Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its related attributes are defined next,
and relationship set are then added.

For example: In an Employee management system, EMPLOYEE entity can be specialized as

TESTER or DEVELOPER based on what role they play in the company.
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Aggregation

In aggregation, the relation between two entities is treated as a single entity. In aggregation,
relationship with its corresponding entities is aggregated into a higher level entity.

For example: Center entity offers the Course entity act as a single entity in the relationship which is in a
relationship with another entity visitor. In the real world, if a visitor visits a coaching center then he
will never enquiry about the Course only or just about the Center instead he will ask the enquiry about
both.

Reduction of ER diagram to Table

The database can be represented using the notations, and these notations can be reduced to a collection
of tables.

In the database, every entity set or relationship set can be represented in tabular form.
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The ER diagram is given below:

o Entity type becomes a table.

In the given ER diagram, LECTURE, STUDENT, SUBJECT and COURSE forms individual tables.

o All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.

In the STUDENT entity, STUDENT_NAME and STUDENT_ID form the column of STUDENT table.
Similarly, COURSE_NAME and COURSE_ID form the column of COURSE table and so on.

o A key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary key.

In the given ER diagram, COURSE_ID, STUDENT_ID, SUBJECT_ID, and LECTURE_ID are the key
attribute of the entity.

o The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table.

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In the student table, a hobby is a multivalued attribute. So it is not possible to represent multiple values
in a single column of STUDENT table. Hence we create a table STUD_HOBBY with column name
STUDENT_ID and HOBBY. Using both the column, we create a composite key.

o Composite attribute represented by components.

In the given ER diagram, student address is a composite attribute. It contains CITY, PIN, DOOR#,
STREET, and STATE. In the STUDENT table, these attributes can merge as an individual column.

o Derived attributes are not considered in the table.

In the STUDENT table, Age is the derived attribute. It can be calculated at any point of time by
calculating the difference between current date and Date of Birth.

Using these rules, you can convert the ER diagram to tables and columns and assign the mapping
between the tables. Table structure for the given ER diagram is as below
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