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Cambridge (CIE) O Level Your notes

Computer Science
Data Storage
Contents
Primary Storage
Secondary Storage
Virtual Memory
Cloud Storage

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Primary Storage
Your notes
Primary Storage
Primary storage is directly accessed by the CPU
Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need primary storage?

A computer needs primary storage because access times are considerably faster than secondary
This means the time taken to complete operations such as the Fetch-Execute Cycle is dramatically
reduced
Primary storage holds the data and instructions that the CPU needs to access whilst the computer is
turned on
Due to the fast access times, primary storage is used as short-term, working memory, in hardware
that is directly connected to the CPU such as RAM, and components that reside inside the CPU such
as Cache and Registers
Performance of primary storage means a much higher cost which limits the amount that is used
For example, RAM is commonly purchased in 16 or 32 gigabytes whereas secondary storage such as a
hard drive is in terabytes

RAM
What is RAM?
RAM (Random Access Memory) is primary storage that is directly connected to the CPU and holds the
data and instructions that are currently in use
RAM is volatile which means the contents of RAM are lost when the power is turned off
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For the CPU to access the data and instructions they must be copied from secondary storage
RAM is very fast working memory, much faster than secondary storage Your notes
RAM is read/write which means data can be read from and written to
In comparison to ROM, it has a much larger capacity

EXAM TIP
Just knowing what RAM is and what it stores is not enough, you must be able to apply your
understanding of RAM to real world contexts where RAM is a component, e.g. TVs, game consoles
and other smart devices

WORKED EXAMPLE
A smart television allows the user to search the Internet and watch videos online.
The smart television uses RAM
Give two examples of data that the smart television could store in RAM [2]
How to answer this question
Think about the main function of a smart television, watch channels, use apps to stream content
and browse the web etc
For each function, try to think of what data would have to be in the RAM whilst you were actually
doing it (in use!)
Possible answers
Current channel being watched
Current volume
Current video/file/tv program being watched
Web browser/applications that are running
Data being downloaded/buffered

EXAM TIP
Examiners will accept anything reasonable when answering these style of questions BUT brand
names will not be be awarded without giving an example

ROM
What is ROM?

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ROM (Read Only Memory) is primary storage that holds the first instructions a computer needs to start
up (Bootstrap)
Your notes
ROM contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
ROM is a small memory chip located on the computers motherboard
ROM is fast memory, much faster than secondary storage but slower than RAM
ROM is non-volatile which means the contents of ROM are not lost when the power is turned off
ROM is read only which means data can only be read from
In comparison to RAM, it has a much smaller capacity

EXAM TIP
RAM & ROM are examples of primary storage, they can be referred to as Main Memory or Primary
Memory in the exam

WORKED EXAMPLE
Quinn has 512 kilobytes of ROM and 16 gigabytes of RAM in her computer
1. Describe the purpose of the ROM in Quinn's computer [2]
2. Describe the purpose of the RAM in Quinn's computer [2]
Answer
1. ROM
Store start-up instructions/bootstrap
Used to start the computer
2. RAM
Stores the parts of the OS / programs that are running
Stores data currently in use
...for access by the CPU
Guidance
Do not confuse the purpose with characteristics, describe what it does, not what it is

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Secondary Storage
Your notes
Secondary Storage
Storage devices are non-volatile secondary storage, that retain digital data within a computer system
They provide a means of storing, accessing, and retrieving data, which can include software
applications, documents, images, videos, and more
There are 3 types of storage:
Magnetic
Solid-state (flash memory)
Optical
Computer systems need both primary and secondary storage to operate
Both types of storage play a crucial role in the operation of a computer system
A quick comparison of primary and secondary storage shows:

Primary Secondary

Volatile (with the exception of ROM) Non-volatile

Small capacity Large capacity

Why do you need secondary storage?

A computer needs secondary storage for long term storage of programs and data that are currently
not in use
Secondary storage is needed as ROM is read only and RAM is volatile
Secondary storage holds the programs and data whilst the computer is turned off (non-volatile)
Performance of secondary storage is slower than primary storage but capacity is much higher which
makes it perfect for backup & archive of data files

What are the characteristics of secondary storage?

Capacity - What is the maximum amount of data that can be stored?
Speed - How fast can data be read from and written to? (R/W)

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Cost - How much does it cost?

Portability - How easy is it to move around? What is the physical size? Weight? Your notes
Durability - How robust is the storage?
Reliability - What is the probability that the device will consistently perform its function?

WORKED EXAMPLE
A games console has secondary storage.
State, using an example, why the games console needs secondary storage [2]
How to answer this question
They keyword is 'why', why does a games console need secondary storage? give an example,
do not just describe what secondary storage is!
Answer
To store data once the power is turned off / permanently // for non-volatile storage
Examples could include:
Storing games
Save games
User data/profiles
Downloaded content/applications/updates

Magnetic Storage
What is magnetic storage?
Magnetic storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses magnets (polarity) to store binary 0s and 1s
A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic material
These are called platters
Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1

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Your notes

Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge shaped sectors
Where they intersect is a track sector

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The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-7200 RPM) using a motor
A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the disc to the Your notes
location of the data
The data is read/written using electromagnets

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - High storage Durability - Moving parts can get damaged if dropped

Cost - Low per gigabyte Portability - Heavy & bulky making them less convenient for
transport

Speed - Moderate read/write Reliability - Prone to mechanical failure

access

Noise - Loud (spinning disks)

Solid-state (Flash Memory)

What is solid state (flash memory)?
Solid-state (flash memory) storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses electronic circuits to
store binary 0s and 1s
Examples of solid state storage devices include:
Solid state drives (SSD) - replacing magnetic hard drives as a computers primary secondary
storage device as capacity increases and cost decreases
USB flash memory - most common form of portable storage device
It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow of electrons

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Solid-state (flash memory) is memory made up of tiny cells that can contain one bit of data (1 or 0)
Each cell contains a transistor that acts as a switch that can be turned on or off Your notes
The transistor contains two main parts:
Control gate - top layer of transistor, connects to circuit and controls if current can flow through
the transistor
Floating gate - can hold a charge (like a tiny rechargeable battery) and is sandwiched between two
layers of insulating material (Oxide)
To store data a charge is placed on the floating gate
A high voltage is applied to the control gate, which allows electrons to be pushed through the
oxide layer and onto the floating gate
To remove data, a high voltage charge is applied in the opposite direction, pulling the electrons off
the floating gate

Advantages Disadvantages

Capacity - Medium/high storage Cost - Very high per gigabyte

Speed - Very fast read/write access Reliability - Limited read/write cycles

Durability - No moving parts

Portability - Small and no moving parts

Noise - Silent

Optical Storage
What is optical storage?
Optical storage is a type of non-volatile media that uses lasers to burn the surface of a disk, creating
pits and lands suitable for storing binary 0s and 1s
Examples of optical storage include:
Blu-rays have the largest capacity
CDs have the lowest capacity

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CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)

CD-RW can be written to and read from Your notes
DVD-RW can be written to and read from

All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by creating pits and lands
The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the light scatters and
is not reflected back as well.
This is captured by a sensor and can be interpreted as a change in the binary value

Advantages Disadvantages

Cost - Very low per gigabyte Capacity - Very low

Durability - No moving parts Speed - Very slow read/write access

Portability - Small and no moving parts Reliability - Prone to scratches

Noise - Silent

WORKED EXAMPLE
Zarmeen has purchased a new tablet computer. The tablet has an internal secondary storage
device.

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The storage device is a solid state device.

1. Give three benefits of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a magnetic device [3] Your notes
2. Give two drawbacks of the tablet having a solid state device instead of a magnetic device [2]
Answers
Benefits
Faster access / read/write speeds
Smaller in physical size
More durable // no moving parts
Drawbacks
More expensive (per gigabyte)
Smaller capacity (usually)
Limited number of read/write cycles
Guidance
Portable is not enough on it's own
No moving parts is not enough on it's own

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Virtual Memory
Your notes
Virtual Memory
What is virtual memory?

Virtual memory is an extension of primary storage (RAM) located on secondary storage

In situations where RAM is close to being full, virtual memory can be used so that the computer remains
operational
Programs and data not currently being executed are transferred to virtual memory
Programs and data are transferred back to RAM when they are needed
Programs are stored as pages of data
Pages of data are transferred between RAM and virtual memory when needed
Virtual memory is much slower than RAM and its use will impact negatively on system performance
To avoid the use of virtual memory, increase the size of the RAM

Example

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In the example above, the computer is turned on and the elements of the operating system are loaded
into RAM
Your notes
The user opens some spreadsheet and video editing software but RAM is full
The program not currently being used (video editing) is transferred to virtual memory
When the user wants to use the video editing software again, it is transferred back from virtual memory
to RAM

CASE STUDY
A student uses software to create 3D models.
3D modelling often means processing large amounts of data
This takes up a large amount of RAM
If there is not enough physical RAM, virtual memory is used to:
Extend the RAMs capacity
Ensure the software does not freeze/crash when RAM gets full

WORKED EXAMPLE
A computer only has 4GB of RAM, Fynn says that virtual memory can be used instead of adding more
RAM.
1. Explain how virtual memory can compensate for the lack of RAM in Fynn's computer [3]
2. Explain why it would be beneficial for Fynn to get more RAM instead of relying on virtual memory
[2]
How to answer these questions
1. What is the definition of virtual memory? how does it work?
2. What is the downside of using virtual memory? turn this into an advantage of adding more RAM
Answers
How can Virtual Memory compensate
Virtual Memory is used when RAM is full

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...part of the secondary storage used as (temporary) RAM

Data from RAM is moved to the secondary storage/Virtual Memory (to make space in RAM)
RAM can then be filled with new data Your notes
When data in Virtual Memory is needed it is moved back to RAM
Benefit of more RAM
More RAM will improve the performance of the computer // More RAM will speed up the
access to data
Virtual Memory is slower to access than RAM direct (because it has to go back to RAM first)
Moving data between RAM and VM takes processor time

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Cloud Storage
Your notes
Cloud Storage
What is cloud storage?
Cloud storage is a term to describe long-term (secondary) storage of data that resides in a remote
location, accessible only via a wide area network (Internet)
Data is stored on remote servers, typically using magnetic storage (HDD), but increasingly using solid
state (SSD)

Advantages Disadvantages

Reliability - Access data anywhere, any time, from any Cost - Typically a monthly/yearly
device subscription plan

Security - Automatic backups Availability - No access without an

internet connection

Capacity - Endless storage space (cost permitting), uses

less space on own device

Collaboration - Multiple people can access the same file at

the same time

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Your notes

Advantages of Cloud Storage

Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary storage device

Benefit Explanation

Accessibility Data can be accessed from anywhere

Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant permissions, making it quick to
share files and collaborate with others
Data can be accessed on any device with an internet connection

Scalability Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or decrease their storage
capacity as needed

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Reliability Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to store and backup data,
reducing the risk of data loss due to hardware failure
Your notes
Security Cloud storage providers offer advanced security features, such as data encryption
and multi-factor authentication multi-factor authentication, to protect user data
from unauthorised access
There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services being provided by the cloud
storage provider

You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual servers
There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have problems accessing their
files
If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
You have to pay the cloud storage provider
You may need to commit to an annual subscription
You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does not have complete
control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring any personal and sensitive data is secure

WORKED EXAMPLE
A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering upgrading their
system to utilise cloud storage.
Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
You need a constant internet connection [1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson files [1]
if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student data/take
electronic registers [1]
if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their work/coursework [1]
Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]

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but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised people [1]
Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]
Your notes
Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.
[4]
Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]
The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]
The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device provided there is an internet
connection [1]
So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
So students would be able to access work from home [1]

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