Introduction to Nuclear

Energy
What is Nuclear Energy?

• Definition: Nuclear energy is energy released from nuclear

reactions, primarily through fission (splitting of atoms) and
potentially in the future by fusion (combining atoms).
• Core Concepts:
• Nuclear Fission: Process of splitting large atomic nuclei (usually
uranium or plutonium) into smaller nuclei, releasing significant amounts
of energy.
• Nuclear Fusion: Combines small atomic nuclei (e.g., hydrogen isotopes)
to form larger nuclei, also releasing energy, though still not yet practical
for power generation.
Why Nuclear Energy?

• Low Carbon Emissions: Nuclear plants emit minimal greenhouse

gases, making it a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels.
• Energy Density: Nuclear fuel has extremely high energy density; a
small amount of uranium can produce massive amounts of
energy.
• Baseload Power: Unlike solar or wind, nuclear power provides a
steady, reliable power supply 24/7.
History and Development of Nuclear Energy

• Early 20th Century: Discovery of atomic structure and nuclear

reactions.
• First Reactors: Development of reactors in the 1940s, initially for
weapons, then for power (first nuclear power plant in 1954, USSR).
• Expansion and Decline: Widespread adoption in the 1960s-80s,
slowed by accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Three Mile Island) and
public concern.
• Current Status: Approximately 10% of the world’s electricity is
generated by nuclear power, with new innovations in safety and
design.
Nuclear Energy as a “Renewable” Source

• Debate: Nuclear energy is not renewable in a traditional sense

since uranium and thorium are finite resources. However,
recycling of fuel and advanced reactor designs (e.g., breeder
reactors) extend the sustainability of nuclear fuel.
Nuclear Energy’s Role in Climate Change
Mitigation
• Greenhouse Gas Reduction: Nuclear power reduces reliance on
coal, oil, and gas, lowering CO₂ emissions.
• Complementing Renewable Sources: Nuclear power provides a
steady supply, balancing the variability of renewable sources like
solar and wind.
Basics of Nuclear Physics
and Chain Reactions
Atomic Structure and Nuclear Composition

• Atoms and Nuclei: Consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Protons and neutrons form the nucleus, while electrons orbit it.
• Isotopes: Variants of elements with the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons (e.g., Uranium-235 and
Uranium-238).
• Radioactivity: Unstable isotopes release energy to stabilize, a
process key in nuclear reactions.
Nuclear Fission Process

• Definition: Nuclear fission occurs when a large, unstable nucleus

(e.g., Uranium-235) splits into smaller fragments, releasing
neutrons and energy.
• Fission Products: Fission produces smaller nuclei, free neutrons,
and large amounts of heat energy.
• Chain Reaction:
• Sustained Chain Reaction: Free neutrons from fission cause additional
fission events, releasing more energy.
• Critical Mass: Minimum mass needed to maintain a self-sustaining
chain reaction.
 Nuclear Fusion
• Definition: Fusion combines small nuclei (e.g., hydrogen
isotopes) under extreme temperatures and pressure, producing
large amounts of energy.
• Current Status: Fusion research is ongoing (e.g., ITER project),
though it has not yet become viable for electricity generation.
Types of Fission Reaction

• Controlled: Used in nuclear reactors, where the chain

reaction is regulated.
• Uncontrolled: Used in atomic bombs, where the reaction is
allowed to accelerate rapidly.
Nuclear Reactor Types
Thermal Reactors

• Light Water Reactors (LWR):

• Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR): Water under high pressure acts as
both a coolant and neutron moderator.
• Boiling Water Reactors (BWR): Water boils directly in the reactor core,
generating steam.
• Heavy Water Reactors (HWR):
• Example: CANDU Reactor: Uses deuterium (heavy water) as a
moderator, allowing natural uranium fuel usage.
• Graphite Moderated Reactors:
• Example: Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR): Uses graphite as a
moderator and carbon dioxide as a coolant, often found in the UK.
 Water in the primary
cooling loop is kept
at very high pressure
(typically around 150
times atmospheric
pressure) to prevent
it from boiling, even
at temperatures over
300°C

Because the primary

and secondary loops
are separate,
radioactive water in
the reactor core
does not come into
direct contact with
the turbine, reducing
the risk of radiation
exposure in other
PWRs tend to operate at lower thermal efficiencies than plant areas.
BWRs due to the heat lost in the secondary loop
 BWRs generally operate at slightly higher efficiencies
due to reduced heat loss

Since the steam comes directly from the reactor core, there’s a slight chance of radiation
contamination in the turbine, requiring additional shielding and safety precautions.
Unlike PWRs, BWRs use a single The reactor core itself acts as the BWRs are also widely used worldwide but
loop where water is both the steam generator are generally less common than PWRs.
coolant and the steam source
for the turbine.
HWRs are HWRs typically do not
typically use a large pressure
fueled by vessel for the entire
natural reactor core. Instead,
uranium (U- they use individual
238) which pressure tubes around
does not the fuel bundles, which
need to be can simplify the
enriched structure and make it
easier to refuel while
Deuterium the reactor is operating.
absorbs
fewer
neutrons
than
regular
hydrogen,
making the Disadvantages of Heavy Water Reactors:
moderation 1.Heavy Water Cost: Heavy water is costly to produce and
process maintain due to its rarity and high production requirements.
highly 2.Potential Tritium Production: Heavy water reactors produce
efficient tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, which requires
special handling and management.
3.Complexity: Handling heavy water and managing pressure
tubes add complexity to the reactor design and operation.
CANDU Reactor
Advantages of Heavy Water Reactors:
1.Use of Natural Uranium: Eliminates the need for enrichment, making it cost-effective and
broadening fuel accessibility.
2.High Neutron Economy: Heavy water absorbs fewer neutrons, making the reactor more
efficient in terms of neutron economy.
3. Online Refueling: The ability to refuel without shutting down the reactor increases
operational flexibility and uptime.
Disadvantages of Heavy Water Reactors:
1.Heavy Water Cost: Heavy water is costly to produce and maintain due to its rarity and high
production requirements.
2.Potential Tritium Production: Heavy water reactors produce tritium, a radioactive isotope of
hydrogen, which requires special handling and management.
3.Complexity: Handling heavy water and managing pressure tubes add complexity to the
reactor design and operation.
 Different
coolants can
be used, but
carbon
dioxide (CO₂)
or helium is
common

Uranium oxide
fuel, slightly
enriched to about
2-3%, which
makes it suitable
for sustaining a
steady chain
reaction.
Graphite is stable
at high
temperatures,
allowing these
reactors to
achieve high
thermal
Fast Neutron Reactors (FNR)

• Characteristics: Do not use a moderator, allowing fast neutrons to

maintain the reaction.
• Breeder Reactors: Produce more fissile material than they consume
by converting non-fissionable isotopes (e.g., U-238 to Pu-239).
• Advantages: Efficient use of uranium resources, potential for less
radioactive waste.
• Fuel Efficiency: FNRs can use uranium-238, a much more abundant
isotope compared to uranium-235, by converting it into plutonium-239,
which is fissile with fast neutrons. This is known as breeding. FNRs are
often referred to as breeder reactors because they can create more
fissile material than they consume.
Fast Neutron Reactors (FNR)

• Characteristics: Do not use a moderator, allowing fast neutrons to

maintain the reaction.
• Breeder Reactors: Produce more fissile material than they consume
by converting non-fissionable isotopes (e.g., U-238 to Pu-239).
• Advantages: Efficient use of uranium resources, potential for less
radioactive waste.
• Fuel Efficiency: FNRs can use uranium-238, a much more abundant
isotope compared to uranium-235, by converting it into plutonium-239,
which is fissile with fast neutrons. This is known as breeding. FNRs are
often referred to as breeder reactors because they can create more
fissile material than they consume.
Fast Neutron Reactors (FNR)
Impact on Reactor Design and Efficiency
• Core Design: FNRs are designed with core geometries optimized
for fast neutron flux, often requiring innovative cooling methods
(like liquid metal coolants, e.g., sodium or lead) because
traditional water-based coolants would slow down the neutrons,
undermining the reactor's operation.
• Fuel Cycles: FNRs typically have closed fuel cycles. This means
that the reactor can recycle spent fuel, converting it into new fuel,
thus reducing the need for new uranium mining and enhancing
fuel sustainability.
Breeder Reactors
• Principles of Breeding and the Fuel Cycle
• Concept of Breeding: Breeder reactors generate more fissile
material than they consume, using non-fissile isotopes like U238
and Th232.
• Fuel Cycle: Converts uranium-238 to plutonium-239 and thorium-
232 to uranium-233, which can both undergo fission.
• Sustainability: Extends fuel supply and reduces dependency on
mined uranium, enhancing sustainability.
Types of Breeder Reactors
• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs):
• Core Characteristics: Use fast neutrons for breeding, require minimal
moderation, and have high fuel efficiency.
• Breeding Material: Plutonium-239 from uranium-238.
• Examples: BN-600 in Russia, Monju in Japan.
• Thermal Breeder Reactors:
• Moderated Neutrons: Use a neutron moderator (like heavy water) to
slow neutrons and breed fuel.
• Breeding Material: Use thorium-232 to produce uranium-233.
• Examples: Indian reactors leveraging thorium resources.
Benefits and Challenges of Breeder
Reactors
• Benefits:
• Fuel Efficiency: Converts otherwise non-fissile materials, extending fuel
life.
• Reduced Waste: Uses more of the nuclear material, decreasing long-
term waste.
• Challenges:
• High Costs and Complex Design: Requires advanced technology and
materials.
• Safety Concerns: Fast neutrons increase risks, and reactor control is
challenging.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Uranium Mining and Processing

• Mining: Uranium is mined from ores in open-pit or underground

mines.
• Processing: Extracted uranium ore is converted into uranium
oxide (yellowcake) through chemical processing.
Enrichment and Fuel Fabrication

• Enrichment: Natural uranium contains about 0.7% U-235.

Enrichment increases the U-235 concentration for reactor use
(typically 3-5%).
• Fuel Fabrication: Enriched uranium is formed into ceramic
pellets and loaded into metal rods to create fuel assemblies.
Reactor Use and Fuel Burnup

• Fuel Burnup: As nuclear fuel undergoes fission, U-235 atoms

split, releasing energy and creating fission products.
• In-reactor Changes: Fission produces radioactive by-products
and uses up fissile material over time.
Spent Fuel Reprocessing
• Purpose: Recover remaining U-235 and plutonium from spent
fuel.
• Processes: Chemical processes separate usable isotopes from
waste.
• Benefits and Risks: Reduces waste volume, but raises
proliferation concerns
➢Breeder reactors, which include many FNRs, are designed to actually create
more fissile fuel than they consume, which can extend the use of nuclear
fuel and, in turn, reduce the overall waste generation from mining and
processing new uranium.
➢Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear weapons
technology, including the enrichment and reprocessing of nuclear
materials that could potentially be used for making weapons.
Waste Disposal and Management

• Types of Waste:
• Low-level Waste: Contaminated materials from reactor operation,
handled with standard disposal methods.
• High-level Waste: Spent fuel with high radioactivity and long half-lives.
• Storage Solutions:
• Temporary Storage: Cooling pools or dry casks at reactor sites.
• Permanent Disposal: Geological repositories (e.g., Yucca Mountain) for
long-term containment.