13-1 CHAPTER 13 Modulation and Demodulation Long-distance propagation of electromagnetic wave in space is Possible when the fy Of the wave is above 100 kHz. Therefore, for transmission of audio or video mes nal through space requires proper frequency shift of the message signal, as the § range of audio signal is below 15 kHz and frequency range of video signal is from ve frequency to 4.5 MHz. The process of frequency shifting of information-based siz, b message signal) is accomplished by a process called modulation. At the receivin recovery of the original message signal from the received high-frequency signal is ¢, & reverse process known as demodulation. The need for modulation was first fet inn. ion of audio signal. Actually, proper utilization of the communication translation of the range of frequencies of the message signal into other auency ranges suitable for transmission and corresponding shift back to original fx after reception, So modulation and demodulation are essential process in commun: In this chapter continuous wave modulation and demodulation are described in deta The Need for Modulation Modulation and demodulation are essential process in communication because: 1. Message signals are low-frequency signals, or it contains low-frequency part, some signals cannot propagate to a little more distance through space as electromaz* rave, It is possible to overcome this problem by superposing the message in? frequency signal through modulation. of the message si ‘quency is much larger than one. It is P%*. to convert this signal to a narrow-band signal by the process of modulation. TE#* of this ratio is much less than one for modulated carries 3. For eficient transmission and recep: antenna should be of the order o signal is very large, For ezample, “or. through antenna, the total length oft 14/2. The wavelength \ of low-frequene! iat the wavelength of 1 kHz audio signal is 3x 108 ~Jor7 meters = 3 x 198 meters, or, \ = 300 km. ‘ So it is impractical to build an antenna, ‘ pire” Of this size, ing a high- cartier this problem can be climinated is size. By modulating 292 |Pt MODULATION AND DEMODUL ATION a 1 293 Without modulation it j 5 £ range simultaneously, beng ae ‘0 transmit different messages of same frequency possible to transmit many differcc nt S28 signals will interfere each other. It is i : Tent i of diflerent frequencies, For ecample 4 sets Simultaneously by modulating carriers stations at different carrier Frequ : ©, in radio communication we tune different radio number of information throu’ ni Actually, it is possible to transmit a large sample, communication threugh ‘annel simultaneously at different frequencies, for Jed to frequency di radi ’ J ion multiplexing. broadcasting, cable TV, etc. So modulation ? Fundamentals of Modulation Modulation is eae ‘as the process in which some characteristics of a high-frequency signal vaalled carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal (i.e., the message signal). In continuous Wave modulation the carrier is a sinusoidal wave, and in the process of modulation the message is impressed on the carrier. Here we will only consider the continuous wave (CW) modulation, the discrete modulation is out of scope of this text. The high-frequency sinusoidal signal in which the message is impressed is called the rier signal. The information-bearing signal or the message signal is referred to as the modulating signal. The resultant signal in the modulation process (i.e., the carrier with the impression of the message) is known as the modulated signal or modulated wave. Let us consider a sinusoidal signal with representation V(t) = Acos(2zft + 6(t))- (13-1) In this signal, we can vary the amplitude A or the carrier phase angle (2x ft + 6(¢)) in accordance with the modulating signal. So it can be modulated in two different methods, namely the amplitude modulation and the angle modulation. In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the message signal. In angle modulation, the phase angle of the carrier is varied. The angle modulation can be divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation, = In frequency modulation (FM), the, instantaneous frequency f is varied in accordance with the ing signal. lh hase toduleion (PM), the angle 6(t) is varied in accordance with the modulating Signal. : Amplitude Modulation For simplicity ‘im calculations we consider the modulating wave @ piouesone Hees ie, a Signal with single frequency sinusoid. Let the modulating signal is represented as Vin(t) = Am cos(2m fmt). (13-2) And the carrier be represented 28 Vile) = Accos(2arfet + 8)- 33)A TEXTBOOK OF Eger me, ‘i y of the carrier is mains In amplitude modulation of the carrier, the << 2 TIS Maintains ‘stant, and the amplitude of the carrier wave Is ¥ A e+ Radka COStint = Ae (1 th cosiint), ae (bs where k, is a constant (dimensionless). The amplitude- modulated carrier is represented as V = A.(1 + ma coswmt) coswet, te where m, = k,(An/4c). ma is referred to as the amplitude modulation index, or the 4 of modulation, or the modulation factor. As @ is constant in amplitude modulst simplicity it has been dropped from the expression of equation (13-5). The process of amplitude modulation can be represented graphically as shor: FIG 13.4. FIG 13.1(a) shows the carrier wave, FIG 13.1(4) shows the modulating wa 1G 13.1(¢) shows the resultant modulated wave for the value of modulation index m, ‘These figures can also be checked using oscilloscope in laboratory. FIG 13-1: Waveform of; (cl Ampltudemsaace ae i972, (6) Modutating signal,MODULATION AND DEMODULATION om the FIG 13-1 one can Fred carrier is 1.8, cade he €08w%yit = 1, the amplitude of the amplitude- aicity of the amplitude-modulaved comics ite amplitude becomes 2; whereas the he eneral, the values of the maximum nse ta remains same as the unmodulated carrier. “pplitudemodulated carrier are given by le Vax and minimum amplitude Vinin of the Vmax = Ae(1+m,); (13-6) Vin = Ag(1—m). —* (3-7) Therefore, one can determine m, from equations (13-6) and (13-7) as — Vinax — Vinin = Vinax + Vain (38) So one can determine the modulation index ma, by measuring Vinax and Vinin of the rodulated wave. It is also found from the Fic 13.1(¢), that the tracing of the outline of the sedated wave, i.e., the envelope of the modulated carrier has same form as the modulating signal it is convenient to express depth of modulation in percentage. The percentage modula- tion M, can be expressed as Ma = aq 100, (13-9) here mg is the modulation index or the depth of modulation. Physically, the quantity ™a f,) should not exceed 1 (or, 100%), otherwise Vinin Will become negative, and serious Grtion will be produced in the output of the demodulator. So mq is limited between 0 tb Therefore, maximum possible modulation is 100 per cent modulation, Modulated Signal + Frequency Spectrum of Amplitude The expression of amplitude-modulated signal is given by V=A(l+ma cosWnt) CosWet. Xow 3(We + Wm)t + C08(e — Om). costimt + coswel = So the expression of amplitude-modulated wave becomes moA Mate TEX cos(we — Wm)t 13-10) Ye Ageasiet + BEE coslte toon) + 5 0 ) (13-10) i frequency modulating 1 ia amphitude-modulated by a single-frequs Therefore, when the carries Oo Pequencies, ne is tho original carrier frequency ts, " ‘and (We Wm) are called the side fre wencies. The higher itt other two frequencies TAF um of cartier and modulating Frequendes fe tae Mcnueney term represent’ er, The lower feoaviit component resulting from difference O epperside requeney (UST "is called the lower side frequency SF). These terms to frequencies, (oe plitude of these terns pends on tho vale of me, Tk may be nen He AD ce) shows the se aroma representation of AM wave, whereas ‘ntioned here that -A(e) 8 asertati M wave. FIG 13.2 shows the frequencY ‘domain representation of Al296 | 13-5 os A TEXTBOOK op BLRgy Oy, Corier I 3 £ a & BP ot 9 OS ot FIG 13-2: Frequency spectrum of amplitude-modulated signal (modulating signal Is monotone sinusoidal wave), Now the actual modulating signal is a complex waveform of speech or musig Conta a umber of closely spaced frequencies, therefore, the amplitude-modulaed yay mony such closely spaced sitle-frequency pairs. ‘These groups of side frequenciey ea sidebands. In a broadcasting station the modulating signal is voice of music Containing Auencies in the range 20-5000 Hz. So the bandwidth of the AM signal is 10 Kite, Thy bandwidth required for amplitude-modulated signal is equal to twice the highest {regu of the modulating signal. F1G 13.3 shows the upper and lower sidebands and the atti, LSB USB FIG 13-3: Frequency spectrum of amplitude-modulated signal (modulating signal is a complex signal), Power in the Amplitude-Modulated Wave From equation (13-10) one can find that, the amplitude of the carrier cornponent ofthe wave is same as that of the unmodulated carrier amplitude Ae. So when applied to aloadl the power of the carrier component of the AM wave, or the unmiodulated carrer i ge! 2 Pra Ae, (31 2R ; The amplitude of each sideband is mg/2 times the cartier amplitude. Therefor ! power of each side frequency is given by =P au Therefore, the total power of the two side frequencies is 2 1 Pos Ph+P= Mp, io And the total power of the AM wave is. st a Paw = Se aM = 5 (1+ULATION _gi% MODUE AND DEMODULATION yr | 297 lation with a si a sinusoi average nusoidal Waveform, the total power of the two carri d carrier, "ef Power. And the total power of the AM wave ye terms is 50 per cent of the Ai 5 times of the unmodulate, gl wrethods of Amplitude Modulation i dulati : Ample Wie Sccomplished by any method in which output is the product of 2-input 5B WS the block diagram of an amplitude modulator. Here we Carrier generator Modulati signal” FIG 13-4: Block diagram of an amplitude modulator, Mod Amplitude- Srmautit | _ modulated output sistor collector modulator circuit, Although vac transmitters, transistor circuits are now replacing vacuum tube circuits, Higher power level modulation may be performed by modulating the carrier signal at lower power level, then the modulated signal is boosted up to the required power level by power amplifier after the modulator. Vee ‘Modulation amplitier, % ch ll Rp, Microphone FIG 13-5: A bipolar transistor collector modulator crcults . IG 135 shows the circuit of a transistor collector modulator. This mod: Similar with the circuit of a common emitter tuned power amplifier, in which modulating circ -298 | XTHOOK OF TRO}, wh transformer 7). The 4, ransformer 7. with the de supply soy signal is added in series with the de supply Veo Hirouy carrier is Since, the modulating signal is through transformer 7}. The effective de supply voltage peovidial to the collector modulator circuit Veg (mod) is not constant. The value of Veo (mod) is given 4, Md Voo(mad) = Veo + kiYin 08@mnts (ty where Vix coswydt is the modulating signal, and ky is obtained from the turns Kati gf transformer. i ‘Thus, Veo (mod) = Veo (1 + Hills cosuint) = Voo(1 + 1g cost!) (i Vo If the modulator operates in a linear manner, the current flowing through the cae, is given by To(mod) = Igo(1 + me c084nt), (ar where Ico is the Q-value of the collector current with de supply Vee, i-c., Vee(mod) =f, Now, when the carrier signal is applied in the input of the citcuit, the collector eur: will follow the input signal and vary about its Q-point value. So the output voltage oft: modulator at the secondary of the transformer Ty is given by Vo = keVeo(mod) cos wet, (8 where coswet is carrier waveform at the base input of the circuit and ky depends on tse ratio of transformer 7 and amplitude of the input carrier signal. Thus, Vo = keVeo(1 + mg coswynt) coswet 08, Vo = Ac(1 + mg coswt).coswet. (HH Assume hzV. = A, amplitude of the output carrier frequency signal. So one finds te output of the cireuit given by equation (13-19) is an amplitude-modulated signal Again, we know the carrier frequency we is much greater than the frequency oY modulating signal wm, i.c., we 2 Wm. So, if one takes the average of the collector cH” over a period of the carrier, he finds from equation (13-16) the average value a8 i} To(avg) = Teo + mq cont) And if he takes the average over a period of modulating signal, he finds the average as st) as lee = eo. ut ‘The average power input to the collector is given by ie Poo = Veotnod)Totavg) = Vecleo( im, cosunt)® 3 ; yi = Veclco (@ + 7) # idEe TION AN! a MODULA’ D DEMODULATION | 299 go itis easy’ to show that, the output power is given by ven by Paw = m ‘AM = Po (+38) (13-23) ghich is yarying with the depth of modulation, 7 pemodulation or Detection of AM Signal fii ee of the information-bearing signal or the baseband signal from the Modulated cartier wave is referred to as demodulat : Pee AN signal, Le, easy recovery ohh veep 4 ‘lon or detection. Easy demodulation oO great advantage of amplitude modulation. from the ample module coer He Demodulation of detection of an AM wave involves two 0 erations, (i) rectification of the modulated wave, and (ii) cia dition of the high-frequency components from the modulated = “0 ‘| wave. Amplitude "The demodulation of an AM wave is accomplished with a eguared simple circuit of FIG 13-6, which consists of a diode D and the comer resistance-capacitance combination R and C. The action of Berm cereee the circuit of FIG 13-6 is similar to that of the diode half-wave _F1G 13. rectifier circuit. am (the diode envelope | detector). ance of the circuit let us assume that, the internal ated carrier which is applied to the detector To explain qualitatively the perform: resistance of the source of the amplitude-modu circuit in zero, and the diode is ideal. Initially, let us also assume the input signal is of fixed amplitude and the resistance Ris not present in the circuit. So in this case the capacitor C charges to the peak positive voltage of the signal, and it will hold the charge as well as the voltage. Thus, the diode would not conduct again. Now, if the carrier is modulated in amplitude, then the diode conducts again and the capacitor charges 10 new higher peak value of the carrier. The capacitor voltage will follow the carrier peak voltage at decreasing carrier amplitude, if the. capacitor discharges at least up to the next peak value. So it is necessary to include atesistance R such that the capacitor may discharge. ‘Actually. in practice the capacitor charges the peak Jightly in between. Thus : cartier peak and decays sHgHtY 1 Ain the input \e output vi f the circuit wit in the im 4 ae hate voltage of th eae. FIG 13-7: Demodulated output waveform rm as shown in for AM input from an envelope detector. is the carrier envelope except there is However in practice the discrepancy Capacitor voltage (demodulated output) Cartier ~~ Envelope Itis seen from FiG 12-7 that, the ‘output voltage follow: asuperi: of carrier frequency: senlecnposed sot er envelope is much less than the figure, because carrier Tequency is much larger, $0 the time to discharge In netyeeie ane peaks is very Small. ‘Therefore, the choice t RC of the oi pear The time Constant RC should be much ne molting signal (1/ fr) 80 that capacitor can discharge SU wid be much Jarger of time constan jess than the period of t! {ficiently to follow the envelopes300 | 13-7-1 “9 A TEXTBOOK op ELECt os Ny than cartier time period (1/f.). Thus, 1 erces E* TOS (ty ‘Therefore, with proper choice of time constant RC the output solteee Y, fall, n envelope closely and due to high-frequency of the carrier sawtooth distortion ig ie absent in practice, ; _ Following the analysis of half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter one can show the in voltage V» of the circuit is given by Vos Made + Amcosumt) ——(y, So the output voltage Vz of the circuit modulation signal, and a de voltage proportional: ‘unmodulated carrier amplitude Ae. So to sepatateny ulating signal more sophisticated cireuit of re Contains FIG 13-8: Practical AM detector circuit, used to demodulate AM signal. In this circuit op showing next stage, Capacitor C, blocks itor Cy’ serves to block the de component, and ally the dein the output. the modulating signal to the output. Distortion Produced in Envelope Detector In this section, we want to discuss about two it of an envelope di dipping. The c: important distortions produced in the oi Ctector. These two distortions are diagonal peak clipping and negativep: ‘onditions for avoiding of these distortions have also been discussed, (4) Diagonal Peak Clipping This is a form of distortion appears in the output of an envelope detector when thet constant CR is large, such that it prevents the output to follow the decreasing peak va the carrier amplitude (envelope). Fi¢ 13-9 shows a typical carrier envelope and the ou! the detector. It is found from the figure that when? ulation envelope decreases more rapidly than the 1 capacitor discharge, the output voltage follows tet charge law of tho CR circuit until it meets up st! modulation envelope on the rise. Pf We know the peak value of the capacitor voltage So peak value of the capacitor discharge current t! resistance R is . A, (iy Tac= Fe Demodulated + aft Using equation (13-25) one finds the peak v® modulation current through RC combination is FIG 13-9: AM detector output with é Ane vmgile ur distortion due to diagonal peak, clipping. = = Tar where [Z| is the modulus of R ILC. Now to avoid di argo, ppt isch: of the capacitor should be larger than pe ‘agonal peak clipping the dish ak-value of the modulation current. oadry aS MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ° . 1 «oid giagonal peak clipping Tae > Ips 1 ia) 21 Tpl on o, lon, _y Negative Peak Clipping 2 “4 Sen in the output of the detector, the circuit of F16 13-8 §8 Oe Gr Fa anode (13-25), appears across the capacitor of the circuit oF {os C1 is large, the modulation component af vltage of equation (15-28) aeP g resistance Ry of the circuit, because " ag AY Thus, the output voltage across A cannct drop below a minimum voltage shen PY So the minimum possible of the voltage across caparitor C és cannot discharge below a voltage value of Viiq. Therefore. © can no longer follow: cedulation envelope for a voltage below Ving This distortion is known as 1m) cipping, To avoid this distortion the minimum possible value of voltage of equat be larger than Vif;q. $0 the condition to avoid negative peak clipping is given by AR R . Rr . AQ-m)2>RyR (Q-)24yR° % R wee (13-30) Umitations and Modifications of Amplitude Modulation = It has already been mentioned that amplitude modulation is accomplished simply in the sdulation in also accomplished easily iter using an amplitude modulator, and demo receiver using an enve ike reason of popularity of AM radio cadeasting. However amplitude mos ym two major lin Jope detector. This is .dulation suffers fro wave is only wastage of power, as the carrier wave is 1. The transmission of the carrier © independent of the modulating signal mit). 2. The upper sideband and lower sid amplitude and phase of one sideband, one ¢ of both the sidebands is wastaee of bandwidth. With some modifications of the amplitude modulation system, one can overcome these limitations. The price paid for this is some increased comple of the system of amplitude Modulation process. Three modified Ferme of amplitude modulation have been described in the following: eband are symmetric about carrier, 80 with given ® determine the other. So transmi modulation is that process of ampli Ws Of ampli er and lower) are only transmitted, but power due to process. 1. Double sideband-suppressed cartie’ (DSB tude modulation in which wo sidebands (upPe the carrier is not transmitted, So there 1s a large save in transmizes! suppression of the carrier term, but the bandwidth 8 Not sayed inA TEXTBOOK OP Elton ily 2, Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation is that process in which one sideband of ayy sacvetall . a 3 sideband is retained. A sizable cay is passed completely and a trace of other saan this wore een transmitted together, to make it possible to det ar i ey detector in the receiver, So in this process i the required bandwidth is sigh i i lay than the message bandwidth. ‘This form of ented AM is suitable for vides! messages such as video part of the television signal. 3. Single sideband (SSB) modulation is that process in which one Sidebane, uy, lower, is only transmitted. So this is an optimum form of mo tu lation which Ten, minimum power and bandwidth. But the disadvantage of this SSB Modulatg; increased complexity and cost of the system. 13-9 Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation Actually, DSB-SC modulation consists of the product of the message signal m() ant, carrier signal, as V(t) = A, cos(2n f.t)m(t). (133, “ sasc modulating ae signal carrier FIG 13-10: Transistor-balanced modulator tircuit, Here we describe the method of generation of DSB-SC signal using balanced modula: A balanced modulator cireuit, as shown in Fig 13-10 generates DSB-SC signal, ic. AM Sit! without carrier. In the citcuit of F1G 13-10 the transistors Q1 and Qy are identical, and te! transfer characteristics are given by t=aVit+av? +. (38) neglecting any de terms. Now, from FIG 13-10 one finds the input voltage for the transistor Qi as Vi = Be costect + Ein COS Wnt . ws and input voltage for the transistor Qo is Va = Be coswet ~ En C08 wynt, oss! ‘Therefore, output. current é through transistor @, is rn A= Gi(Lecostvet + Ly costuynt) + a2(Ey COSWet + Eom COS Wnt)? > oe And the output current i through transistor Qe is ‘ fa = ar(Becosut — Em costimt) + an(Becosut — Eneosuinte ts “tf 13: me MODUL ATI LATION now the output voltage fy, | 303. t ’ om the tr rents i1 and tp. So thy ® transformer j wo oo © OUP voltage Up is fe cPetiona to the difference of these Ve = 2k(a1 By, cos en by : i = 2h, En cose em Me CO8 mb cosuyct 4. or, to ™ lB Web os, ‘mi G2E mn Be( Coste, 4 uy yt ) GS-30) jn the circuit of FIG 13.19 the 'm}t + COS(We — wyn)t) + +++]. (13-38) : he output ig 4 a, then Asoka ne in the output the patties fequeney. And as wc is much ejeotees er Order term containg eating frequency term Wm will be . ti . mm fiso be rejected. The output of the balance modeler as around efor baeher wih , therefore, given by Vo = 2k 2B in Ee[o0s(ue + tn)t + cos, ~ tin} 13.39) ‘Therefore, the output Signal contains only the sidebands of th AM e AM wave. gp Frequency Modulation : Phase modulation and frequc i a consider frequency modulation in next few sections. ‘ner modivon New The advantage of frequency modulation as well as of angle modulation is that, in angle modulation communication the magnitude of noise in the output of a demodulator is less than an AM system. And effect of interference is less in angle modulation system than in AM system. However, these improvements are obtained at the expense of large bandwidth. JM Mathematical Representation of the Frequency-Modulated Carrier Frequency modulation is that form of angle modulation in which instantaneous frequency filt) is varied linearly in accordance with the message signal m(i), as given by wj(t) = We + kym(t), (13-40) where we/2m is the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and constant ky represents the fre- quency sensitivity of the modulator. Considering the modulating signal m(t) as Aj, coswmt, the frequency-modulated signal is represented as ‘ vi) = acco ([ u(t +) asa) 0 ‘ or, V(t) = Aces (sot+hy [[ Anconunttt+ 6) kyAm or Ve) = Ao (a+ MA non!) (13-42) i in modulation. Now, #44" is st has no importance in modulation. Now, 4% The been dropped as it r., and it is designated as Af. the maximum ireeueney deviation frm the cents freaneney f Ginte Agate metatie faximum fi deviation Af is proport odulating signal. Signal, ut itis independent of the frequency of He ™a! A TEXTBOOK OF 5 304 | “ETH. The ratio of the maximum frequency sent ay ie omen od ie Quency fn is called the frequency modulation indez. Thus, atin 2 is given by Af _ kyAm/2n _ ky Am In im Sm (la ms So one can represent the FM signal as V(t) = Ac cos(wet + my sinwyt). (ey ‘The waveforms of the modulating signal and the modulated signal in FM have be shown in FIG 13-11; (@) (o FIG 13-11; (a) Modulating signal, (6) Frequency-modulated signal, 15-11 The Frequency Spectrum in Frequency Modulation To obtain the frequency spectrum of frequency-modulated wave, let us expand the trigss metric expression of FM in equation (13-44). The FM is expressed as V(t) = Ae cos(wet + ™ Sin Wnt). This equation can be expanded as V(l) = Aclcos(wet) - cos(ms sinwt) — sin(wet) - sin(my sinwyat)]. (aH Now we know that Cos(m, sin wnt) = Jo(ms) + 2Ja(my) cos(2um#) + 2J4(my) cos(4iimt) ++ (14 and : sin(my sin wt) = 244 (my) sin(wnt) + 2J9(my) Sin(3.2yt) + 2J5(my) sin(Sant) + aH Where Jy coefficients are Bessel functions of frst kind of order n. The numerical veli® Jn(my) are tabulated in texts of mathematical tables. TABLE 13-1 shows such aume* values of Jy(m,). Again we know that 20564 costa = §[e0s(, +04) + cos(B, ~ 63) and sin Ot sin 2 = 3 [605(6, ~ 6) — eog(g, 4. 6)).yr jg; MODULATION AND! DEMODULATION . 1 305 ft therefore, equation (13-45) can be expressed as Vt) = AclJo(ms)|coswet I(t 4) {COS (ie ~ eoyn)t = c05(ug + tpn) t} tating) {cOs(We — 2udm)t + c05(We + 2am)! ~Ja(mmy){COs(e ~ Butm)t + c08(we + 3um)t} FJalmry)(COs(i). — dedm)t + cos(e + didm)E} bee (13-48) Thus, the spectrum of FM is composed of a cartier with an amplitude proportional to (my) and an infinite set of sidebands spaced symmetrically on either side of the car- rier at frequency separations Of Wm, 2m, 3m, +++, etc, Now, from a textbook of math- omatical table one can find that, the coefficients Ja(my) decrease rapidly for values of n> my > 5, Therefore, in practice the bandwidth occupied by the FM signal is not infinite. ‘The bandwidth occupied by the FM signal is given by BWen = 2nfm, (13-49) shore n is the highest order of the side frequency for which amplitude is significant. For ralues of n equal to or larger than (my +1), the amplitude is 5% or less than that of the unmodulated carrier. So equation (13-49) can be written as BWent = 2(my + 1)fm- (13-50) TABLE 13-1: Bessel Functions of the First Kind (m) Jo dy Sn Sse ds ea de Sy Jno San Suz Jaa Ste Sts das 00 Jo - - - - 05 | 094 926 003 - - 10 | 077 0.44 9.11 1s | 0s1 056 9.23 20 | 0.22 0.58 0.35 25 |-0.05 0.50 0.45 02 = - = == -- 2-2 30 |-0.26 0.34 0.49 oos oO = = - = = = = = = oo 00s SS HE ee 35 |-0.38 0.14 0.45 40 |-0.40 -0.07 0.36 48° |~032 -0.23 0.21 50 |-0.18 -0.33 0.05 60 | 0.15 -0.28 -0.24 70 | 9.30 0.00 -0.30 ~ 013 005 002 - ~ - --- = - = - (ian) ons: omsiom, = 025 013 005002 - - - - = ~~ — 036 025 013008002 - - - - — — _ 035 034 023013006002 - - ~ — _ _ 80 | oar 023 ~0.11 ~ 0.19 0.34 032022019006003 — — ~ _ _ 80 |-oop o24 014-018 -0.27 -0.05 0.20 0.390:300.210120.060.030.01 —- — 100 |-o.25 108 0.25 0.06 -0.22 ~0.23 ~0.01 0.220,310.290.200120.06 0,030.01 — — no |-o17 0.18 014 0.23 -0.02 0.24 -0.20 0.02 0.220:31 0.28 0.200.12.0.060.03 0.01 — 0.07 ~0.24 0.17 0.95 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01 120 | 0.05 -0.22-0.08 0.20 01 a5"A TEXTBOOK OF ELECTR. Using equation (13-43) bandwidth can be written ax BWex = 2(AS + fm) (iy dwidth of FM signal and index of modulation or as Carson's rule. This relation between ban frequency deviation 13-11-1 Narrow-Band FM It can be found that, for my = .5, the coefficients of the spectral components are: carrier f. Jo(.5) = 94 first-order side frequencies (fe + fin) AGS second-order side frequencies (f:+2fm) Ja(.5) 03 So practically first-order sidebands are present for mj = .5. Actually, when my < frequency-modulated signal can be expressed as V (0) = Acldo(ms) cos wet — Jilin) {cos we — wm)t — coslwe + Hm )t}]. Thus, when m, is less than 0.6, the bandwidth of FM is 2f,,, the system narrow-band FM Though the spectrum is similar with AM, there is a phase shift in the modul from the carrier in narrow-band PM, but the modulated wave is in same phase w: carrier in AM. The distinction between the narrow-band FM and AM is become cls the phasor diagram in the FIG 13.12. In the phasor diagram carrier phase is taken ast As shown in FIG 13-12(a) the resultant of the two side-frequency phasors is i the carrier phasor. So the resultant phasor representing an AM signal is in same p the cartier. But in case of narrow-band FM, the resultant of the side-frequens always at right angle to carrier phasor. So the resultant phasor representing the band FM in Fic 13-12(6) is approximately of the same amplitude as the carrier phase out of phase with it. (oto) ResultantMODULATION AND DEMODULATION | 307 eration of FM Signals: Direct FM There are two basic methods of generating aod the other is direct FM. Here we gait a diect FM system the instantaneous frequency cg modulating signal. For this purpo oes ermining LC network. The freq Cy-modulated signals, one is indirect FM irect method of generation of FM. In e carrier is varied in accordance with S@ one uses a sinusoidal oscillator having a frequency ; luency of this LC oscillator can be varied by varying the copacitance of ie — menor with modulating signal. This type of oscillator, the Gequency of which can be varied with input voltage [ ge) is called voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). oF (eee) called volta A scheme for generation of FM signal using Hartley oscillator by varying its resultant capacitance with the modulating signal has been shown in FIG 13-13, The reealtant capaci- tance C(t) is varied by varying the capacitance of a voltage variable capacitor or a varactor with the modulating signal. It was already mentioned in Chapter 4 that a varactor is a pn junction diode biased in revers e direction, larger the magnitude of reverse bias voltage aller the transition capacitance of the diode. We know that the frequency of Hartley oscillator is given by : f= a 1 s IV +L)CH (13-58) Vee —* FM output Dc blocking capacitor Modulating signal -direuit (Direct) FIG 13-13: Frequency modulator | ; ; Where C(t) is the resultant capacitance of the fixed capesitor and the varactor. We know the transition capacitance of varactor diode is given Py -_ oe, (1+ x) & (13-54)306 A TEXTBOOK OF ELECT, ve 4 i bias and ¢ is th where Cio is the transition capacitance of the a at zero ao is the contac, Pots, of the p-n junction. So the resultant capacitance C(t) is gi C(t) = Co + Cu. Now it is easy to show that the frequency of the system when the modulating ola, applied to the input is given by f(t) = fi + Vin COS 27 fmt. (iy So the instantaneous frequency of the circuit of FIG 13-13 is varying in accordance Fite, modulating signal, which gives the desired FM output. 13-13 Demodulation of Frequency-Modulated Signals One recovers the message signal from frequency-modulated signal by the process f py demodulation. In a direct method of FM demodulation, at first the incoming sigy) applied to a frequency discriminator, in which the instantaneous amplitude of the sicn converted directly proportional to its frequency, then it is detected by an envelope detect So a direct FM demodulator consists of a frequency discriminator (which is a slope ci followed by an envelop detector. And in indirect. method of FM demodulation one uses Popular phase-locked loop. Here we describe a simple FM demodulator using simple detector. + 2 > : [ Demodulated c iH 7 tn Ff input ie i Bg ] @ (0) FIG 13-14: (a] FM detector circuit using stope detector, (b) The frequency response curvecf the detector clrchit, The slope detector, the simplest form of FM detector, has been shown in FIG 34! ‘The resonant frequeney fy of the LC tank circuit is slightly larger than the centre freq Je of the FM signal, sich that the frequency of the incoming signal may vary ov approximately linear region of the response curve of the amplifier. ‘Thus, when the fea! of the incoming signal is larger than the centre frequeney, the amplitude of the #7! increases proportionally. On the other hand, amplitude of the output reduces whe? e] frequency is les than the centre frequency. Therefore, the frequeney-mociulated 5 converted to an AM signal in the slope detector. From the output of the slope 4"Fr MODULATION AND DEMODULATION _ message 48 extracted using a simple « aector Bs Cal, its linearity zone as well die Gaechanud FM. However for larger tine ajaracteristics one nay use Fosters! he 7 linear range and better voleage/ frequency Seeley discriminator, 1 fect of Noise in AM and FM We know the received signal at the receiver end is contaminated by noise. The noise nit) resent with the signal is stationary, random with zero mean and Gaussian distribution. Noise n(t) is also considered as white, ie., all possible frequencies are present in its frequency jomain representation, : ‘The bandpass filter placed before the receiver jas such a minimum bandwidth so that it allows the signal undistorted, ‘Thus the bandpass filter ilocs not admit, excessive noise to the receiver. So incoming noise to the recciver is narrow-band appears somewhat similar with sine jave of frequency fe, and it modulates the signal FIG 13-15: Phasor diagram of carrier and a i 2 a. narrow- band noise (carrier voltage Is much in amplitude and phase. Pest ara eo pra e by Vp, and the resultant In FIG 13-15, the signal phasor is represented by V and the noi of noise and signal is represented by V,, As the noise is random in nature, the tip of the resultant phasor of signal and noise traces out a random path shown by the dotted region. ‘The magnitude of the resultant phasor Is given by Vv, = (v2 +VR, (13-57) and the phase deviation of the resultant phasor from the signal phasor is given by Vong gx tan! (13-58) “ee component of noise. amplitude and phase of the signal, The demodulated Mgected by phase change. FM receivers will not be lected by amplitude change amplitude fluctuations is removed by the amplitude limiter Ina demodulator one is interested to find #he value of output sigusl-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the valwe of input SN. Anu for the PUPS’ of comparing systems, one wants {0 find the figure of merit defined by where Vag is the quadrature Thus, the noise modulates the output from AM. receivers will not be in ter (13-59) nial power power, *here Sis the output s is the output noise yer input, cor st Lupus f merit °y for com signal pov Nar is the nobse pow! The value of the figure o en by AM with modulating signal m(¢) is ventional (13-60)310 XTHOOK OF EL, Jnusoidal m(e) the value of yant iS m* TAM = Thm (, For 100% modulation yam = 1/3. And for FM the value of 7 is given by (13 Therefore, gr (134 yam 2 a fy So it is clear from equation (13-63) that, PM offers the possibility of improved SNR oy, AM. And this improvement begins when my = 2/3. The demarcation of nattow bang ai wide-band is established from the beginning, of improvement of SNR in PM over Ay i, from the value of my from .5 to .6. For large value of my the improvernent is large, Hoa” increase of my increases the bandwidth, From Carson's rule we know BWem = 2(my + 1) fm ~ 2rrey fn: So one can write equation (13-63) as me 8 (BWew" AM BWam ‘Thus, there is an improvement of noise performance of FM over AM and for this pun sacrifice of bandwidth is necessary. 13-15 Comparative Performances of AM and FM In practical communication system both am are widely used. The merits and demerits been compared in the following table: plitude modulation and frequency modulatia of AM and FM in communication system hav Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation 1, The amplitude of the carver is varied in ac- | 1. The frequency of the carrer is varied wi cordance with the message. message, maintaining the amplitude of a rier constant. 2. Total power of the modulated signal in | 2. Total anit isi creases with the modulation index. abe ymaeultse dependent of modulation index. 3. It requires less bandwidth. . 3. It requires large bandwidth. 4. Bandwidth of the modulated signal is inde- | 4. Bandy jgnal deger® pendent of the index of modulation, . on thetnmee suena 7 ulation. 5. It requires carrier with comparatively tower | 5. Fr A target > Frequency of the carrier is much Witt 2 frequency. It uses car he MF and " Ut men meen: the Mand HF FM system. It uses carrier in VHF a*4 rey Noise performance is poor in compariso, ‘ incon? with FM, Quality of the received information | © san eg rane is cmt any . |. Quality of the is not good. is very good tyoR MODULATION AND DEMODULATION | att sample 13.1 The mazimum value and mi . meyGV and AV. Find out the ind inimum value of amplitudes of a modulated wave lex of m of odulation, solution: The value of (Ve)max = Go the index of modulation is 18V and (Velnin = 4. = Webmex ~ (Ve)min (Ve)max + (Ve)anin 16-4 Ma 1644’ or, my =.6. So index of modulation is .6 and percentage of modulation is 6 x 100 = 60%. banzle bs 7 ‘ amplitude modulator the modulating signal is represented by 25sin 7 t e carrier is represented by 50sin 2n(150, 000t) mV. Find out index of modulation and the spectrum of the modulated signal. ‘ Solution: Consider ka = 1. The index of modulation mg is given by So modulation percentage is 50%. Here fe = 150,000Hz and fm = 2000 Hz. Therefore, in the spectrum of the modulated wave frequencies present are 150,000 Ha and (150,000 + 2000) Hz, je, 150 kHz, 148 kHz and 152 kHz. Example 13.3 The power of the anmadulated carrier is 1000W. Find out the power of the sidebands and total power for 100% modulation in amplitude. Solution: ma = 1; Pz = 1000W- mn a} re Pysa = Pisa P= A x 1000 W = 250 W m, 7 Fs Total Power = ( + @) p.= (14-5) x 1000W 1500 W. an AM wave is 4.72kW, and the index of mod- intent of re sideband. cr of the carrier an ep (i+): Example 13.4 The total pow ulation is .6, Find out the pow Solution: We know, total Power *° PY 2 4.72) a ( # £) 24.72; So power of the carrier 4kW. And power of the sidebands AkW. m3. p, = 30KW- rap = PoseA THXTHOOK OF EL perp NOt ae | Ney litude modulator i 2.254 ey ‘ The 4 current from an amp iene irs . seal hash va ae it Vind the value of the enrrent from the Modulatay Example 13.6 The frequency of the audio-frequency (AF) signal in an PM system is 109) He. Te was found that the deviation of the frequency modulated signal is 5 kl, when ty amplitude of the AP signal is 2.5V. Find the deviation of PM signal when the amplitude 4 th ignal is GV. Also find the frequency modulation indices in both the cases, SV, Ay = 5 kHz. Solution: We know A oc Am. Now when Ay, = So i Me Os co raty Te = 7g = 2k volt, Therefore when Vin = 6 V. Ay =2x6=12kHz. ‘The modulation index in the first case is given by And my in the second case, i + When Vin = BV is 4 my = Ft = Fao, » Example 13.7 Find the bandwidth of the FM signal in which the frequency of the moi lating signal is 1.5 kHz and the mazimum Frequency deviation is 7.5 kHz. Solution: The frequency modulation index my of the FM signal is m= 75 fm 15 Using Carson’s rule one finds the bandwidth as BW = 2m 41) fn =2 x (5+) x 1.5 = 18 kHz. From TABLE 13-1 one finds the amplitudes uy my = 5, and the amplitudes of the sidebands bandwidth of the FM signal is 2.x 6 x 7 saat P to the Oth sidebands are significant beyond the 6th are very small. Thus =2x6x1l5= 18 kHz.i MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ae 1 313 je 13.8 A froquency-modulated «4 pore yy). Find the carri d signal is repre \ » jn2804) carrier and modulati; Presented by V. 105 + “mun frequency deviation, Hing frequencies, the modulation index, and the i solution? From the given equation V = 10cos(6.5 x 104 4. 6 sin 62802) aye nds the earricr frequency j 6.5 x 10° fo = = 103.5 Me, ‘The frequency of the modulating signal 6280 =F 1000 Hz = L kHz. The frequency modulation index my =6. And the maximum frequency deviation A = my fn = 6X 1 = 6kHe. Questions What do you mean by modulation? What are the needs for modulating a signal? What do you mean by carrier wave, modulating wave and modulated wave? n Define amplitude modulation. Obtain an expression for an amplitude-modulated wave. ‘ Define amplitude modulation index. Give a sketch of sinusoidally modulated AM waveform, Determine the depth of modulation from the sketch diagram. 3. Derive the relation between the output power ofan AM transmitter and the modula- tion index. nents present in an AM wave. Find out the bandwidth 4. Find out the frequency compor of an AM wave. ; ; 5. Expl: h the help of a neat circuit diagram, the operation of an amplitude mod- . Explain with the hel : circuit. " eons : ulator circuit. fan envelope detector, What are the sources of distortion in . Explain the operation 0! Se eenaetel ee Obtain an expression for the FM wave when the mod- ion. Obtain an or the ion. : % Define Irequenc oo Define frequency modulation index : ‘ing sign: dawidth of a 60 FM communication system. State Carson's rule . Determine the bandw A Mwave: related with bandwith of a8 F «iit difference with AM wave? M? What 9. What do you mean by narrow-band Foy A TEXTBOOK OF tac, 10. Describe the operation of a simple frequency modulator circuit, 31 Eeepinin the operstion of a simple PM demodulator. 12, With the nid of phasor diagram develop the concept of modulation of a sina single noise frequency. ’ 13. Compare AM with FM. Problems TA carrier wave of frequency 100kHz and peak voltage 12V is amplit by a sine wave of 1 5 kHz frequency and peak voltage 6V. Determine the modula. index for Uhe wave and sketch the modulated wave, Stow that the AM wave can be represented by a carrier and two sideband frequessy for wach modulation frequency. Show that for 100% modulation Pygesand > } Pew iN.D.U. 200 A hinds detector load consists of a O1F capacitor in parallel with a GKQ reste Find the maximum possible value of amplitude modulation index such that the wuld De te diagonal peak clipping in the detector when the modulating frequen @) Thily ane (0) Shite e in an PM syetem, the frequency devistion constant ky = LkH2/V, Find the masixe frequency deviation and the frequency modulativg index when the modulating amplitude ix ION and frequency is 3kHe a Kepeat Problem 4 with modulating signal amplitude 15V and frequency SkHa © What ir the bandwidth roquied for as PM signal in which the modulating requ 7 hls and the meciour: fregurecy deviation is 12k Ha? o