LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT physical domain includes changes in

height and weight, sensory capabilities,

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan
the nervous system, as well as the
Development
propensity for disease and illness. The
Developmental Psychology, also known as cognitive domain encompasses the
Human Development or Lifespan Development, changes in intelligence, wisdom,
is the scientific study of ways in which people perception, problemsolving, memory,
change, as well as stay the same, from and language. The psychosocial domain
conception to death. focuses on changes in emotion, self-
perception and interpersonal
Our academic knowledge of the lifespan has relationships with families, peers, and
changed, and although there is still less research friends.
on adulthood than on childhood, adulthood is  Development is multidisciplinary. As
gaining increasing attention. This is particularly mentioned at the start of the chapter,
true now that the large cohort known as the human development is such a vast topic
“baby boomers” are beginning to enter late of study that it requires the theories,
adulthood. research methods, and knowledge base
Developmental psychologists investigate key of many academic disciplines.
questions, such as whether children are  Development is characterized by
qualitatively different from adults or simply lack plasticity. Plasticity is all about our
the experience that adults draw upon. ability to change and that many of our
characteristics are malleable. For
LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE instance, plasticity is illustrated in the
Paul Baltes identified several underlying brain’s ability to learn from experience
principles of the lifespan perspective. and how it can recover from injury.
 Development is multicontextual.
 Development is lifelong. Lifespan Development occurs in many contexts.
theorists believe that development is Baltes (1987) identified three specific
life-long, and change is apparent across contextual influences. Normative age-
the lifespan. No single age period is graded influences: An age-grade is a
more crucial, characterizes, or specific age group, such as toddler,
dominates human development. adolescent, or senior. Humans in a
 Development is multidirectional. specific age-grade share particular
Humans change in many directions. We experiences and developmental
may show gains in some areas of changes. Normative history-graded
development, while showing losses in influences: The time period in which
other areas. Every change, whether it is you are born shapes your experiences.
finishing high school, getting married, or A cohort is a group of people who are
becoming a parent, entails both growth born at roughly the same period in a
and loss. particular society. These people travel
 Development is multidimensional. We through life often experiencing similar
change across three general circumstances. Non-normative life
domains/dimensions; physical, influences: Despite sharing an age and
cognitive, and psychosocial. The history with our peers, each of us also
 has unique experiences that may shape capacity along with our emotional beliefs about
our development. A child who loses how old we are.
his/her parent at a young age has
social age - is based on the social norms of our
experienced a life event that is not
culture and the expectations our culture has for
typical of the age group.
people of our age group. Our culture often
 Socioeconomic status (SES) is a way to
reminds us whether we are “on target” or “off
identify families and households based
target” for reaching certain social milestones,
on their shared levels of education,
such as completing our education, moving away
income, and occupation.
from home, having children, or retiring from
Poverty level is an income amount
work.
established by the federal government
that is based on a set of income
thresholds that vary by family size.

Culture is the totality of our shared language,

knowledge, material objects, and behavior. This
belief that our own culture is superior is called
ethnocentrism.

Cultural relativity is an appreciation for cultural

differences and the understanding that cultural
practices are best understood from the
standpoint of that particular culture.
Prenatal Development: Conception occurs and
Lifespan, or longevity, refers to the length of development begins. All of the major structures
time a species can exist under the most optimal of the body are forming, and the health of the
conditions. mother is of primary concern. Understanding
nutrition, teratogens, or environmental factors
Life expectancy is the predicted number of
that can lead to birth defects, and labor and
years a person born in a particular time period
delivery are primary concerns.
can reasonably expect to live.
Infancy and Toddlerhood: The first two years of
CONCEPTIONS OF AGE
life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
Chronological age – based on the number of newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very
years since your birth. poor vision, is transformed into a walking,
talking toddler within a relatively short period of
Biological age – how quickly the body is aging.
time. Caregivers are also transformed from
Several factors determine the rate at which our
someone who manages feeding and sleep
body ages. Our nutrition, level of physical
schedules to a constantly moving guide and
activity, sleeping habits, smoking, alcohol
safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
consumption, how we mentally handle stress,
and the genetic history of our ancestors, to Early Childhood: This period is also referred to
name but a few. as the preschool years and consists of the years
which follow toddlerhood and precede formal
Psychological age - Our psychologically adaptive
schooling. As a two to six-year-old, the child is
capacity compared to others of our
busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self
chronological age. This includes our cognitive
and greater independence, and is beginning to Late Adulthood: Late adulthood is sometimes
learn the workings of the physical world. subdivided into two categories: The young-old
who are from 65-84 years and the oldest-old
Middle and Late Childhood: The ages of six to
who are 85 years and older. One of the primary
the onset of puberty comprise middle and late
differences between these groups is that the
childhood, and much of what children
young-old are still relatively healthy, productive,
experience at this age is connected to their
active, and the majority continue to live
involvement in the early grades of school. Now
independently. With both age groups the risks
the world becomes one of learning and testing
of diseases such as, arteriosclerosis, cancer, and
new academic skills and by assessing one’s
cerebral vascular disease increases substantially.
abilities and accomplishments by making
comparisons between self and others. ISSUES IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence: Adolescence is a period of Nature vs nurture - Why are you the way you
dramatic physical change marked by an overall are? As you consider some of your features
growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as (height, weight, personality, being diabetic,
puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as etc.), ask yourself whether these features are a
the adolescent begins to think of new result of heredity or environmental factors, or
possibilities and to consider abstract concepts both.
such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically,
Nature - would argue that heredity plays the
adolescents have a sense of invincibility that
most important role in bringing about that
puts them at greater risk of dying from
feature.
accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
infections that can have lifelong consequences. Nurture - would argue that one's environment is
most significant in shaping the way we are.
Emerging Adulthood: The period of emerging
adulthood is a transitional time between the Continuity versus Discontinuity: Is human
end of adolescence and before individuals development best characterized as a slow,
acquire all the benchmarks of adulthood. gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of
Continued identity exploration and preparation more abrupt change?
for full independence from parents are
demonstrated. Although at one’s physiological Stage theories or discontinuous development
peak, emerging adults are most at risk for assume that developmental change often occurs
involvement in violent crimes and substance in distinct stages that are qualitatively different
abuse. from each other, and in a set, universal
sequence.
Early Adulthood: The twenties and thirties are
identified as early adulthood. Intimate Continuous development assume development
relationships, establishing families, and work are is a more slow and gradual process. For
primary concerns at this stage of life. instance, they would see the adult as not
possessing new skills, but more advanced skills
Middle Adulthood: The forties through the mid- that were already present in some form in the
sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is child. Brain development and environmental
a period in which aging becomes more experiences contribute to the acquisition of
noticeable and when many people are at their more developed skills.
peak of productivity in love and work.
Active versus Passive: How much do you play a Tabula rasa or blank slate, and whatever comes
role in your own developmental path? Are you into the child’s mind comes from the
at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment.
environment that surrounds you?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): developed
Active - Piaget, for instance believed that according to a natural plan which unfolded in
children actively explore their world and different stages (Crain, 2005). He did not believe
construct new ways of thinking to explain the in teaching them the correct way to think, but
things they experience. requires students to believed children should be allowed to think by
think, discuss, challenge, and analyze themselves according to their own ways and an
information. Encourages conversation and inner, biological timetable. This focus on
debate biological maturation resulted in Rousseau
being considered the father of developmental
Passive - many behaviorists view humans as
psychology.
being more passive in the developmental
process. Passive learning requires learners to Arnold Gesell (1880-1961): neuromotor
absorb, assimilate, consider, and translate development of children. Gesell believed that
information. Encourages active listening and the child’s development was activated by genes
paying attention to detail. and he called this process maturation (Crain,
2005). Further, he believed that development
Stability versus Change: How similar are you to
unfolded in fixed sequences, and he opposed
how you were as a child? Were you always as
efforts to teach children ahead of schedule as
out-going or reserved as you are now?
he believed they will engage in behaviors when
Stability refers to the tendency of an object or their nervous systems had sufficiently matured.
system to stay the same. More or less constant.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Freud emphasized
Change occurs when objects or systems become the importance of early childhood experiences
different. More fluid and flexible throughout a in shaping our personality and behavior. In our
person’s life. natural state, we are biological beings and are
driven primarily by instincts. During childhood,
HISTORICAL THEORIES ON DEVELOPMENT however, we begin to become social beings as
PREFORMATIONIST VIEW - Preformationism, or we learn how to manage our instincts and
the belief that a tiny, fully formed human is transform them into socially acceptable
implanted in the sperm or egg at conception behaviors. His assumptions were that
and then grows in size until birth, was the personality formed during the first few years of
predominant early theory. Children were life. The ways in which parents or other
believed to possess all their sensory capabilities, caregivers interacted with children were
emotions, and mental aptitude at birth, and as assumed to have a long-lasting impact on
they developed these abilities unfolded on a children’s emotional states.
predetermined schedule (Thomas, 1979). CONTEMPORARY THEORIES ON DEVELOPMENT
John Locke (1632-1704): Refuted the idea of Erikson (1902-1994) and Psychosocial Theory:
innate knowledge and instead proposed that Erikson proposed that each period of life has a
children are largely shaped by their social unique challenge or crisis that the person who
environments, especially their education as reaches it must face, referred to as psychosocial
adults teach them important knowledge. crises.
 children do not know what else to do, they
learn by modeling or copying the behavior of
others.

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay

between the environment and the individual.
We are not just the product of our
surroundings, rather we influence our
surroundings. There is interplay between our
personality and the way we interpret events and
The person who does not develop a sense of how they influence us. This concept is called
trust (Erikson’s first stage) may find it reciprocal determinism. Our environment
challenging as an adult to form a positive creates us and we create our environment.
intimate relationship (Erikson’s sixth stage). Or Bandura began by conducting an experiment
an individual who does not develop a clear in which he showed children a film of a
sense of purpose and identity (Erikson’s fifth woman hitting an inflatable clown or “bobo”
stage) may become self-absorbed and stagnate doll. Then the children were allowed in the
rather than work toward the betterment of room, where they found the doll and during
others (Erikson’s seventh stage). their play they began to hit it. The children
also demonstrated novel ways of being
Learning Theory: Also known as Behaviorism, is aggressive toward the doll that were not
based on the premise that it is not possible to demonstrated by those children who did not
objectively study the mind, and therefore see the aggressive model.
psychologists should limit their attention to the
study of behavior itself. Most famous
Cognitive Theory: The cognitive theories focus
behaviorist was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.)
on how our mental processes or cognitions
Skinner (1904– 1990), who expanded the
change over time. Three important theories are
principles of behaviorism and also brought them
Jean Piaget’s, Lev Vygotsky’s, and Information-
to the attention of the public at large. Skinner
processing.
used the ideas of stimulus and response, along
with the application of rewards or Jean Piaget (1896-1980): explore children’s
reinforcements, to train pigeons and other ability to think and reason by watching his own
animals. In addition, he used the general children’s development. He was one of the first
principles of behaviorism to develop theories to recognize and map out the ways in which
about how best to teach children and how to children's intelligence differs from that of adults
create societies that were peaceful and (Piaget, 1929). He became interested in this
productive. area when he was asked to test the IQ of
children and began to notice that there was a
Social Learning Theory, or learning by watching
pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that
others, was developed by Albert Bandura
children's intellectual skills change over time
(1977). His theory calls our attention to the
and that maturation, rather than training, brings
ways in which many of our actions are not
about that change. Children of differing ages
learned through conditioning, as suggested by
interpret the world differently. Piaget theorized
Skinner. Young children frequently learn
that children progressed through four stages of
behaviors through imitation. Especially when
cognitive development.
 characteristics can affect the child’s self-
image, growth, sense of
accomplishment, and schedule thereby
impacting the child, physically,
cognitively, and emotionally.
 Exosystem includes the larger contexts
of community. A community’s values,
history, and economy can impact the
organizational structures it houses.
Mesosystems both influence and are
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): sociocultural theory
influenced by the exosystem.
emphasizes the importance of culture and
 Macrosystem includes the cultural
interaction in the development of cognitive
elements, such as global economic
abilities. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he
conditions, war, technological trends,
believed that a person not only has a set of
values, philosophies, and a society’s
abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that
responses to the global community.
can be realized if given the proper guidance
 Chronosystem is the historical context
from others.
in which these experiences occur. This
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed relates to the different generational
the Ecological Systems Theory, which provides a time periods previously discussed, such
framework for understanding and studying the as the baby boomers and millennials.
many influences on human development
RESEARCH METHODS
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner
recognized that human interaction is influenced RESEARCH DESIGN is the specific method a
by larger social forces and that an researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret
understanding of these forces is essential for data.
understanding an individual. The individual is
Psychologists use three major types of research
impacted by several systems including:
designs in their research, and each provides an
 Microsystem includes the individual’s essential avenue for scientific investigation.
setting and those who have direct,
Descriptive research is research that describes
significant contact with the person, such
what is occurring at a particular point in time.
as parents or siblings. The input of
those is modified by the cognitive and Correlational research is research designed to
biological state of the individual as well. discover relationships among variables and to
These influence the person’s actions, allow the prediction of future events from
which in turn influence systems present knowledge.
operating on him or her.
 Mesosystem includes the larger Experimental research is research in which a
organizational structures, such as researcher manipulates one or more variables
school, the family, or religion. These to see their effects.
institutions impact the microsystems DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
just described. The philosophy of the
school system, daily routine, Case Study: Sometimes the data in a
assessment methods, and other descriptive research project are based on only
a small set of individuals, often only one sample would include the same percentages of
person or a single small group. These research males, females, age groups, ethnic groups, and
designs are known as case studies which are socio-economic groups as the larger population.
descriptive records of one or a small group of
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY - respondents may lie
individuals’ experiences and behavior.
because they want to present themselves in the
Sometimes case studies involve ordinary
most favorable light.
individuals. Developmental psychologist Jean
Piaget observed his own children. More Interviews: Rather than surveying participants,
frequently, case studies are conducted on they can be interviewed which means they are
individuals who have unusual or abnormal directly questioned by a researcher.
experiences. Interviewing participants on their behaviors or
beliefs can solve the problem of misinterpreting
Observations: Another type of descriptive
the questions posed on surveys.
research is known as observation. When using
naturalistic observation, psychologists observe Psychophysiological Assessment: Researchers
and record behavior that occurs in everyday may also record psychophysiological data, such
settings. For instance, a developmental as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or
psychologist might watch children on a brain activity to help explain development.
playground and describe what they say to each
other. However, naturalistic observations do not The use of ERPs – events related potentials has
allow the researcher to have any control over provided important insight as to how infants
the environment. and children understand the world around
them. Webb, Dawson, Bernier, and Panagiotides
Laboratory observation, unlike the naturalistic (2006) examined face and object processing in
observation, is conducted in a setting created by children with autism spectrum disorders, those
the researcher. This permits the researcher to with developmental delays, and those who were
control more aspects of the situation. One typically developing. The children wore
example of laboratory observation involves a electrode caps and had their brain activity
systematic procedure known as the strange recorded as they watched still photographs of
situation test, which you will learn about in faces of their mother or of a stranger, and
chapter three. Concerns regarding laboratory objects, including those that were familiar or
observations are that the participants are aware unfamiliar to them.
that they are being watched, and there is no
guarantee that the behavior demonstrated in Secondary/Content Analysis involves analyzing
the laboratory will generalize to the real world. information that has already been collected or
examining documents or media to uncover
Survey: In other cases, the data from descriptive attitudes, practices or preferences.
research projects come in the form of a survey,
which is a measure administered through either CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
a verbal or written questionnaire to get a involves the measurement of two or more
picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of relevant variables and an assessment of the
people of interest. The people chosen to relationship between or among those variables.
participate in the research, known as the
sample, are selected to be representative of all Pearson Correlation Coefficient, symbolized by
the people that the researcher wishes to know the letter r, is the most common statistical
about called the population. A representative
measure of the strength of linear relationships
among variables.

Positive correlation - When the straight line

indicates that individuals who have high values
for one variable also tend to have high values
for the other variable.

Negative correlation - occur when high values

for one variable tend to be associated with low
values for the other variable.

Third variable is a variable that is not part of the

research hypothesis but produces the observed RESEARCH INVOLVING TIME-SPANS
correlation between them.
Cross-sectional research compares samples that
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH represent a cross-section of the population who
vary in age. Less expensive and time consuming.
is to provide more definitive conclusions about
the causal relationships among the variables in Longitudinal research involves studying a group
a research hypothesis than what is available of people who are the same age, and measuring
from correlational research. them repeatedly over a period-of-time. Very
time consuming and expensive.
Hypotheses, or specific statements about the
relationship between variables. Attrition occurs when participants fail to
complete all portions of a study.
Variable is anything that changes in value. In the
experimental research design, the variables of Practice effects occur when participants
interest are called the independent variable and become better at a task over time because they
the dependent variable. have done it again and again; not due to natural
psychological development.
The independent variable in an experiment is
the causing variable that is created or Sequential research includes elements of both
manipulated by the experimenter. longitudinal and cross-sectional research
designs. For example, in a study with a
The dependent variable in an experiment is a
sequential design, a researcher might enroll
measured variable that is expected to be
three separate groups of children (Groups A, B,
influenced by the experimental manipulation.
and C). Children in Group A would be enrolled
The experimental group receives the treatment when they are 2 years old and would be tested
under investigation, while the control group again when they are 4 and 6 years old. This is
does not receive the treatment the similar in design to the longitudinal study
experimenter is studying as a comparison. described previously. Children in Group B would
also be enrolled when they are 2 years old, but
Extraneous variables, or variables that are not
this would occur two years later when Group A
part of the experiment that could inadvertently
is now 4 years old. Finally, children in Group C
affect either the experimental or control group,
would be enrolled when they are 2 years old
thus distorting the results.
and Group A is now 6 and Group B is now 4. At
this time, the children would represent a cross-
sectional design (2, 4, and 6 years of age). • Debriefing: At the end of a study debriefing,
Further, along the diagonal children of the same which is a procedure designed to fully explain
age can be compared to determine if cohort the purposes and procedures of the research
effects are evident. Sequential designs are and remove any harmful aftereffects of
appealing because they allow researchers to participation, must occur.
learn a lot about development in a relatively
Chapter 2: Heredity, Prenatal Development,
short amount of time.
and Birth

Heredity

Genes are specific sequence of nucleotides and

are recipes for making proteins. Proteins are
responsible for influencing the structure and
functions of cells.

Mitosis is defined as the cell’s nucleus making

an exact copy of all the chromosomes and
splitting into two new cells.

meiosis the gamete’s chromosomes duplicate,

CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH and then divide twice resulting in four cells
containing only half the genetic material of the
• No Harm: The most direct ethical concern of
original gamete.
the scientist is to prevent harm to the research
participants. Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes created at
conception, 22 pairs are similar in length. These
• Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain
are called autosomes. The remaining pair, or sex
informed consent, which explains as much as
chromosomes, may differ in length. If a child
possible about the true nature of the study,
receives the combination of XY the child will be
particularly everything that might be expected
genetically male. If the child receives the
to influence willingness to participate.
combination XX the child will be genetically
Participants can withdraw their consent to
female.
participate at any point.
Genotypes and Phenotypes
• Confidentiality: Researchers must also protect
the privacy of the research participants’ genotype refers to the sum total of all the genes
responses by not using names or other a person inherits. The word phenotype refers to
information that could identify the participants. the features that are actually expressed.
• Deception: Deception occurs whenever Homozygous – either same version of a gene
research participants are not completely and from our mother and father.
fully informed about the nature of the research
project before participating in it. Deception may Heterozygous – received different version of the
occur when the researcher tells the participants gene from each parent.
that a study is about one thing when in fact it is dominant, meaning they express themselves in
about something else, or when participants are the phenotype even when paired with a
not told about the hypothesis. different version of the gene, while their silent
partner is called recessive. Recessive genes
express themselves only when paired with a
similar version gene. Geneticists refer to
different versions of a gene as alleles.

Most characteristics are not the result of a

single gene; they are polygenic, meaning they
are the result of several genes. In addition, the CHROMOSOMAL DISORDER
dominant and recessive patterns described
above are usually not that simple either.
Sometimes the dominant gene does not
completely suppress the recessive gene; this is
called incomplete dominance.

Those who have inherited only one recessive-

gene are called carriers and should be
unaffected by this recessive trait. Yet, carriers of
sickle cell have some red blood cells that take
on the c-shaped sickle pattern. Under A chromosomal abnormality occurs when a
circumstances of oxygen deprivation, such as child inherits too many or two few
high altitudes or physical exertion, carriers for chromosomes. The most common cause of
the sickle cell gene may experience some of the chromosomal abnormalities is the age of the
symptoms of sickle cell. mother. As the mother ages, the ovum is more
likely to suffer abnormalities due to longer term
Monozygotic or identical twins occur when a
exposure to environmental factors.
fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks
of development. Genetic Counseling: A service that assists
individuals identify, test for, and explain
dizygotic or fraternal twins two eggs or ova are
potential genetic conditions that could
released and fertilized by two separate sperm.
adversely affect themselves or their offspring is
GENETIC DISORDERS referred to as genetic counseling (CDC, 2015b).
The common reasons for genetic counseling
include:

• Family history of a genetic condition

• Membership in a certain ethnic group with a

higher risk of a genetic condition

• Information regarding the results of genetic

testing, including blood tests, amniocentesis, or
ultra sounds

• Learning about the chances of having a baby

with a genetic condition if the parents are older,
have had several miscarriages, have offspring
with birth defects, experience infertility, or have the cells divide. Environmental factors, such as
a medical condition nutrition, stress, and teratogens are thought to
change gene expression by switching genes on
Behavioral Genetics
and off.
Behavioral Genetics is the scientific study of the
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
interplay between the genetic and
environmental contributions to behavior. GERMINAL PERIOD – about 14 days in length,
last from conception to implantation of the
Genotype environment correlations – refers to
fertilized egg in the lining of the uterus.
the process by which genetic factors contribute
to variations in the environment. Zygote – containing the combined genetic
information from both parents.
THREE TYPES OD GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT
CORRELATIONS: During this time, the organism begins cell
division through mitosis. After five days of
1. Passive genotype-environment
mitosis there are 100 cells, which is now called a
correlation occurs when children
blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of both an
passively inherit the genes and the
inner and outer group of cells. The inner group
environments their family provides.
of cells, or embryonic disk will become the
EXAMPLE: Certain behavioral
embryo, while the outer group of cells, or
characteristics, such as being athletically
trophoblast, becomes the support system which
inclined, may run in families. The
nourishes the developing organism.
children have inherited both the genes
that would enable success at these
activities, and given the environmental
encouragement to engage in these
actions.
2. Evocative genotype-environment
correlation refers to how the social
environment reacts to individuals based
on their inherited characteristics.
EXAMPLE whether one has a more
outgoing or shy temperament will affect
how he or she is treated by others.
3. Active genotype-environment
correlation occurs when individuals
seek out environments that support
their genetic tendencies. This is also
referred to as niche picking.
EXAMPLE children who are musically
inclined seek out music instruction and
opportunities that facilitate their
natural musical ability.

Epigenetics studies modifications in DNA that

affect gene expression and are passed on when