Information and

Communication Technology
数科中心：李妍
Networks
 IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:
 discuss the operation of a router and other common network devices, such as
network interface cards, hubs, bridges, switches
 explain the use of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth in networks
 discuss cloud computing and how to store and share data
 describe the characteristics and purpose of common network environments
 list the differences between different network types
 discuss security issues regarding data transfer, including understanding about
passwords and other authentication methods
 explain the use of anti-malware software
 describe electronic-conferencing.
4.1 Networks

A network connects computers and other digital devices together and allows them to
share data and resources.

Networks allow the use of the following:

• Computer-to-computer communication.
• Computers communicating with devices such as printers, mice and keyboards.
• Mobile phone networks.
• Smart televisions.
• Tablets and media players downloading videos and music and playing them
through external devices such as speakers and digital projectors.
Network types
Types of networks include local area networks (LAN), including wireless local area
networks (WLAN), and wide area network (WAN).

 Local area network

A local area network (LAN) enables a group of computers that are in close proximity to
each other to be networked.
Typically, a LAN would be used in a school, in an office or at home. A LAN is useful
because it allows resources such as files, printers, games and other software
applications to be shared by the computers on the network.
There are two ways of connecting the devices so that they can communicate with
each other. These are:
• By cables that have to be routed throughout the buildings.
• Using radio waves so that no cables are required. This method is called a wireless
local area network or WLAN.

An advantage of a WLAN over a cable LAN is that it allows the users to move around
the area with their devices and remain connected.
With a cable LAN they would have to log off, remove the cable, plug the cable in
somewhere else and log in again. A WLAN also lets one or more people connect
their mobile devices such as laptops, mobile phones, tablets, media players,
speakers and printers. This is often called a personal area network (PAN).
 Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that connects separate LANs over a large
geographical area.
Typically, a WAN will connect cities, a country or many countries. Imagine an
organisation that has offices in more than one town, they would probably each have a
LAN set up in each building and then connect them all together into a WAN. A WAN
ensures that computers in one location can communicate with computers and users in
other locations.
The internet is a huge wide area network.
The separate networks are connected by cables running throughout the world under
the ground and under the sea and by satellite communications.
The uses of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

When computers and other digital devices are connecting to a network and
communicating with each other they have to follow sets of rules so that they can
understand each other. These sets of rules are called protocols.
Protocols are also used for other activities such as accessing printers.

Computers communicating through cables in a LAN usually use a set of rules called
Ethernet.
The two main sets of rules used by computers communicating in a WLAN using radio
waves are Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a digital communications protocol that sets out how data is transmitted on
wireless LANs.
Wi-Fi is a trademarked term that is owned by Wi-Fi Alliance. Each device must
connect to a wireless access point to access the network.

 Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless protocol allowing communication over short distances, usually

up to 30 feet.
It is used to link personal devices - for example, laptops, tablets, smartphones,
speakers or smart televisions - so that data can be shared between them. It allows
direct communication between the devices while Wi-Fi does not.
 Tethering

If you have a smartphone, you can use it to connect your tablet to the internet. This
process is called tethering; it is the linking of one device to another to connect to the
internet.
Question

1 It is necessary to be able to distinguish between different types of networks.

Define the following three types:
• LAN
• WLAN
• WAN.
2 Bluetooth was developed to provide a wireless communication method to link
specific devices that are close together.
Give three different ways that Bluetooth can be used by a person when they are
using their laptop to listen to music.
Common network devices

As well as the software rules - protocols - hardware devices are needed for devices to
be able to connect to and communicate over a network.

 Network interface card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) or network adapter is a component that connects a

computer to a network.
It formats the data sent from the computer into a required format according to the
protocols of the network to allow data packets to travel to and from the computer to the
network.
Originally, the adapters for desktop PCs were on 'cards' that were installed in the
computer but are now built into the motherboard; however the name 'card' remains.

Network interface cards and adapters support both wired and wireless network
connections.

Every NIC is created with a hardware number permanently 'burned' into it. This
permanent hardware number is known as the MAC(media access control) address.
Every MAC address is unique so that all data on a network can be sent to the correct
component, just like letters delivered to the correct house or text messages and voice
calls to the correct phone number.
 Hubs

Where a network has a central point to which all the signals from individual computers
are sent, a particular kind of network device, either a hub or a switch, is needed.
Hubs work in the following way:
• All of the computers on the network plug into a port on the hub using a cable.
• When a message is received through the cable from one of the computers, the hub
transmits it to all of the other computers.
• Hubs are 'dumb' and cannot learn the addresses of the different devices on a
network and when a message is received through the cable from one of the
computers, the hub transmits it to all of the other computers. This creates a lot of
needless network traffic.
• Hubs only allow one device at a time to transmit messages.
• Because the hub transmits every message to every part of the network and not just
to the computer it is intended for, there are a lot of unnecessary transmissions or
network traffic, resulting in a reduction in the speed that data is transmitted as the
network becomes overloaded.
• Due to this, hubs are rarely used today.
 Switches

A network switch handles messages more intelligently than a hub by inspecting the
MAC address of the device to which they should be sent.

The switch knows the addresses of the different devices on the network and only
sends the message to the correct device.
Switches work in the following way:

• Network switches have a similar function to hubs in a single network, but they read
the messages passing through.
• They can read the destination addresses and send them to only the intended
computers.
• They can do this because they build up a table of all of the MAC addresses on the
network.
• They therefore cut down on unnecessary network traffic, thereby increasing the
performance of the network.
• Switches can send and receive information at the same time, so they are faster
than hubs.
 Bridge

Often large LANs are split into smaller

parts called segments to improve network
performance. A bridge is used to connect
the different segments and they can
prevent transmissions from one segment
reaching the others.
They improve network security by isolating
segments from others and thus prevent
the spread of harmful programs or users
accessing information that they shouldn't.
 Routers

While switches allow different devices on a network to communicate, routers allow

different networks to communicate.

WANs, such as the internet, which is a network of networks, rely on routers to direct
data to the correct network.

For example, a request could be sent from a computer on a network in Indonesia to a

computer on a network in Brazil. This request would be directed from one router to
another until it reached the correct network.
Routers are used in the home to connect the home network to the internet. They
allow many computers to share an internet connection.
The router will transmit the incoming web pages, streamed audio, etc. to the correct
computer on the network.

When devices transmit data across the internet, the data is broken down into small
pieces called data packets. These are sent separately, and then joined up at the end
so that the message is complete.
Rules are needed so that all of the computers on the network work together.
Otherwise, how would the receiving computer know when the message is complete
or if there has been a transmission error?
A packet consists of three parts :
• Header: this contains the addresses of the source and destination, and also the
position of the packet in the complete message/file.
• Body: (also known as the payload) this contains part of the complete message/file.
• Footer: (also known as the trailer) this informs the receiving device that it has
reached the end of the packet. The footer can also be used for error checking to
make sure that the packet has been delivered intact.

A router has a routing table that lists the routes to other networks on the WAN. If the
router cannot directly connect to the destination network, it has to send it via other
networks along a route to the destination network. A routing table is a database that
keeps track of paths, like a map, and uses these to determine which way to forward
traffic.
The packets sent between computers A and B take different routes across the WAN.
The packets are sent out on their various journeys to the recipient computer. They do
not all follow the same route. In fact, they do not all arrive in the correct order but,
because they are labelled, the receiving computer can put them back together in the
correct order.

Here's how routing works:

• The source computer splits the file into packets and addresses them with the
recipient's IP address.
• The file is split because the transmission of a large file would consume all the
bandwidth and slow the network.
• These packets are then sent onto the network using cables or radio waves as in a
wireless network.
• Routers on the network inspect each packet to find the destination address and
decide the most efficient path for the packet to take on the next stage of its journey.
• In order to do this, each router has a configuration table containing information about
which connections lead to particular groups of addresses.
• The routers can balance the load across the network on a millisecond-by-millisecond
basis.
• If there is a problem with one part of the network while a message is being transferred,
packets can be routed around the problem, ensuring the delivery of the entire message.
• The final router can direct the packet to the correct recipient.

This method of data communication is called packet switching. It is more efficient

because it means that there does not have to be a dedicated line between the two
communicating devices. Compare this with making a telephone call on a landline,
where there is a dedicated line between the two telephones. That method is called
circuit switching.
Question

3 Write down definitions for the following terms:

a router
b data packet
c packet switching.
4 Explain how data packets are transferred from one computer to another across
the internet.
5 Describe three items of hardware that are required for computers to connect to
a network.
Common network environments

 Internet, intranet and extranet

The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks. The internet is

used to connect people, communities and countries worldwide.

The internet allows all users access to web pages. The internet uses a set of rules or
protocols called TCP/IP. This stands for transmission control protocol/internet protocol.
That is why all computers need a unique IP address so that data can be directed to
the correct one.

Intranets and extranets use the same protocols.

An intranet is a private computer network within an organisation, such as a school or
a business which uses internet technology.
Even though an intranet uses internet technologies, it is separate from the global
internet and cannot be accessed by outside users.

An extranet is an intranet that allows users from other organisations to use it for
specific purposes.
Examples include hospital intranets that allow access to community doctors to book
appointments for patients or a manufacturing company that allows access to
distributors for ordering and pricing information. The organisation can also share news
with the other users and keep them updated on future developments.
Question
6 There are different types of networks that are in use in organisations and
companies.
a Describe the differences between the internet, an intranet and an extranet.
b Give examples of situations in which they would be used.
7 Copy and complete the table below with the words internet, extranet or intranet.
The internet, an intranet and extranet all use TCP/IP.

The level of access to each of them is different. An intranet gives access restricted to
the members of a company/organisation; the extranet expands the intranet access to
allow non-members, such as suppliers and customers, to use company resources.

The internet is different to an extranet because the extranet allows limited access to
non-members of a company/organisation; anyone can access the internet network
resources.
Cloud computing

Cloud computing is the delivery of computer services over the internet. These services,
such as software and storage space, are housed in remote computers called servers.

They are called servers because they serve these services to the users.
If you are using cloud computing, then you do not actually know where the servers are
located. They could be anywhere in the world. But they are definitely not up in the air
in the clouds!

Cloud computing allows users to access and use applications, such as word
processors and spreadsheets, stored on remote servers.
Advantages for business:

• Lower maintenance costs: software does not need to be installed, maintained or

upgraded on the local computers or servers.
• Software does not have to be 'bought' and businesses only have to pay for those
parts that they need to use (this is known as 'software as a service').
• All software is automatically upgraded.
• As long as they have internet access, employees can work from anywhere in the
world and even from home, reducing the need for office space.
• All data is automatically backed up at the remote site.
• Employees can collaborate on the same documents because they are not stored on
one particular computer.
Disadvantages for business:
• Internet access is required.
• The organisation has less control and is reliant on the providers to maintain access
and update the software but some organisations are building their own 'private'
clouds.
• The providers' servers may be targeted by hackers.

Most computer users make use of some form of cloud storage for data files, images,
etc. It can be used as the main storage device, like a remote hard disk drive, but
most use it for backing up and archiving their data.
Even if users do not set up their own cloud storage, they are using it if they use social
media. Every comment, tweet, 'Like' or picture and video is stored on remote servers.

The servers are housed in huge data centres around the world. There are about 8.4
million global data centres, consuming about 3 percent of the total electricity
generated worldwide, or 40 percent more than that generated by the whole of the UK.
These vast amounts of energy are needed to power and cool all of the computer
equipment that is needed.

To conserve energy, many of these data centres are built in cold countries and ones
where there is more energy generated from natural sources such as hydro power.
Some have even been built under the sea.、
Question

8 Define cloud computing.

9 State where cloud data and apps are stored.
10 Which of these statements shown in the table below are true and which are false?
4.2 Network issues and communication
Security of computer networks
All networks must be kept secure so that data is not corrupted or stolen. All online
systems can be hacked and data can be stolen when it is stored or transmitted.

Networks should be protected against data interception and theft. Data traffic in LANs
and WANs can be intercepted. Hackers use packet analysers or 'packet sniffers' to
intercept the packets, which are then analysed and their data is decoded. The
criminals can therefore steal sensitive data such as logins, passwords, credit card
numbers and PINs. As there is no change to the network data or systems, it is
called a 'passive attack'.
There are several different ways to ensure that networks are protected and that
data is kept private and confidential.

 Encryption

When data is transferred electronically, it can be encrypted to keep it secure.

Encryption is the scrambling of data into a form that cannot be understood by
unauthorised recipients. The encrypted data must be decrypted back to its original
form before it can be understood.
A common method is to use asymmetric encryption which employs two different keys -
a 'public' key and a 'private' key. A private key can decrypt messages encrypted with
the corresponding public key. The public key is freely available and is used to encrypt
a message for the person who then decrypts it with their private key.
 Firewalls

Firewalls are either software or hardware devices that protect against unauthorised
access to a network, and are primarily used to prevent unauthorised access from the
internet.
They can be configured to prevent communications from entering the network and
also to prevent programs and users from accessing the internet from within the
network.
For example, a firewall can inspect the
incoming packets and reject those that
are from IP addresses not on a trusted
list or block communication to certain
external IP addresses.
 Authentication

Authentication is the process of determining whether someone trying to log into the
network is who they declare to be. The primary method of authentication is by the use
of passwords.

Passwords

A password is a secret word or phrase that is used to authenticate a user so that they
can gain access.
To ensure that a password is secure, some simple rules should be followed.
• Strong passwords :
• should be at least eight characters long
• contain both numbers and letters
• contain both upper and lower case letters
• contain at least one character such as: !, $, ?, etc.
• never use user-identifiable items such as name, date of birth, phone number,
postcode, car registration, etc.
• Passwords should be changed regularly.
• Previous passwords must never be reused.
• Passwords must never be written down.
• Passwords must never be shared with other users.
Passwords should be unpredictable so hackers cannot guess them or try to enter
them by trial and error.

Weak passwords are ones that can be easily guessed or discovered by hackers. They
will try things such as dates of birth, names of relatives, favourite sports teams, etc. in
different combinations. Hackers can also use software that will randomly generate
characters, numbers and symbols and these have more success on weak passwords.

It is important that all systems are checked for malware, such as spyware, so that
criminals cannot intercept the passwords or monitor computers to find out what the
user in entering. This can be done by using anti-spyware software. However, because
malware changes so rapidly, as criminals find new ways to hack computers, it is
important that your anti-spyware is kept up-to-date.
Authentication can also include a variety of methods such as:

• biometric methods
• magnetic stripes
• smart cards
• physical tokens
• electronic tokens
• zero login.
Biometric methods

Biometric methods of authentication are biological measurements or an analysis of

physical characteristics that can be used to identify individuals. Biometric data falls
into two categories:
• Physiological biometric data relates to a physical aspect of a person's body (such as
a fingerprint or an eye retina scan).
• Behavioural biometrics include signatures, handwriting analysis and voice pattern
recognition.

The information being measured needs to be universal - it should be something that

everyone possesses. It should also be unique, so that an individual can be definitively
recognised. It should also be permanent, meaning that it should not change
significantly as a person ages.
Biometric devices tend to work in one of two main ways: verification or identification.

For verification, biometric technologies perform a comparison of the data with a

template that has previously been stored, such as a fingerprint scan or other physical
tokens such as retina, iris or face scans, on a personal computer or electronic safe.

At present, biometric systems are mainly used for:

• Verification: to make sure a person is who they say they are.
• Identification: to identify a person in a crowd.
• Screening: to match a person who may be on a 'watch list' for security purposes.
Magnetic stripes

Personal and security data can be encoded on the magnetic stripe of a card and can
be swiped through a reader to allow access.

The magnetic stripe on the back of a credit card is split into three tracks and they can
all contain data. The first and second track hold coded information about the
cardholder's account: the card holder's full name, card number and CW value, date of
expiry of the card and the code for the country in which it was issued. The third track is
not always used, but if it is, it holds details like the currencies that are valid for use
with the card.
Smart cards

A smart card looks like a credit card in size and shape. However, a smart card
contains a computer chip and when it is held near a reader, data can be transferred to
allow the owner to be authenticated for access to a room or computer system.

There are two kinds of smart cards: contact and contactless. With contact smart cards,
the smart card is inserted into the reader, and the card's contact plate makes physical
contact with the reader to transmit data. The user then enters the associated PIN.
With contactless smart cards, the card just has to be held close to the reader, and
data is transmitted via radio waves.
Physical tokens

A physical token allows you to access software and verify your identity with a physical
device rather than relying on authentication codes or passwords. They are also called
key fobs, security tokens or USB tokens.

As physical tokens may be lost, forgotten or stolen, some multi-factor authentication

methods use mobile phones.
The user enters their knowledge factor, for example, their password, and the server
sends a text message containing an access code to their registered mobile phone.
The code can be used once within a certain time limit.
Electronic tokens

Electronic tokens can be used for electronic payments. A credit card number is
converted to a string of random characters that have no value.
When a credit card payment has been converted to a token, a payment network such
as Visa uses its secure keys to decode it and pass the card number to the standard
electronic payment processors.
Importantly, merchants themselves cannot decode a token. Converting a token back
to a card number requires access to the encryption keys, which are typically stored in
military-grade security.
Paying with a smartphone uses electronic tokens. The app replaces the customer's
card details with a unique virtual account number. That way, sensitive information
stays private.
Zero login

Passwords and other methods of authentication can no longer be relied upon in the
long term. Using artificial intelligence, technologies are being developed so that users
can be authenticated, not by a password or physical features, but by how they behave.
This is called zero login.

Its main difference is that complex passwords or other documentation will not be
required for identification. Our smart devices will be smart enough, and also secure
enough to recognise facial features, voice, movements and other ways, in which a
person is unique, to use as identification. How you swipe and type, where you are and
when you work are all unique to you.
Anti-malware software

 Malware

Malware is short for malicious software and is designed to get into computers without
the user’s consent and to disrupt or damage the computer. It includes any software
designed to disrupt the functioning of a computer system and gain unauthorised
access to a computer system.
Types of malware include:
• virus
• worm
• Trojan (or Trojan horse)
• spyware
• adware.
Anti-malware software is software that is designed to combat the effects (or even the
installation) of malware. It needs to be installed on a computer so that the system can
be protected from infiltration and infection by any malware.
The anti-malware program first detects any malware on a computer, removes it safely
and then clears up any damage that the malware made to the computer.

To prevent infection, security measures should be taken:

• Install anti-malware software, including ant-virus software, and ensure that it is
continually updated.
• The software should be used to scan all storage media to detect and destroy or
quarantine malware. The software quarantines the suspected malware if it is unable to
delete it or it is not sure if it actually is malware and waits for the user to decide. When
files are quarantined, they are placed in a folder where they cannot interfere with any
other programs.
• Install a firewall to ensure software is not downloaded without your knowledge.
• Ensure that the operating system is up to date.
• Install the latest security updates.
• Install anti-spyware protection software that removes or blocks spy ware.
• Avoid opening emails and attachments from unknown sources.
• Scan all data files as they are downloaded.
• Surf and download more safely:
• Only download programs from trusted websites and ensure that the anti-
malware software scans all downloads.
• Read all security warnings, licence agreements and privacy statements.
• Never click 'Agree' or 'OK' to close a window. Instead, click the red 'X' in the
corner of the window.
• Be wary of popular 'free' music and movie file-sharing programs.
Electronic-conferencing

Electronic-conferencing is a meeting between individuals who are not in the same

room or location using communications technology.

 Audio-conferencing

Audio-conferencing is where people in different locations use technology to speak to

each other.
Audio-conferencing is different from a traditional phone call as, instead of directly
dialling each other as for a phone call, all participants use their phones to dial into a
central system that connects them.
Audio-conferencing has similar advantages over face-to-face meetings such as
video-conferencing, but there is no visual communication.

The members cannot see each other or any visual presentations. They may not be
able to tell who is actually speaking or may inadvertently talk over each other.

 Video-conferencing and web-conferencing

Both video-conferencing and web-conferencing allow an audio and a visual connection

between the members of the conference. Both allow participants in different locations
to communicate with each other in sound and vision.
In video-conferencing , visual and audio communication links two or more participants
using specialised high quality video-conferencing equipment, including large displays
(TV screen) and video cameras.
The term web-conferencing is often used interchangeably with video-conferencing.
An important distinction between the two is the quality and security of the live video
stream and the difference in the equipment required.
Web-conferencing takes place online over public internet and enables multiple
participants to connect and work together visually using their laptops or mobile
devices.

Web-conferencing also includes:

• Webcasts which involve a one-way transmission and are non-interactive. The host
presents information via an audio and/or video stream over the internet and may use
screen sharing to show presentations, videos or documents.
• Webinars which are teaching sessions that take place on the internet. Participants
in different locations see and hear the presenter and ask and answer questions.
Equipment needed for video- and web-conferencing

Both require input and output devices for sound and vision and a communications link
between the participants.
For web-conferencing
• microphone
• speakers or headphones
• video camera (if it is visual as well as audio)
• a display screen or monitor
• an internet connection
• web-conferencing software.
Most participants use mobile devices such laptops and smartphones, which have
these hardware devices built-in.
For video-conferencing

Video-conferencing requires the same hardware, but this is usually of high quality,
individual components rather than being built into a single device.

Usually a dedicated room is used with a large, wall mounted monitor and central video
camera and speakers. Video-conferences are also conducted over private lines or
secure internet connections.
Question

11 List the similarities and differences between audio-, video- and web-
conferencing.
12 Describe 'electronic-conferencing', and explain the methods and equipment
required.
13 Explain the differences between video- and web-conferencing.