UES302: Introduction to Measurement Systems

Dr. V. Karteek

Dr. V. Karteek 1 / 60
Introduction
I Measurement is used in day-to-day life, eg. trade of goods.
I Ancient measurement of length is done using human foot.
I Errors can occur due to non-standard nature of the measurement, each person has
different size of foot.
I To overcome this, they used the average of 16 different persons to weed out errors. It
has met the accuracy demands of the ancient period.
I Considerable number of systems of units have been used at various intervals of time
during the history.
I Some of them are of historical interest only.
I For example, cubit is the length of the arm from bottom of the elbow to the tip of
middle finger, human foot, inch as man’s thumb etc..
I Some have theoretical significance and others have found place in experimental
applications.
I Understanding our world is based on measurements, Galileo proved by measurements
Dr. V. Karteek
that the earth is round; day and night are due to its rotation.
Introduction
I On 23rd September, 1999 NASA lost a $125 million Mars Climate Orbiter (launched
on 11th December, 1998).
I Reason: Usage of non-standard units (pound-seconds instead of newton-seconds) by
one of the teams without properly informing the others.
I Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
I Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the variable being measured.
I Precision: A measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, it is ameasure of
the degree to which successive measurements differ from one another.
I Sensitivity: The ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a change of
input or measured variable.
I Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond.
I Error: Deviation from the true value of the measured variable.
Dr. V. Karteek 3 / 60
SI Units
I Some of the units are accepted in few countries and others are accepted globally.
I A meter is standard unit. The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299, 792, 458 of a second [3].
I A measured physical quantity should be represented by magnitude and kind of
measurement.
I The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is called a Unit.
I Measurement implies comparison with a standard value.
Example
We can measure the numerical ratio (L1 /L0 ) of a length L1 to another length L0 (that
doesn’t change with time and can be reproduced accurately)

Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Numerical ratio) × (Unit) (1)

I When we say distance of 10m, ‘m’ signifies the unit meter with magnitude 10
(Numerical ratio). Magnitude has no meaning without unit.
Dr. V. Karteek 4 / 60
I Absolute units: An absolute system of units is defined as a system in which the
various units are all expressed in terms of a small number of fundamental units.
I In science and technology, there are two kinds of units:
1. Fundamental units
2. Derived units
I The SI (Système Internationale) has assumed seven base units also called as
fundamental units.
Table 1: Système Internationale base units

Base quantity Name Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Dr. V. Karteek 5 / 60
I Length, mass and time are fundamental to mechanics and to most physical quantities.
I This makes them to be called as Primary Fundamental Units.
I Other physical quantities in electrical (electronics), chemistry and physics domains
are represented by the remaining Auxiliary Fundamental Units.
I Rest of the quantities, that are expressed in terms of the fundamental units are called
Derived Units.
I Examples include area (m2 ), magnetic field strength(A/m) etc.. Independent units for
the derived quantities are unnecessary.
I Independent units for the derived quantities are unnecessary.
I In 1960’s, the meter is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of
radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 (orange red
line) of the krypton 86 atom(excited at the triple point of nitrogen, 63.15◦ kelvin).
I Definition of meter is redefined on 20th October, 1983 by defining the time based on
cesium 133 atom and speed of light in space expressed as an integer value 299,792,458
m/s.
Dr. V. Karteek 6 / 60
SI Base Units (2023)

Definition
Second (s): It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency
∆νCs , the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133
atom, to be 9,192,631,770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1 .

∆νCs
1 Hz =
9, 192, 631, 770
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
9, 192, 631, 770
1s=
∆νCs

Dr. V. Karteek 7 / 60
Definition
Metre (m): It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in
vacuum c to be 299,792,458 m/s, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium
frequency ∇νCs .
c
1m= s
299, 792, 458
9, 192, 631, 770 c
=
299, 792, 458 ∆νCs
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
Definition
Kilogram (kg): It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h
to be 6.62607015 × 10−34 expressed in J s or kg m2 s−1 , where the metre and the second
are defined in terms of c and ∆νCs .
h
1 kg = m−2 s
Dr. V. Karteek 6.62607015 × 10−34 8 / 60
Previously, it was equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. The
prototype was a cylinder of platinum-iridium.
Definition
Ampere (A): It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to
be 1.602176634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the
second is defined in terms of ∆νCs .
e
1A= s−1
1.602176634 × 10−19
Previously, it is defined as a constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart
in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per
meter of length.

Dr. V. Karteek 9 / 60
Definition
Kelvin (K): It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k
to be 1.380649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J K−1 , which is equal to kg m2 s−2 K −1 ,
where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆νCs .

1.380649 × 10−23
1K= kg m2 s−2 K −1
k
Previously, the kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
I In 1930s and 1940s, candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in a perpendicular
direction, of a surface of 1/600,000 square metre of a blackbody at the temperature of
freezing platinum under a pressure of 101,325 newton per square metre. Due to
experimental difficulties and new advancements in radiometry, it has been redefined.

Dr. V. Karteek 10 / 60
Definition
Candela(cd): It is the unit of luminous intensity. The candela is the luminous intensity, in
a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

Definition
Mole (mol): One mole contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. This
number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA , when expressed in the
unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.

6.02214076 × 1023
1mol =
NA
Previously, it was defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12. When the mole is
used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.

Dr. V. Karteek 11 / 60
Supplementary Units:
Definition
Radian (rad): Plane angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal in length to the radius of
the circle.
Definition
Steradian (sr): Solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by the surface whose area is
equal to the square of the radius of the sphere.
I Units can have multiplication factors like M(106 ), K(103 ), m(10−3 ), µ(10−6 ), etc..
I Apart from magnitude, every quantity has a quality called Dimension that
distinguishes it from other quantities. A derived unit is recognised by its dimension.
Table 2: Système Internationale base units
Base quantity Name Symbol Dimension
Length meter m L
Mass kilogram kg M
Time second s T
Electric current ampere A I
Dr. V. Karteek 12 / 60
Dimensions
Example
Volume of a cube is defined as V = l × l × l. Since fundamental unit of length is meter
(m), the derived unit of volume is m3 and its dimension is represented as L3 .
I As given in the above example, a list of few similarly calculated dimensions is
provided in Table 3.

Table 3: Few Système Internationale derived units

Quantity Unit Dimension

Velocity m/s LT −1
Acceleration m/s2 LT −2
Force kg-m/s2 M LT −2
Work kg-m2 /s2 M L2 T −2
Charge C (A s) TI

Dr. V. Karteek 13 / 60
Standards
I A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.
I There are different types of standards of measurement, classified by their function and
application:
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards
I The international standards are defined by international agreement.
I They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy that
production and measurement technology allow.
I International standards are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute
measurements in terms of the fundamental units.
I These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
and are not available to the ordinary user for comparison or calibration.
Dr. V. Karteek 14 / 60
I Primary standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in different
parts of the world.
I CSIR - National Physical Laboratory of India maintains the primary standards of SI
units in India.
I The primary standards are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at
each of the national laboratories.
I The results of these measurements are compared against each other, leading to a
world average figure for the primary standard.
I Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
I One of the main functions of primary standards is the verification and calibration of
secondary standards.
I Secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial
measurement laboratories.
I These standards are maintained by the particular involved industry or lab.
Dr. V. Karteek 15 / 60
I These standards are checked locally against other reference standards in the area.
I The responsibility of periodic maintenance rests with the industry or lab involved.
I The secondary standards are generally sent to the national standards laboratories on
a periodic basis for calibration and comparison against the primary standards.
I They then retuned tot he industrial user with a certification of their measured value
in terms of the primary standard.
I Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.
I They are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy and
performance or to perform comparison measurements in industrial applications.
I A manufacturer of precision resistances may use a standard resistor in the quality
control department of his plant to check his testing equipment.
I In electrical and electronic measurement, we are concerned with electrical and
magnetic standards of measurement.
Dr. V. Karteek 16 / 60
Time and Frequency Standards
I For many centuries, the time reference used was the rotation of the earth about its
axis with respect to the sun.
I Precise astronomical observations have shown that rotation of the earth about the sun
is very irregular, it doesn’t represent uniform time scale.
I Mean solar time or universal time (UT) was thought to give a more accurate time
scale.
I A mean solar day is the average of all the apparent days in the year.
1
I A mean solar second is then equal to of the mean solar day.
86, 400
I It still is not uniform due to its relation to the rotation of earth.
I The search for a truly universal time units has led astronomers to define ephemeris
time (ET).
I ET is based on astronomical observations of the motion of the moon about the earth.
Dr. V. Karteek 17 / 60
 1
I Since 1956, the ET has been defined as of the tropical year for 1900
31, 556, 925, 9747
January 0 at 12 h Eastern Time.
I The disadvantage is of ET is that it can be determined only several years in arrears
and only indirectly, by observations of the positions of the sun and the moon.
I For physical measurements, the unit of time interval has now been defined in terms of
an atomic standard.
I The universal second and the ephemeris second, however, will continue to be used for
navigation, geodetic surveys, and celestial mechanics.
I Development and refinement of atomic resonators have made possible control of the
frequency of an oscillator.
I The transition between two energy levels, E1 and E2 , of an atom is accompanied by
the emission (or absorption) of radiation having a frequency given by:
hν = E2 − E1
where h is Planck’s constant.
Dr. V. Karteek 18 / 60
I Provided that the energy states are not affected by external conditions, like magnetic
fields, the frequency ν is a physical constant, depending only on the internal structure
of the atom.
I After testing various metals, cesium based atomic clock was put into operation in
1955.
I The time interval provided by cesium clock is more accurate than that provided by a
clock calibrated by astronomical measurements.
I The second in terms of the frequency of the cesium transition is defined by assigning a
value of 9,192,631,770 Hz to the hyperfine transition of the cesium atom unperturbed
by external fields.
I Determinations of time intervals can now be made in a few minutes to greater
accuracy than was possible before in astronomical measurements that took many
years to complete.
I Cesium clocks are considered as primary standard, they are costly.
I Rubidium clocks are cheaper and considered as secondary standard and have lower
accuracy compared to cesium clocks, crystal clocks are further cheaper and have lower
Dr. V. Karteek
accuracy compared to rubidium clocks. 19 / 60
Electrical Standards
I Absolute ampere was defined as a constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and
placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force
equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per meter of length. Updated definition discussed already.
I Early measurements of the absolute ampere were made with a current balance
which measured the force between two parallel conductors.
I These measurements were rather crude and the need was felt to produce a more
practical and reproducible standard for the national laboratories.
I By international agreement, the value of the International Ampere was defined as that
current which deposits silver at the rate of 1.118 mg/s from a standard silver nitrate
solution.
I There were difficulties and discrepancies in the measurement of deposited silver.
I In 1948 the International Ampere was superseded by the Absolute Ampere due
Dr. V. Karteek
improved techniques of force measurements. 20 / 60
I In May 2019 (approved in November 2018), the Absolute Ampere is redefined as the
current in which one coulomb of charge travels across a given point in 1 second.
I The primary standard resistor is a coil of wire of some alloy like manganin which has
high electrical resistivity and a low temperature coefficient of resistance.
I The resistance coil is mounted in a double-walled sealed container to prevent changes
in resistance due to moisture.
Copper Bindin9
Silver Post
Solder
Copper
NE Terminol

Hord Rubber Top

-Resistance Wire

Container

Dr. V. Karteek
Fig. 1: Cross-sectional view of a double-walled resistance standard. 21 / 60
I With a set of four or five 1 Ω resistors shown in Fig. 1, the unit of the resistance can
be represented with a precision of a few parts in 107 over several years.
I Secondary standards and working standards are available from some instrument
manufacturers in a wide range of values, usually in multiples of 10 Ω.
I These standard resistors are made of allow resistance wire, such as manganin or
Evanohm.
.

::

Dr. V. Karteek Fig. 2: 10 kΩ resistance standard. 22 / 60

I The resistance in Fig. 2 is referred to as a transfer resistor.
I The resistance coil of the transfer resistor is supported between polyester film to
reduce stresses on the wire and to improve the stability of the resistor.
I The coil is immersed in moisture-free oil and placed in a sealed can.
I The connections to the coil are silver soldered, and the terminal hooks are made of
nickel-plated oxygen-free copper.
I The transfer resistor is checked for stability and temperature characteristics at its
rated power and a specified operating temperature (usually 25◦ C).
I A calibration report accompanying the resistor specifies its traceability to the primary
standard and includes the α and β temperature coefficients, with relation:

Rt = R25◦ C + α(t − 25) + β(t − 25)2

where Rt = resistance at the ambient temperature t; R25◦ C = resistance at 25◦ C; α, β

are temperature coefficients.
Dr. V. Karteek 23 / 60
I Usually values of temperature coefficients are α < 10−5 and
−3 × 10−7 < β < −6 × 10−7 .
I This means that a change in temperature of 10◦ C from the specified reference
temperature of 25◦ C may cause a change in resistance of 30 to 60 ppm from the
nominal value.
I For many years the standard volt was based on an electrochemical cell called the
saturated standard cell or standard cell.
I The saturated cell has a temperature dependence, and the output voltage changes
about −40 µV/◦ C.
I The standard cell voltage is also a function of a chemical reaction and not related to
any other physical constants.
I A new standard for the volt based on thin-film junction, from the work of Brian
Josephson in 1962.
I The thin-film junction is cooled to nearly absolute zero and irradiated with microwave
energy, a voltage is developed across the junction.
Dr. V. Karteek 24 / 60
I The voltage developed across the junction is related to the irradiating frequency,
given by:
hf
v=
2e
where h is Planck’s constant, e is charge of an electron, and f is the frequency of the
microwave irradiation.
I Because only the irradiating frequency is a variable in the equation, the standard volt
is related to the standard of time/frequency.
I However, majorly, standard cell called as normal or saturated Weston cell is used to
calibrate the secondary standard.
I It has a positive electrode of mercury and a negative electrode of cadmium amalgam
(10% cadmium). The electrolyte is a solution of cadmium sulfate.
I The components are placed in an H-shaped glass container, as shown in Fig. 3.
I It produces an emf of 1.0193 V, with an accuracy of 0.1%.
Dr. V. Karteek 25 / 60
I There are two types of Weston cell:
I The saturated cell, in which the electrolyte is saturated at all temperatures by cadmium
sulfate crystals covering the electrodes.
I The unsaturated cell, in which the concentration of cadmium sulfate is such that it
produces saturation at 4◦ C.
I The unsaturated cell has a negligible temperature coefficient of voltage at normal
room temperatures.
I Although the saturated cell has a voltage variation of −40 µV/◦ C, it is better
reproducible and more stable than the unsaturated cell.

Dr. V. Karteek Fig. 3: Weston cadmium cell.

26 / 60
I National standards laboratories maintain a number of saturated cells as primary
standard for voltage.
I The cells are kept in an oil bath to control their temperature to within 0.01◦ C.
I The voltage of the Weston saturated cell at 20◦ C is 1.01858 V (absolute).
I The emf at other temperatures is given by,

et = e20◦ C − 4.6 × 10−5 (t − 20) − 9.5 × 10−7 (t − 20)2 + 1 × 10−8 (t − 20)3

I Saturated Weston cells remain satisfactory as voltage standards for periods of 10 to

20 years, provided that they are carefully treated.
I Their drift voltage is on the order of 1 µV per year.
I Since saturated cells are temperature sensitive, they are unsuited for general
laboratory use as secondary or working standards.
I Rugged portable secondary and working standards are found in the unsaturated
Weston cell.
Dr. V. Karteek 27 / 60
 Glass
H vessel

Cadmium
sulphate
Solution

Cadmium Cadmium
sulphate suiphate
crystalsS crystals
Mercurous ,o0
o
suiphate Cadmium
mercury
Mercury anaigam

Fig. 4: Saturated Weston cadmium cell.

Glass
H vessel

Cadmiumn K D
sulphate-
solution

Porous
spacer
Mercurous Porous
sulphate spacer

Porous
plug Cadmium
mercury
Mercury amalgamn
|+

Dr. V. Karteek
Fig. 5: Unsaturated Weston cadmium cell. 28 / 60
I These cells are similar in construction to the normal cell, except that they do not
require exact temperature control.
I The emf of an unsaturated cell lies in the range of 1.01800 V to 1.0200 V and varies
less than 0.01% from 10◦ C to 40◦ C.
I The internal resistance of Weston cells range from 500 Ω to 800 Ω.
I The current drawn from these cells should not exceed 100 µA, because the nominal
voltage would be affected by the internal voltage drop.
I The internal solution is sensitive to light, should not be exposed to light. Readings
should be taken in upright position.
I Laboratory working standards haven been developed with accuracies on the order
of standard cell accuracy.
I A laboratory standard, called a transfer standard is based on the operation of a Zener
diode as the voltage reference element.
I The Zener-controlled voltage source is placed in temperature controlled environment
(an oven with ±0.03◦ C over 0◦ C to 50◦ C) to improve its long-term stability of order
10 ppm/month.
Dr. V. Karteek 29 / 60
I There are four available outputs:
1. A 0-1000 µV source with ∆ = 1 µV resolution.
2. A 1.000 V reference for voltbox potentiometric measurements.
3. A 1.018 + ∆ reference for saturated cell comparisons.
4. A 1.019 + ∆ reference for unsaturated cell comparisons.
I The dc transfer standard can be moved to the piece of equipment to be calibrated.
I Once disconnected from power line, it will recover to within ±1 ppm in approximately
30 min warm-up time.
I Since the unit of resistance is represented by the standard resistor and the unit of
voltage by the standard Weston cell, many electrical and magnetic units may be
expressed in terms of these standards.
I The unit of capacitance (farad) can be measured with a Maxwell dc commutated
bridge as shown in Fig. 6.
I Since resistance and frequency can be determined very accurately, the value of
capacitance can be measured with great accuracy.
Dr. V. Karteek 30 / 60
I Standard capacitors are usually constructed from interleaved metal plates with air as
the dielectric material.
I Since area of the plates and distance between the plates can be determined very
accurately, the capacitance of the air capacitor can be determined.
I Capacitance working standards can be obtained in a range of suitable values.
I Smaller values are usually air capacitors, whereas the larger capacitors use solid
dielectric materials.

ww
RA R2
G

R R OC
w w

Fig. 6: Commutated dc bridge to measure capacitance.

Dr. V. Karteek 31 / 60
I The high dielectric constant and the very thin dielectric layer account for the
compactness of these standards.
I Silver-mica capacitors are very stable with very low dissipation factor, a very small
temperature coefficient, little or no ageing effect, making them excellent working
standards.
I Mica capacitors are available in decade mounting, but decade capacitors are usually
not guaranteed better than 1%.
I The primary inductance standard is derived from the ohm and the farad, rather
than from the large geometrically constructed inductors.
I Campbell standard of mutual inductance is considered as primary standard for both
mutual and self-inductance.
I Refer [1, 2] for more information on the Campbell standard.
I Inductance working standards are commercially available in a wide range of values
both fixed and variable.
Dr. V. Karteek 32 / 60
I Typical set of fixed inductance standards are in the range of 100 µH to 10 H with
0.1% accuracy.
I Typical mutual inductance standards are in the range of 0 to 200 mH with 2.5%
accuracy.
I Distributed capacitance between the windings should be taken into account.
I The thermodynamic Kelvin scale is recognized as the fundamental scale to which all
temperatures should be referred.
I The magnitude of Kelvin has been fixed by defining the thermodynamic temperature
of the triple point of water at 273.16 K.
I Due to difficulty of measurement on the Kelvin scale, International Practical Scale of
Temperature in Celsius is defined in 1927.
I The Celsius scale has two fundamental fixed points: the boiling point o water as 100◦
C and the tripling point of water as 0.01◦ C, both established as atmospheric pressure.

Dr. V. Karteek 33 / 60
I A number of primary fixed points have been established above and below the two
fundamental points.
I The boiling point of oxygen (−182.97◦ C), the boiling point of sulfur (444.6◦ C), the
freezing point of silver (980.8◦ C), and the freezing point of gold (1063◦ C).
I The primary standard thermometer is a platinum resistance thermometer of
special construction for strain free operation.
I Interpolated values between the fundamental and primary fixed points on the scale
are calculated by formulas based on the properties of platinum resistance wire.
I The primary standard of luminous intensity is a full radiator (black body or
Planckian radiator), at the temperature of solidification of platinum (≈ 2, 042 K).
1
I The candela is then defined as 60 of the luminous intensity per cm2 of the full
radiator.
I Secondary standards of luminous intensity are special tungsten filament lamps,
operated at a temperature whereby their spectral power distribution in the visible
region matches that of the basic standard.
Dr. V. Karteek 34 / 60
I A slightly different type of standards are published and maintained by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
I These IEEE standards are not physical items that are available for comparison, but
are standard procedures, nomenclature, definitions, etc..
I These updated periodically, some of them have been adopted by other agencies like
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
I IEEE standards define test procedures, such as attenuation measurement in wide
range of frequencies.
I They also standardize the lab equipment, such as an oscilloscope should have a
particular set of knobs arranged in a specific manner.
I It prevents the operator to retrain for an oscilloscope from a different vendor.
I There some standards for safety of wiring for power plants, ships, industrial building,
etc., also specifying standard voltage, current ratings.
I Standardization of schematic, logic symbols, interface between equipment helps
Dr. V. Karteek
choosing equipment from different vendors and make connections. 35 / 60
I An instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
I Classification of instruments can be as follows:
1. Deflection and null
2. Manual operated and automatic
3. Analog and digital
4. Self-generating (passive) and power-operated (active)
5. Contacting and non-contacting
6. Dumb and intelligent
I A deflection type instrument is that in which the physical effect generated by the
measuring quantity produces an equivalent displacement or deflection in the
instrument.
I Examples for deflection type instruments are shown Fig. 7.
I Deflection instruments are simple in construction and operation.
Dr. V. Karteek 36 / 60
 Hollow
bourdon tube Scale

Pointer

pinnion
X Displacement
of free end

Lever
Elipticshaped
Scale y-y section Gearing Toothed sector
Spring
Fixed end

Pressure p

(a) Spring balance. (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

Fig. 7: Deflection type instruments.

I They generally have a good dynamic response.

I The disadvantage is that they interfere with the measured quantity and loading error
may be introduced.
Dr. V. Karteek 37 / 60
I A null type instrument is the one that is provided with either a manually operated or
automatic balancing device that generates an equivalent opposing effect to nullify the
physical effect caused by the quantity to be measured.
I The equivalent null-causing effect provides the measure of the quantity.
I Weight balance system as shown in Fig. 8 is an example of the null type instrument.
I The main advantage of the null-type devices is that they do not interfere with the
state of the measured quantity and the measurements are extremely accurate.
I The draw back is that these devices, especially the manual type, are quite slow in
operation and their dynamic response is quite poor.
Equal arms

24 1

Standard masses Unknown mass

Null position

Dr. V. Karteek Fig. 8: Equal arm beam balance. 38 / 60

I Speed and dynamic response of the null-type devices can be improved by using
feedback type of automatic mechanism.
I Any instrument which requires the services of human operator is a manual type of
instrument.
I The instrument becomes automatic if the manual operation is replaced by an
auxiliary device.
I Automatic instruments are usually preferred due to their lower operational cost and
faster dynamic response compared to the manual instruments.
I Null-bridge resistance thermometer in Fig. 9a requires manual operation for obtaining
the null position.
I Introducing an automatic self-balancing feedback mechanism using instrument
servo-mechanism makes it an automatic instrument as shown in Fig. 9b.
I The block diagram of the automatic feedback system is shown in Fig. 10.

Dr. V. Karteek 39 / 60
 Full scale Zero

JFull-scale adjustment adjustment

adjust
ment RË R2 Lamp R4
Photo
Zero cell
adjust RA
Slider
ment
Ampli Resistance wire
Scale fier

Temperature
-Thermometer bulb measuring scale
W Slider containing
resistance wire

Relay

Mechanical (manual type)

null device Reversible motor

(a) Manual type null-bridge resistance (b) Automatic type null-bridge resistance
thermometer. thermometer.

Fig. 9: Manual and automatic type instruments.

I Automatic null-bridge resistance thermometer in Fig. 9b uses a mirror type

galvanometer along wih a photoelectric device.
I The advantage with the system is that the galvanometer is not subjected to any
physical load, it is used to direct light on to a photo cell.
Dr. V. Karteek 40 / 60
 Data
presentation
element

Indication of
Control element the output
Desired Error Amplifier (reversible
input signal servo motor)
Actual value
of the output
Signal Inverse
conditioning transducer
element

Fig. 10: Feedback type measurement system.

I The photo cell generates a signal, which is amplified and sent to a motor on the slider
for bring it back to null position.
I The feedback loop performs tracking of the desired input automatically till the error
signal vanishes.

Dr. V. Karteek 41 / 60
I Analog instruments present the physical variables in the form of continuous variations
with respect to time.
I Digital instruments present the physical variables in the form of digital quantities,
which are discrete and vary in steps.
I The digital quantities are obtained from the analog input using an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter.
I The conversion process involves sampling in the time domain, which results in discrete
time continuous valued quantities.
I Then the samples are quantized to obtain the discrete valued samples using
predefined number of levels based on number of bit assigned to each quantity.
I Further, we might need to reconstruct the analog quantity to display at the user side.
I A digital-to-analog (D/A) converter is used to reproduce the analog quantity.
I The main advantage of the digital representation is storage and processing the signals
using computers.
Dr. V. Karteek 42 / 60
I The digital signals have better noise immunity compared to analog signals.
I It is easy to distinguish between 0 and 1 compared to 10.0 and 0.99.
I Several coding techniques for error detection, error correction, data security etc., are
developed for digital signals only.

Dr. V. Karteek Fig. 11: Analog and digital signals. 43 / 60

I Self-generating (or passive) instruments fulfil their energy requirements entirely from
the input signal.
I Examples include bourdon gauge, mercury thermometer, moving coil meters etc..
I Power-operated (or active) instruments require some auxiliary power to generate
output.
I Examples include digital multimeter, CRO etc..
I A contacting type of instrument is kept in the measuring medium itself. A clinical
thermometer is an example.
I Non-contacting or proximity instruments measure the desired input even though they
are not in close contact with the measuring medium. Optical pyrometer monitoring
the temperature based on thermal radiation is an example.
I A dumb or conventional instrument just displays the measured variable, but the data
is processed by the observer. Example, a Bourdon pressure gauge.

Dr. V. Karteek 44 / 60
I With the advent of microprocessors and artificial intelligence, the intelligent or smart
instruments process the data for noise reduction, automatic calibration, drift
correction, gain adjustments, etc..
I The basic requirement of the smart instruments is the the output of the transducer
should be in digital form or it should pass through an A/D converter, for processing
the data in a computer.
I Functional elements of a measurement system can be classified as:
1. Basic functional elements
2. Auxiliary functional elements
I The basic functional elements are
1. Transducer or primary sensing element that senses and converts desired input to a more
convenient and practical form to be handled by the measurement system. Such as
temperature getting converted into electrical quantity in digital thermometer.
2. Signal conditioning or intermediate modifying element for manipulating or processing the
output of the transducer in a suitable form.
3. Data presentation element for giving the information about the measurand or measured
variable in the quantitative form.
Dr. V. Karteek 45 / 60
I The auxiliary functional elements are those which may be incorporated in a particular
system depending on the requirement.
1. Calibration element to provide a built-in calibration facility.
2. External power element to facilitate the working of one or more of the elements like the
basic functional elements.
3. Feedback element to control the variation of the physical quantity that is being measured.
In addition, feedback element is used for automatic or self-balancing of null type of
instruments.
4. Microprocessor element to facilitate the manipulation of data for the purpose of
simplifying or accelerating the data interpretation. It is always used along with A/D
converter which is incorporated in the signal conditioning element.

Dr. V. Karteek 46 / 60
 Transduced
signal
Amplifier Terminal for
Input Primary sensing
Transmission Modified
recording/
Signal Filter monitoring Output
Secondary sensing path Signal
(may be)
Physical quantity to Integrator
be measured Transducer 05 10 15 20
e.g. Force element Analog indicator
Velocity A-D Converter
Pressure
Displacement
Temperature
1
Signal conditioning
element
2|1
4025
Flow
Digital display
Acceleration
Strain
Current
(Voltage
Frequency
pH value Data logger
Humidity
etc.

Graphical display
Calibration signal
generator with ,
known value of input 0-300 V ac
34,38,40,42
variable 45,34,48,47
0-300 V dc
Printed output
Calibration Element External Power Element Data Presentation
(Auxiliary Element) (Auxiliary Element) Element
(Output)

Fig. 12: Basic and auxiliary functional elements of a measurement system

Dr. V. Karteek 47 / 60
 Hollow Scale
bourdon tube
TT
Pointer

pinnion Displacement
of free end

Elliptic shaped Lever

yy section Gearing Toothed sector

Fixed end

Pressure p
(a)

Pressure Mechanical
p amplifier Amplified Display by Output
Bourdon tube lever and pointer
Input
Small |displacement and scale
variable displacement gearing
X
Transducer Signal conditioning Signal conditioning
element element element
(b)

Fig. 13: (a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge (b) Functional elements of the bourdon tube pressure
gauge.
Dr. V. Karteek 48 / 60
 Pointer
and
Scale

Upper control
spring
Permanent
magnet

F Votage V
or
F CurrentI
Current S
Permanent
carrying
coil magnet

Lower
control
spring

(a)
d.c.
Voltage V Transduced
or Scale
Current | Current Torque Control Output Pointer deflection
carrying and
springs angle
Input coil T Scale
variable
Transducer Signal conditioning Data presentation
element element element
(b)

Fig. 14: (a) Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) galvanometer (b) Functional elements of the
PMMC galvanometer.
Dr. V. Karteek 49 / 60
 External
power
SOurce

Displacement
X

Primary Soft iron core

winding
excitation
124446|2 N/m?
Voltage Digital
eo amplifier
voltmeter

Bourdon tube
Differential output of
secondary windings

(a)

External power
element

Small
transduced
Bourdon tube
Pressure p voltage Electrical Amplified Output
+ Digital
Linear variable
voltage voltmeter
Input V, amplifier voltage signal Digital
variable differential transducer measured
pressure
Data Presentation
Transducer Elements Signal Conditioning Element
Element
(b)

Fig. 15: (a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge with digital read out (b) Functional elements of the
digital read out bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Dr. V. Karteek 50 / 60
I A generalized input-output configuration of the measurement system is shown below.
I The input quantities are classified into three categories:
1. Desired inputs
2. Interfering inputs
3. Modifying inputs
Output component
Desired due to desired input
input and modifying input
Gp

GMD
Modifying
input
Summing Output
point

GMI
Interfering
input G
Output components due
to interfering input and
modifying outputs
Fig. 16: Generalized input-output configuration of measurement systems.
Dr. V. Karteek 51 / 60
I Desired inputs are the quantities for which the instrument is specifically designed to
measure.
I The desired input rD produces an output, component cD = GD rD , where GD is the
transfer function.
I The transfer function concept is valid for linear time-invariant systems.
I Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an instrument becomes
unintentionally sensitive.
I The instruments are not desired to respond to interfering inputs.
I The interfering input rI is operated upon by a transfer function GI to produce an
output in the same manner as a desired input.
I Modifying inputs are defined as inputs which cause a change in input-output
relationships for either desired inputs or interfering inputs or for both.
I Similar transfer function representation with rM as modifying input passing through
GM D and GM I that affect GD and GI respectively.
Dr. V. Karteek 52 / 60
I Consider a case of measurement of differential pressure of a fluid using a U-tube
mercury manomoter as shown in Fig. 17a.
Angle of P1
Gravity tilt
Scale vector
Scale Gas
P, P1
Scale
P; P2 Gas
TTT
Gas P;
Mercury
Acceleration
Mercury
Mercury

(a) Manometer. (b) Acceleration as an ri . (c) Tilt as an ri .

Fig. 17: Manometer with and without interfering inputs.

I The pressure applied at the two ends of the U-tube are P1 and P2 and the differential
pressure is given by,
P = P1 − P2 = gh(ρm − ρf )
where ρm , ρf are densities of mercury and fluid respectively, g is gravitational
constant, h is the scale reading.
Dr. V. Karteek 53 / 60
I If ρf is negligible,
P = P1 − P2 = ghρm
I In the case of P1 = P2 , the value h should be zero
I However, due to interfering inputs, the value of h can be non-zero as shown in
Figs. 17b and 17c.
I The modifying inputs for the manometer are ambient temperature and gravitational
force.
I Ambient temperature can introduce changes in the dimensions of the U-tube and in
density of the fluid.
I Gravitational constant is location specific.
I Consider the case of strain gauge as shown in Fig. 18.
I The change in the resistance is given by,
∆R = Gf R
Dr. V. Karteek 54 / 60
 Strain
Force F
gauge
R, =R
Cantilever

R= R

R4 = R -

R,= R

Fig. 18: Measurement of strain using Wheatstone bridge.

I ∆R is change in resistance of strain gauge, Gf is gauge factor and  is strain.

I The output voltage is given by
Gf
e0 = ei
4
I Ambient temperature and electro magnetic fields can act as interfering inputs.

Dr. V. Karteek
I Battery voltage can act as a modifying input. 55 / 60
I Methods of correction for interfering and modifying inputs:
1. Method of inherent insensitivity
2. Method of high gain feedback
3. Method of calculated output corrections
4. Method of signal filtering
5. Method of opposing inputs
I In the method of inherent insensitivity, the instruments are so designed that they are
sensitive only to desired inputs and are insensitive to both interfering and modifying
inputs.
I GI ≈ 0 and/or GM D ≈ 0.
I For example, temperature is an interfering input in strain gauge. Choosing a material
with very low temperature coefficient of resistance is one possible solution.
I The approach may not be practical.
I In the method of high gain feedback, the feedback part makes the system response
relatively insensitive to modifying inputs.
Dr. V. Karteek 56 / 60
 Tp C
Gp
(a)
C
Gp

(b)
Fig. 19: (a) Non-feedback or open loop system. (b) Feedback (closed loop) system.

I In the open loop system, the output due to desired input is,
C = GD rD
I Due to modifying input like changes in ambient temperature, the transfer function
changes by ∆GD , resulting in,
C + ∆C = (G + ∆GD )rD
Dr. V. Karteek 57 / 60
I The change in the output is

∆C = ∆GD rD
I With feedback,

C = GD (rD − HC)
GD
⇒C= rD
1 + GD H

GD + ∆GD GD ∆GD
C + ∆C = rD = rD + rD
1 + (GD + ∆GD )H 1 + GD H + ∆GD H 1 + GD H + ∆GD H
I Since ∆GD  GD
GD ∆GD
C + ∆C = rD + rD
1 + GD H 1 + GD H
∆GD
∆C = rD
1 + GD H
Dr. V. Karteek 58 / 60
I Compared to open loop system, the output of the closed loop system for the
modifying inputs is reduced by a factor of (1 + GD H).
I If the feedback systems are designed with a high gain feedback, H, the value of output
on account of modifying inputs is considerably reduced.
I Method of calculated output corrections require the knowledge of magnitude of
interfering and/or modifying inputs and also the mathematical representation.
I With the information of modifying inputs and system transfer function, the errors in
the output can be calculated.
I Corrections can be applied to compute the output corresponding to desired input.
I

Dr. V. Karteek 59 / 60
References I

[1] Albert Campbell and Richard Tetley Glazebrook, On a standard of mutual inductance, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character 79
(1907), no. 532, 428–435, available at
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspa.1907.0053.
[2] David William Dye and Joseph Ernest Petavel, Calculation of a primary standard of mutual inductance
of the campbell type and comparison of it with the similar n. p. l. standard, Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character 101 (1922),
no. 711, 315–332, available at
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspa.1922.0047.
[3] SI unit meter, https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/units/meter.html (2017).

Dr. V. Karteek