2

1 3

HANDBOOK
FOR

ELECTRICITY
METERING
ELEVENTH EDITION
COPYRIGHT 2014 BY EDISON ELECTRIC INSTITUTE
701 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20004-2696

First, Second, and Third editions entitled Electrical Meterman’s Handbook,

copyright 1912, 1915, 1917 by the National Electric Light Association

Fourth edition entitled Handbook for Electrical Metermen

copyright 1924 by the National Electric Light Association

Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh editions entitled Electrical Metermen’s Handbook

copyright 1940, 1950, and 1965 by the Edison Electric Institute

Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth editions entitled Handbook for Electricity Metering
Copyright 1981, 1992, 2002 and 2014 by the Edison Electric Institute

First edition, 1912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 copies

Second edition, 1915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500 copies
Third edition, 1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 copies
Fourth edition, 1923 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,300 copies
Fifth edition, 1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000 copies
Sixth edition, 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,000 copies
Seventh edition, 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000 copies
Eighth edition, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,000 copies
Ninth edition, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 copies
Tenth edition, 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 copies
Eleventh edition, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Demand

Handbook for Electricity Metering.—Eleventh Edition

p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-931032-59-2
1. Electric meters. I. Edison Electric Institute
TK301.H428 2002    621.37945—dc20
 Preface to the
Eleventh Edition
THIS IS THE tenth revision to the first edition of the Electrical Meterman’s Handbook, now
the Handbook for Electricity Metering, which was first published in 1912. While this refer-
ence book has been revised every 10 years, not before has there been so much change in the
electricity metering space.
As in the previous editions, the emphasis has been on fulfilling the needs of the metering
practitioner. Of course updated text and new graphics have been added. However, one quick
look at Chapter 2—Common Terms Used in Metering reveals the vast technological changes
that have occurred these past years. The biggest of those changes being the Advanced Meter-
ing Infrastructure (AMI) with all of its implications to the metering practitioner’s world.
To make the Handbook convenient either as a reference or textbook, some duplication
has been permitted. In the preparations of this Handbook, the Advisory Teams wish to make
grateful acknowledgment for all the help received. Above all, credit must be given to the
editors and committees responsible for this and previous editions of the Handbook.
Although this eleventh edition has been rewritten and rearranged, the tenth edition
provided substantial content and helped make this rewriting possible. The contribution made
by the manufacturers has been outstanding for the chapters concerning their products and
they have freely provided illustrations, assisted in editing chapters and provided text. It is
hoped that future editions will be prepared as new developments make them necessary.
If users of this Handbook have any suggestions which they believe would make future
editions more useful, such suggestions, comments, or criticisms are welcomed. They should
be sent to the Edison Electric Institute, 701 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
20004-2696.

iii
 iv STAFF
Randy Graham, Project Manager, Edison Electric Institute
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Reggie Murchison, Author Advocate, Alabama Power Company

Paul Frey, Edison Electric Institute
Jillian Vignoe, Edison Electric Institute
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group

CHAPTERS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTORS

Chapters 1–4
Reginald Murchison, Alabama Power Company
Darla Adams, Alabama Power Company (Assistant to Reginald Murchison)
Thomas Held, P.E., We Energies
Ken Dimpfl, American Electric Power
Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group
Gary Hendley, Oncor Electric Delivery
James “Jim” West, Ameren Corp.
Terry Bates, Oncor Electric Delivery

Chapter 5
Ken Dimpfl, American Electric Power
Jerome Peplinski, P.E., MGE
Kathy Crouse, ITRON
Larry Waters, GE
Len Peaslee, SEMPRA
Lou Santilli, ITRON
Scott Weikel, Elster
Steve Wright, ITRON

Chapters 6 & 8
Tony Osmanski, PPL Utilities
Michael Anderson, Landis+Gyr
Arlin Rummel, Sensus
Brad Johnson, Oncor
Joseph Chunko, PPL Utilities
Curt Crittenden, GE
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group
Scott Weikel, Elster
Joe Chunko, PPL Utilities
Arlin Rummel, Sensus
 Chapter 7 v
Terry Bates, Oncor
Tony Osmanski, PPL Utilities

STAFF AND CONTRIBUTORS

Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities
Jim DeMars, Florida Power & Light
Ken Dimpfl, American Electric Power
Harley Gilliland, The HarGil Group
Michael Anderson, Landis+Gyr
Arlin Rummel, Sensus
Scott Weikel, Elster
Steve Kuperman, Schneider Electric

Chapter 9
Tom Lawton, TESCO
Rob Reese, TESCO
William Hardy, PhD, PowerMeasurements
Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities

Chapter 10
Jim West, Ameren
Steve Bell, PPL Utilities
Russell Borchardt, Xcel Energy
Jim DeMars, Florida Power & Light
Bob Dunbar, Knopp Inc.
David Ellis, Public Service Electric & Gas
Scott Flowers, Ritz Instrument Transformers, Inc.
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group
Mike Haas, GE
Tim Morgan, Duke Energy
Randy Mullikin, ABB
Rudy Ogajanov, ABB
Andre Rotterbacher, Ritz Instrument Transformers, Inc.
Bryan Sonnenberg, GE
Dylan Stewart, Alstom Grid
Marcus Zickefoose, Radian Research, Inc.

Chapters 11 & 12
Thomas S. Held, P.E., We Energies
Russell Borchardt, Xcel Energy
Brian C. Teddy, P.E., Wisconsin Public Service
John Schroeder, Alliant Energy
Jerome Peplinski, P.E., Madison Gas and Electric
Robert C. Stabe, Xcel Energy
 vi Chapters 13 & 14
Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities
Brad Johnson, Oncor
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

David Scott, SAIC

Carl Chermak, GE
Curt Crittenden, GE
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group
Rebecca Sibberson, Northeast Utilities

Chapter 15
Dan Gunderson, ALLETE – Minnesota Power
Shannon Edwards, Radian Research, Inc.
Tim Morgan, Duke Energy
Scott Weikel, Elster
Steve Schamber, Landis+Gyr

Chapter 16
Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities
Scott Bell, Southern Company
David Ellis, Public Service Electric & Gas
Harley Gilleland, The HarGil Group
John Grubbs, Southern Company
Vincent O’Connell, Northeast Utilities
Alan Salk, P.E., National Grid
Rick Hacket, Green Mountain Power

Chapter 17
Ellery Queen, Qtech Professional Services
David Scott, SAIC
Arlin Rummel, Sensus Metering
Ronnie Noble, Georgia Power Company
Russell Mullennix, Georgia Power Company
David Bernaudo, Southern California Edison
Mark Leach, Georgia Power Company
James Hancock, Georgia Power Company

Chapter 18
Tim Morgan, Duke Energy
David Wiseman, Duke Energy (retired)
William Hardy, PhD, Power Measurements
Alex Yan, Pacific Gas & Electric
David Ellis, Public Service Electric & Gas
Jim Thurber, Baltimore Gas & Electric Company
Shannon Edwards, Radian Research
 Chapter 19 vii
Jim DeMars, Florida Power & Light
Young Nguyen, Pacific Gas & Electric

STAFF AND CONTRIBUTORS

Chapter 20
Jim DeMars, Florida Power & Light
Peter Dack, Radian Research, Inc.

Chapter 21
Brad Johnson, Oncor
Dr. Aaron Snyder, EnerNex
Gordon Belcher, Northeast Utilities
Dan Gunderson, Minnesota Power
 Contents

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
List of Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxviii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE METER DEPARTMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Electric Utility and the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Duties of the Meter Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Customer Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Knowledge Required in Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Meter Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

CHAPTER 2
COMMON TERMS USED IN METERING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

CHAPTER 3
MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Basic Laws of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Parentheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Right Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Conjugation and Absolute Value of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Division of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Complex Numbers Written in Polar Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
ix
 x Basic Computations Used in Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Calculating Percent Registration Using a Rotating Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Calculating Percent Registration Using Indicating Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Register Formulas and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

CHAPTER 4
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Introduction to Direct Current Electric Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Physical Basis for Circuit Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Resistance and Ohm’s Law as Applied to DC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Kirchhoff’s Current Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Resistances Connected in Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Resistances Connected in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Resistances in Series–Parallel Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Power and Energy in DC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Three-Wire Edison Distribution System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Summary of DC Circuit Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Alternating Current Single-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Introduction to Alternating Current Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Sinusoidal Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fundamental Frequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Phasors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Capacitance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Resistance and Ohm’s Law as Applied to AC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Power and Energy in Single-Phase AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Harmonic Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Alternating Current Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Balanced Three-Phase Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Balanced Three-Phase Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Balanced Three-Phase Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Balanced Three-Phase Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Per-Phase Equivalent Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Power and Energy in Three-Phase AC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Power Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Distribution Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Wye–Wye Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Wye–Delta Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Delta–Wye Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Delta–Delta Transformer Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

CHAPTER 5
SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Semiconductor Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Hole Current and Electron Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
N- and P-Type Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
P–N Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Semiconductor Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Transistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
 Digital Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 xi
Binary Digital Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Memory Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Microprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6
SERVICE SWITCH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Remote Service Switch—Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Service Switch Features and Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Remote Service Switch Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Pre-Payment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Load Limiting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Load Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Other Benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Design Criteria for Internal Service Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Moving Condcutors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Electrical Contact Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Utility Acceptance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
ANSI Standard Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

CHAPTER 7
COMMUNICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Introduction—Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
One-Way Communications Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Automated Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Radio-Based Automated Meter Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Network Meter Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Telephone-Based Automated Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Power Line Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Two-Way Communications Systems via Advanced Metering Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Power Line Communication (PLC) Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Typical Types of PLC Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Metering Substation Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Communications Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Access control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Communications to a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Communications to a Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Host/Client Communications in the Substation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Home Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Communications Methods Used by a Home Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Applications for a Home Area Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Smart Energy Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Head End System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Common Feature Sets and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

CHAPTER 8
THE SMART GRID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Smart Grid History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
19th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
 xii 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
What Makes a Grid “Smart?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Advanced Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Advanced Meters and Advanced Metering Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Smart Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Smart Grid Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

CHAPTER 9
INSTRUMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Electronic Digital Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Signal Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Analog-to-Digital Converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Common Instruments for Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The Multimeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Transformer Testers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Ratio Tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Burden Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Admittance Tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Meter Accuracy Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Communication Testing of Electric Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Meter Site Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
The Meter Site Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Instrument Transformer Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Ratio Testing with Applied Burden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Burden-Only Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Admittance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
PT Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Meter Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

CHAPTER 10
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Conventional Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Basic Theory of Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
The Voltage Transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
The Current Transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Instrument Transformer Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Ratio Correction Factor and Related Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Combined Ratio Correction Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Phase Angle Correction Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Transformer Correction Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Final Correction Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
The Nominal Instrument Transformer Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Summary of Basic Instrument Transformer Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Compensating Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Application of Correction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
When Correction Factors Should Be Applied. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Determining the Meter Adjustment in Percent Registration to Correct for Instrument
Transformer Errors—Calculations Based on Tables 10-2 and 10-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
 Overall Percent Error Caused by the Instrument Transformers Alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 xiii
Determining the Overall Percent Error by Adding the Percent Errors Caused by
Instrument Transformers and the Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
A Graphical Method of Determining the Percent Error Caused by the Instrument

CONTENTS
Transformers and the Required Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Application of Instrument Transformer and Watthour Standard Corrections in One Step
to a Three-Phase, Three-Stator, Four-Wire, Wye Metering Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Application of Instrument Transformer and Watthour Standard Corrections in One Step
to a Three-Phase, Two-Stator, Three-Wire, Delta Metering Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Summary of Basic Formulas for Applying Instrument Transformer Corrections. . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Individual Stator Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Burden Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Voltage Transformer Burdens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Current Transformer Burdens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Polyphase Burdens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Circle, or Farber, Method for Determination of Voltage Transformer Accuracy. . . . . . . . . 196
IEEE Standard Accuracy Classes for Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Types of Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Current Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Application Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Construction Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Coupling Capacitive Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Autotransformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Current Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Selection and Application of Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Current Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Free Standing Current Transformers and Instrumentation Equipment Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Relay Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Transformer Installation Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Current Transformer Secondaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Precautions in Routing Secondary Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Instrument Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Current Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Verification of Instrument Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Visual Wire Tracing and Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Wire Tracing with Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Interchanging Voltage Leads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Phasor Analysis of Voltages and Currents from Secondary Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Instrument Transformer Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Safety Precautions in Testing Instrument Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Insulation Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Polarity Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Tests to Verify the Marked Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Testing Current Transformers for Shorted Turns with a Heavy Burden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Tests to Determine Ratio and Phase Angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Testing Current Transformers for Abnormal Admittance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Testing Current Transformers for Abnormal Burden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Instrument Transformer Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Precautions in Testing Instrument Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
 xiv Alternate Method of Testing Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Traditional or Conventional Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Modeling Concept as an Alternate Test Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Measurement of Secondary Winding Resistance and Excitation Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Measurement of the Magnetization Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Measurement of Eddy and Hysteresis Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Measurement of the Turns Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Current Ratio Error and Phase Displacement at Selected Burden and Current Values. . . . . . . 231
Optical Sensor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Introduction to Optical Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Optical Current Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Sensing Mechanism in Optical Current Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Optical Voltage Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Sensing Mechanisms in Optical Voltage Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Unique Issues for Optical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Accuracy over Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Dynamic Range and Noise of Optical Current Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Effects of Pollution, Ice, and Condensation on RCF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Long-Term Drift and Calibration Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fiber Optic Cabling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

CHAPTER 11
THE WATTHOUR METER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Generic Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
The Two-Wire Single-Phase Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
The Three-Wire Single-Phase Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Multi-Element (Multi-Stator) Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Polyphase Metering Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Blondel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Three-Wire Network Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Three-Wire, Three-Phase Delta Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Four-Wire, Three-Phase Wye Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Four-Wire, Three-Phase Delta Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Two-Element (Two-Stator), Three-Current Sensor Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Multi-Element (Multi-Stator) Meter Applications with Voltage Instrument Transformers . . . 260
Electromechanical Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Motor in an Electromechanical Single-Stator AC Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
The Permanent Magnet or Magnetic Brake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Compensations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Anti-Creep Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Frequency Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Waveform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Meter Registers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Meter Rotor Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Mechanical Construction of the Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Polyphase Electromechanical Meter Characteristics and Compensations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Driving and Damping Torques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Individual-Stator Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Current Damping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Imbalanced Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Interference Between Stators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Interference Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Design Considerations to Reduce Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Multi-Stator Meter Adjustments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
 Solid-State Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 xv
Evolution of Solid-State Metering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Current Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Voltage Sensing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

CONTENTS
Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

CHAPTER 12
ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Reference Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Simultaneous Multifunction Autoranging Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Single-Function Autoranging Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Single-Function Manual Ranging Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Rotating Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Test Loading Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Customer’s Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Synthesized Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Phantom Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Resistance Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Sensors, Counters, and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Basic Induction-Type Watthour Meter Test, Single-Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Step 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Step 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Step 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Step 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Step 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Step 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Step 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Step 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Induction-Type Meter Adjustments, Single-Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Full-Load Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Light-Load Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Lag Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Multi-Stator, Induction-Type Meter Tests and Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Electronic Meter Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Meter Test Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Meter Timing and Speed Measurement Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Photoelectric Counters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Optical Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Electricity Meter Test Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Shop Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Procedure Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Single-Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Multi-Stator Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Multi-Function Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Calibrating Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Testing On Customers’ Premises Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Customer Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Safety Precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Procedure Preliminary to Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Field Meter Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Field Test Procedure, Single-Stator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Field Test Procedure, Multi-Stator Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Instrument Transformer Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Test Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
 xvi Network Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta, Two-Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta, Three-Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye, Three-Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Mobile Shop Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Meter Test By Indicating Wattmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Meter Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Causes of Creeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Causes of Inaccuracies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Defective Current and Voltage Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

CHAPTER 13
DEMAND METERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Why Demand Is Metered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Maximum Average Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Maximum Average Kilovoltamperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
General Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Mechanical—Meter and Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrating Type of Demand Meters—Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrating Type of Demand Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Mechanical Meter and Electronic Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Electronic Demand Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Electronic Time-of-Use Demand Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Electronic Demand Meters with Time-of-Use and Interval Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Electronic Meter and Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Theory of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Kilovar or Kilovarampere Demand Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Coincidental Demand Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Methodologies in Determining Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

CHAPTER 14
DEMAND METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Mechanical Demand Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Mechanical Meter with Electronic Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Electronic Demand Register with Time-of-Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Test Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Solid-State Pulse Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Electronic Meter and Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Test Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

CHAPTER 15
KILOVAR AND KILOVOLTAMPERE METERING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Phasor Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Voltampere Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Electronic kVA Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
 How Should Apparent Energy Be Measured? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 xvii
The Alternative Positions for “Correct Measurement”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Vectorial Versus Arithmetic kVA Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Delta Services: VA Metering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

CONTENTS
Electronic Multiquadrant Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

CHAPTER 16
SPECIAL METERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Compensated Metering for Transformer and Line Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Why Is Compensation Desired?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
What Is Compensation Metering?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Transformer Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Line Loss Compensations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Transformer Loss Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Transformer Loss Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Bidirectional Energy Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
No Energy Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Meter Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Transformers with Taps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Transformer Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Loss Compensation Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Solid-State Compensation Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Alternative Compensation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Totalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Combining Input Circuits—CTs and/or VTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Parallel Current-Transformer Secondaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Parallel Current-Transformer Primaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Multi-Stator Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
On-Site Pulse Totalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Pulse Totalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Pulse Initiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Totalizing Relays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Multi-Channel Pulse Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Pulse Accessories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Notes on Pulse Totalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Totalization Through Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Metering Time-Controlled Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

CHAPTER 17
METER READING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
How to Read a Watthour Meter and Electromechanical Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Register Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Meters with Electronic Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Demand Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Indicating Demand Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Electronic Demand Register Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Sealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Recording Demand Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Automatic Retrieval of Data from Solid-State Recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Remote Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Migration from Manual Meter Reading to AMR and AMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Automated Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Advanced Metering Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
 xviii CHAPTER 18
METER WIRING DIAGRAMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Chapter Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Application of Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

A Simple Approach to the Analysis of Non-Blondel Metering Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
The Single-Phase 2S Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
The Details of a 2S Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
A Vector Approach to Power Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Analysis of 12S and 2S Metering of a Three-Wire Single-Phase Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Analysis of 4-Wire Wye Metering Using Two-Stator Meters (Forms 5S, 26S, 45S, 66S) . . . . . 417
Analysis of 4-Wire Wye Metering Using 2.5-Stator Meters
(Forms 6S, 7S, 14S, 29S, 36S, 46S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Analysis of 4-Wire Delta Metering Using Two-Stator Meters (Forms 5S, 45S). . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Analysis of 4-Wire Delta Metering Using 2.5-Stator Meters (Forms 8S, 15S, 24S) . . . . . . . . . 420
Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

CHAPTER 19
THE CUSTOMERS’ PREMISES, SERVICE, AND INSTALLATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
The Customer’s Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
The Service Conductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
The Service Entrance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Classes of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
How to Distinguish between Three-Wire Network and Three-Wire, Single-Phase Services. . . . 436
To Distinguish between Four-Wire Delta and Four-Wire Wye Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Overhead Service to Low Houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Circuit Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Surge Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Fuses and Circuit Breakers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Time-Delay Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Residential Wiring Grounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Identification of Grounded Conductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Conductor Identification by Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Meter Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Connection Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Wrong Meter in the Socket Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
The Neutral Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
What Happens if the Neutral Is Broken?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Network Neutral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Meter Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Indoor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Outdoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Selection of Meter Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Meter Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Circuit-Closing Devices and Bypasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Meter Installation and Removal Socket Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Socket Adapters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Bottom-Connected Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Outdoor Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Installation of Meters with Instrument Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
 Inactive and Locked-Out Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 xix
Test Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Instrument Transformer Metering in Metalclad Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Pole-Top Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

CONTENTS
Good Practices For Metering Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

CHAPTER 20
THE STANDARDS LABORATORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Standardization and National Metrology Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Standard Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Primary Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Primary Transfer Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Secondary Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Primary Watthour Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Portable Working Standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Voltage and Current Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Digital Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
The Chain of Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Test Accuracy (Uncertainty) Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Standard Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Accuracy (Uncertainty). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Repeatability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Functionality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Random (Type A) and Systematic (Type B) Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Laboratory Intercomparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Laboratory Location and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Laboratory Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

CHAPTER 21
STANDARDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Introduction—What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Who Develops Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
American National Standards Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers—Standards Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
International Electrotechnical Commission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
National Electric Manufacturers Association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Underwriters Laboratories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Standard Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Summary of Current Standards Development and Harmonization on National and
International Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
International Electrotechnical Commission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
International Organization for Legal Metrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Measurement Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Underwriters Laboratories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
 xx LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 3: Mathematics for Metering (A Brief Review)
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 3-1. Graph of Voltmeter Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 3-2. Graph of Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 3-3. The Right Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 3-4. Functions of 30° and 60° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 3-5. Functions of 45° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 3-6. Relationship of Right Triangle to Voltamperes, Watts, and VARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 3-7. Complex Number z 5 1 1 j1 Represented by a Single Point in the
Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 3-8. Complex Conjugate of z Is z* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 3-9a. Complex Number z 5 1 1 j1 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 3-9b. A Complex Number z 5 j Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 3-9c. Complex Number z 5 21 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 3-9d. Complex Number z 5 1 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter 4: Electrical Circuits
Figure 4-2. Multiple Light Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 4-1. Flashlight Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure 4-3. Flashlight Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 4-4. Flashlight Circuit Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 4-5. Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 4-6. Identifying if Two Resistors are “In Series.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 4-7. Resistors Connected in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 4-8. Resistors Connected in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 4-9a. Circuit Connected in Series Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Figure 4-9b. Circuit Redrawn as a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 4-10. Three-Wire Edison DC Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 4-11. Sine Wave Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 4-12. Current Wave Lagging Voltage Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 4-13. Voltage Phasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 4-14. Phasor Voltage Resolved into Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 4-15. Direct Current in a Resistance Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 4-16. Direct Current in an Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 4-17. Phase Relationships in a Circuit of Pure Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figure 4-18. Capacitive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 4-19. Phase Relationship in a Circuit of Pure Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Figure 4-20. Example Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 4-21. Impedance Triangles for a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 4-22. Single-Phase Power Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 4-23. Idealized Two-Winding Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Figure 4-24. Sine Wave with 20% Third Harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Figure 4-25. Balanced Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Network Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure 4-26. Balanced Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Network Phasor Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Figure 4-27. Power Triangles (Three-Phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Figure 4-28. Three-Phase Wye–Wye Transformer Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4-29. Three-Phase Wye–Delta Transformer Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Figure 4-30. Three-Phase Delta–Wye Transformer Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4-31. Three-Phase Delta–Delta Transformer Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure 4-32. Common Distribution Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 5: Solid-State Electronics
Figure 5-1. Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure 5-2. Electron Flow in N-type Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Figure 5-3. Electron Flow in P-type Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 5-4. Semiconductor Diode Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
 Figure 5-5. Semiconductor Diode with Forward Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 xxi
Figure 5-6. Semiconductor Diode with Reverse Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 5-7. Semiconductor Diode Characteristic Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Figure 5-8. Basic PNP Transistor Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

CONTENTS
Figure 5-9. Logic Circuit and Truth Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 5-10. NOT Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 5-11. AND Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 5-12. OR Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 5-13. NAND Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 5-14. NOR Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 5-15. Logic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 5-16. J–K Flip-Flop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure 5-17. Block Diagram of Meter Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 6: Service Switch
Figure 6-1. Paging Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Figure 6-2. AMI Mesh Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure 6-3. Electromechanical Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter 7: Communications
Figure 7-1a. AMR Modules Installed “Under Glass” in Electromechanical Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure 7-1b. AMR Modules are “Built In” to Electronic Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 7-1c. Example of a Handheld Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 7-2. Multiple Communications Ports from a Single Substation Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Figure 7-3. Ethernet or Modem Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 7-4. Host/Client Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 7-5. Utility Managed Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Figure 7-6. Consumer Managed Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 8: The Smart Grid
Figure 8-1. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Smart Grid Framework . . . . 129
Chapter 9: Instruments
Figure 9-1. The Basic Structure of All Digital Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 9-2. Illustration of a Signal Sampled at 16 Times the Fundamental Frequency . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 9-3. Illustration of a Signal Sampled at 3 Times the Fundamental Frequency . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 9-4. An Analog, Handheld Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Figure 9-5. An Early Digital, Handheld Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Figure 9-6. A Modern Digital, Handheld Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Figure 9-7. A Clamp-on Current Probe for Use with a Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure 9-8. Use of a Ratio Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 9-9. TESCO 1044A 20A Analog Burden Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 9-10. UTEC 585 Digital Burden Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure 9-11. A Typical Burden Tester Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Figure 9-12. Admittance Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 9-13. Radian Research UTEC 505 Transformer Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 9-14. Spinlab 5000 Bird Dog Plus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 9-15. Radian Research RR-DS/sm Meter Disk Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 9-16. TESCO 1037-STND Optical Pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Figure 9-17. Radian Research RR-KYZ Pulse Input Adaptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 9-18. TESCO 995A Click Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 9-19. TESCO Safety Test Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 9-20. Brooks Meter Test Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Figure 9-21. TESCO 2200 Field Interface Kit and Socket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 9-22. Radian Research RB-10 Bantam Lite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 9-23. TESCO 630 Field Test Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Figure 9-24. Spinlab 6000 Bird Dog Plus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 9-25. Probewell MT-1/NT3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
 xxii Figure 9-26. Powermetrix 4300 Field Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Figure 9-27. A Typical Metering Installation (Only One Phase Shown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 9-28. Sample Vector Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figure 9-29. Powermetrix PowerMaster 7302 Meter Site Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-30. A Typical Connection to a Metering Site Test Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Figure 9-31. A Phasor Diagram Showing a Miss-Wired Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 9-32. Sample Plot of Ratio Testing with Applied Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 9-33. Curve Indicating the Nominal Performance for a Burden Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 9-34. Results of Burden-Only Testing when the Primary Current Is Not Stable . . . . . . . . 151
Figure 9-35. Sample Test Results Using Test Set Supplied Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 9-36. Sample Results for a Field Test Using Customer Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Chapter 10: Instrument Transformers
Figure 10-1. The Ideal Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Figure 10-2. The Actual Voltage Transformer with Burden and Lead Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Figure 10-3. Phasor Diagram of Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure 10-4. Typical Saturation Curve for a Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Figure 10-5. Characteristic Ratio and Phase Angle Curves for a Voltage Transformer
at 60 Hertz, 120 Volts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Figure 10-6. Phasor Diagram and Calculation of the Ratio Correction Factor and
Phase Angle Due to the Secondary Lead Resistance Only (Applies to Voltage
Transformer Secondary Leads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Figure 10-7. The Ideal Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 10-8. The Actual Current Transformer with Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Figure 10-9. Phasor Diagram of Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 10-10. Typical Exciting Current Curve for a Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 10-11. Characteristic Ratio and Phase Angle Curves for a Typical Current
Transformer at 60 Hertz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Figure 10-12. Effect of Common Secondary Lead on Burdens of Current Transformers . . . . . . . 172
Figure 10-13. Relations Between Primary and Secondary Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure 10-14. Percent Error Calculation Chart for Effects of Instrument Transformer
Ratio and Phase Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure 10-15a. Sample of Graph Paper Specifically Scaled for Voltage Transformer
Circle Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Figure 10-15b. Circle Method for Determination of Voltage Transformer Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Figure 10-16a. Parallelograms Showing Graphical Equivalent of IEEE Accuracy
Classes 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 for Current Transformers for Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 10-16b. Parallelograms Showing Graphical Equivalent of IEEE Accuracy
Classes 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 for Voltage Transformers for Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 10-17. Limits for .15 Accuracy Class for Current Transformers for Metering . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 10-18. Limits for .15S Accuracy Class for Current Transformers for Metering . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 10-19. Limits for .15 Accuracy Class for Voltage Transformers for Metering . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 10-20. Electrical Diagram for a CCVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 10-21. CCVT Correction Factor vs. Temperature for Mixed Dielectric Design . . . . . . . . . . 206
Figure 10-22. Single Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 10-23. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Open-Delta, Three-Wire Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 10-24. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Open-Delta, Four-Wire Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Figure 10-25. Three-Phase, Four-Wire, Wye-Wye, Four-Wire Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 10-26. Two-Wire, Single-Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 10-27. Three-Wire, Three-Phase, Three-Wire Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Figure 10-28. Four-Wire, Three-Phase, Four-Wire Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Figure 10-29. Four-Wire, Three-Phase with Delta-Connected Secondaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 10-30. Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 10-31. Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Figure 10-32. Polarity Test, Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Figure 10-33. Polarity Test, Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Figure 10-34. Test to Verify Marked Ratio of Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Figure 10-35. Test to Verify Marked Ratio of Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
 Figure 10-36. Voltage Transformer Test Circuit, Two-Watthour-Meter Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 xxiii
Figure 10-37. Current Transformer Test Circuit, Two-Watthour-Meter Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Figure 10-38. Instrument for Measuring Current Transformer Secondary Admittance
and Burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

CONTENTS
Figure 10-39. Equivalent Circuit of a CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 10-40. Vector Diagram for the Equivalent Circuit of the CT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 10-41. Schematic Diagram of Optical Current and Voltage Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Figure 10-42. 72 kV Magneto-Optic Current Transducers at Sub-station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 10-43. 362 kV Optical Metering Units at Sub-station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 10-44. 123 kV Optical Metering Unit Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 10-45. Flexible Optical Current Sensor Installed on a Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 10-46. Optical Current Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure 10-47. Polarimetric Optical Current Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Figure 10-48. Interferometric Current Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 10-49. Schematic Diagrams of Three Different Optical Voltage Sensor Techniques . . . . . . 238
Chapter 11: The Watthour Meter
Figure 11-1. Diagram Used in Proof of Blondel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Figure 11-2. Two-Stator Meter on Three-Wire Network Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 11-3. Two-Stator Meter on Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Figure 11-4. Three-Stator Meter on a Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Figure 11-5. Two-Stator, Three-Current-Coil Meter on Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service . . . . 255
Figure 11-6. Error Curves for Equal Voltage and Current Imbalance in One Phase and for
Three Possible Locations of Z Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Figure 11-7. Two-Stator Meter Used with Three-Current Transformers on a Three-Phase,
Four-Wire Wye Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Figure 11-8. Three-Stator Meter on a Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Figure 11-9. Two-Stator, Three-Current-Coil Meter on a Four-Wire Delta Service . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Figure 11-10. Wye-Circuit Voltage Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Figure 11-11. Basic Parts of a Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 11-12. Basic Electromagnet (for Two-Wire Meter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure 11-13. Effect of a Current-Carrying Conductor in an External Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . 264
Figure 11-14. Schematic Diagram of a Three-Wire, Single-Phase Induction
Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Figure 11-15. Flux Relationships and Disk Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Figure 11-16. Voltage and Current Flux Wave Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Figure 11-17. Factors of Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 11-18. Simplified Diagram of Magnetic Circuit of Current Element for
Overload Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Figure 11-19. Overload, Voltage, and Class 2 Temperature Compensations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 11-20. Heavy-Load Accuracy Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Figure 11-21. Light-Load Performance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Figure 11-22. Voltage Characteristic Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Figure 11-23. Temperature Characteristic Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 11-24. Frequency Curve of Modern Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Figure 11-25. Clock-Type (Top) and Cyclometer-Type Meter Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Figure 11-26. Methods of Shunting Voltage-Coil Air Gap for Torque-Balancing
Adjustment in Multi-Stator Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Figure 11-27. Solid-State Watt/Watthour Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Figure 11-28. Functional Block Diagram Watt/Watthour Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Figure 11-29. Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Figure 11-30. Time-Division Multiplication Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Figure 11-31. Hall Effect Applied to Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure 11-32. Transconductance Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure 11-33. Transconductance Multiplier Applied to Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 11-34. Digital Multiplier Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Figure 11-35. Variations on Digital Multiplier Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Figure 11-36. Solid-State Three-Function Meter Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
 xxiv Chapter 12: Electricity Meter Testing and Maintenance
Figure 12-1. The Radian Research Model RD-21 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Figure 12-2. Block Diagram of the RD-21 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 12-3. The Radian Research Model RM-10 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Figure 12-4. Block Diagram of the RM-10 and RM-11 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Figure 12-5. The Scientific Columbus SC-10 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Figure 12-6. The General Electric IB-10 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Figure 12-7a. Schematic Connections for Phantom Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Figure 12-7b. Typical Wiring Diagram for Phantom Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Figure 12-8. Dial Switch, Phantom-Load Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Figure 12-9. Schematic Connections for Resistance Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Figure 12-10. Fundamental Meter Test Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Figure 12-11. Open Link Manual Testing with a Reset Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figure 12-12. Closed Link Manual Testing with a Reset Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Figure 12-13. Automated Testing with a Disk Sensor and Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 12-14. Automated Testing with an Optical Sensor and Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Figure 12-15. Incorrect Adjustment with Lagging Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Figure 12-16. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Circuit and Metering Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Figure 12-17. Dual Test Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Figure 12-18. Watthour Meter Test Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Figure 12-19. Phasor Relations of Voltage and Currents in Lag Test of Multi-Stator
Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Figure 12-20. Test Connections for Two-Stator, Three-Wire Meter Using Customer’s Load
and Two Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Figure 12-21. Mobile Meter Testing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Chapter 13: Demand Meters
Figure 13-1. Power Curve Over Four Successive Demand Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Figure 13-2. Load Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Figure 13-3. Power Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Figure 13-4. Pointer Type of Indicating Watthour Demand Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Figure 13-5. Dial Type of Indicating Watthour Demand Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Figure 13-6. Simplified Schematic of the Interval-Resetting Mechanism of an Indicating
Watthour Demand Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Figure 13-7. Simplified Schematic of the Cumulative-Resetting Mechanism of a Cumulative
Watthour Demand Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Figure 13-8. Electronic Demand Register, Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Figure 13-9. Electromechanical Meter with Electronic Demand Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Figure 13-10. Fixed-Demand, Rolling-Demand Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Figure 13-11. Time-of-Use Demand Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Figure 13-12. Vector Diagram of Various Alternating Current (AC) Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chapter 15: Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering
Figure 15-1. Power Triangles (Single-Phase or Three-Phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Figure 15-2. Comparison of Vector and Arithmetic Summing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Figure 15-3. Phasor Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Figure 15-4. Voltamperes Power Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Figure 15-5. Vectorial Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Figure 15-6. Four Quadrant Power: Normal Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 15-7. Non-sinusoidal Current Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Chapter 16: Special Metering
Figure 16-1. Equations Used for Loss Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 16-2. Sample Transformer Cover Sheet with Key Data Elements Circled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Figure 16-3. Sample Transformer Data Sheet with Key Data Elements Circled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Figure 16-4. On-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Figure 16-5. Example of a Form for Collecting Equipment and Site Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
 Figure 16-6. Transformer Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 xxv
Figure 16-7. Line Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Figure 16-8. Transformer Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Figure 16-9. Line Loss Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

CONTENTS
Figure 16-10. One-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications for Three
Single-Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Figure 16-11. Example of Parameter Listing for Combining Three
Single-Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Figure 16-12. One-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications for Three Winding
Tertiary Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Figure 16-13. Simplified Connection Diagram for Parallel-Connected,
Current-Transformer Secondaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Figure 16-14. Simplified Diagrams Illustrating Basic Two- and Three-Wire Pulse Circuits . . . . . . 377
Figure 16-15. Simplified Diagram for a Load Pulse Isolation Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Chapter 17: Meter Reading
Figure 17-1. Conventional Five-Pointer Kilowatthour Dial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Figure 17-3. Kilowatthour Register Showing Reading of 0562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 17-2. Conventional Four-Pointer Kilowatthour Dial with Overlapping Circles . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 17-4. Kilowatthour Register Showing Reading of 2198 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Figure 17-5. Electronic Display, All-Segments Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Figure 17-6. Electronic Display, with Prompts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Figure 17-7. Watthour Demand Register, Indicating Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 17-8. Watthour Demand Scales Showing Various Subdivision Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Figure 17-9. Watthour Demand Register, Non-Cumulative Dial Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Chapter 18: Meter Wiring Diagrams
Figure 18-1. Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Figure 18-2. Single Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Figure 18-3. Polyphase Self-Contained—2-Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Figure 18-4. Polyphase Self-Contained—3-Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 18-5. Polyphase Transformer-Rated—2-Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Figure 18-6. Polyphase Transformer-Rated—2-Element, 4-Wire Delta Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Figure 18-7. Polyphase Transformer Rated—2-Element, 4-Wire Wye Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Figure 18-8. Polyphase Transformer Rated—3-Element, 4-Wire Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 18-9. Single Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Figure 18-10. Self-Contained 2-Element Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Figure 18-11. Self-Contained 3-Element Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Figure 18-12. Transformer-Rated, 2-Element Meters, 3-Wire and 4-Wire Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Figure 18-13. Transformer-Rated, 2-Element Meters, 4-Wire Wye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Figure 18-14. Transformer-Rated, 3-Element Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Figure 1. 2S Meter Internals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Figure 2. 2S Meter Application Schematic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Figure 3. Single-Phase, 3-Wire Vector Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Figure 4. 2S Errors at PF 5 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Figure 5. 4-Wire Wye Metering Using 2 Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 6. 4-Wire Wye Metering Using 2.5 Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Figure 7. 4-Wire Delta Metering Using 2 Stator Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Figure 8. 4-Wire Delta Metering Using 2.5 Stator Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Figure 18-15. Current and Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Figure 18-16. Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Figure 18-17. One Window Type Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Figure 18-18. Three-Wire Network Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Figure 18-19. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Figure 18-20. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Figure 18-21. Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Figure 18-22. Current and Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
 xxvi Figure 18-23. Current and Voltage Transformers and Typical Test Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Figure 18-24. Two Window Type Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Figure 18-25. Self-Contained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Figure 18-26. Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Chapter 19: The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

Figure 19-1. Identification of Grounded Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Figure 19-2. Wrong Connection of Two-Wire, Single-Phase Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Figure 19-3. Wrong Connection of Two-Wire Meter on Customer A with Load on Meter of
Customer B. Arrows Show Possible Direction of Current from Meter B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Figure 19-4. Wrong Connection for a Two-Stator, Three-Wire Meter on a Delta Bank with
Grounded Transformer Center Tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Figure 19-5. Three-Wire, Single-Phase Meter with Open Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Figure 19-6. Voltage Link Left Open, a Common Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Figure 19-7. Lever Bypass Socket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Figure 19-8. Socket and Meter with Flexible Bypasses in Place also known as Horn Bypass . . . . 446
Chapter 20: The Standards Laboratory
Figure 20-1. Balance of the DC to AC Accuracy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Figure 20-2. The Radian Research Model RD-22 Primary Transfer Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Figure 20-3. Block Diagram of the RD-22 Interfaced with Primary References for a
DC to AC Accuracy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Figure 20-4. Radian Research Model RD-21 Portable Reference Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Figure 20-5. Radian Research Model RD-20 Portable Working Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Figure 20-7. Block Diagram of the Radian Research RD-22 and RS-933 Test System . . . . . . . . . . 459
Figure 20-6. Radian Research Model RS-933 Calibration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Figure 20-8. Typical Chain of Standardization from NIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Chapter 21: Standards
Figure 21-1. Applicable ANSI Standards for Typical Residential Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Figure 21-2. Applicable ANSI and UL Standards for Solid-State Blondel Meter and
Meter Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Figure 21-3. Applicable ANSI Standards Associated with a Meter’s Optical Port and
Data Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Figure 21-4. Applicable ANSI Standards for Associated Telephone Modems and
Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Figure 21-5. Applicable ANSI and IEEE Standards for Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Figure 21-6. Applicable ANSI and UL Standards for Metering Test Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 3: Mathematics for Metering (A Brief Review)
Table 3–1. Signs of the Functions of Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 3–2. Powers of Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 3-3. Relationship of Registration, Percent Error, and Correction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 4: Electrical Circuits
Table 4-1. Application Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 4-2. Polar and Rectangular Representation of Impedance of Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Table 4-3. Polar and Rectangular Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Table 4-4. Polar and Rectangular Representation of Currents in Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Table 4-5. Formulas for Single-Phase AC Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Chapter 9: Instruments xxvii
Table 9-1. Approximate Errors in Calculating the RMS Value of a Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Table 9-2. Common Representation Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

CONTENTS
Chapter 10: Instrument Transformers
Table 10-1. Definitions of Instrument Transformer Ratio, Ratio Correction Factor, and
Related Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 10-2. Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Table 10-2 (continued). Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Table 10-3. Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Table 10-3 (continued). Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Table 10-4. Summary of Fundamental Relations for Single-Phase Metering Installations
Involving Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Table 10-5. Maximum Percent Errors for Combinations of 0.3% IEEE Accuracy Class
Instrument Transformers under IEEE-Specified Conditions of Burden, and
Load Power Factors between 1.00 and 0.6 Lag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Table 10-6. Calculation of Meter Accuracy Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Table 10-7. Average Ratio and Phase Angle Calculation Sheet for Polyphase Installations . . . . . . 189
Table 10-8. Watthour Meter Test, Combined Error Calculation Sheet for Three-Stator,
Three-Phase Meters Tested Three-Phase Using Three Watthour Standards or
Single-Phase Series Using One Watthour Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Table 10-9. Watthour Meter Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 10-10. Watthour Meter Test, Combined Error Calculation Sheet for Two-Stator,
Three-Phase Meters Tested Three Phase Using Two Watthour Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Table 10-11. Summary of Basic Formulas for Applying Instrument Transformer Corrections . . . 193
Table 10-12. Methods of Expressing Burdens of Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Table 10-13. IEEE Accuracy Classes for Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Table 10-14. IEEE Standard Burdens for Voltage Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Table 10-15. IEEE Accuracy Classes for Metering Current Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10-16. IEEE Standard Burdens for Current Transformers with
5 Ampere* Secondaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10-17. Standard Burdens for Current Transformers Supplying Electronic Meters
and Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Chapter 12: Electricity Meter Testing and Maintenance
Table 12-1. Calibrating Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Chapter 16: Special Metering
Table 16-1. Copper-Loss Multipliers for Common Transformer Taps with
Low-Voltage Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Chapter 18: Meter Wiring Diagrams
Table 18-1. Attributes of Socket Form Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Table 18-2. Attributes of Bottom Connected Form Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Table 18-3. Application of Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Table 18-4. Phasor Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Table 1. Common Non-Blondel Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Table 2. Errors Under Various 2S Application Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Table 3. Errors Under Various 4-Wire Wye Non-Blondel Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Table 4. Errors Under Various 4-Wire Delta Non-Blondel Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Chapter 19: The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations
Table 19-1. Common Installation Mistakes and Resulting Registration Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
 xxviii LIST OF ACRONYMS
%LoL ������������������������������� percent loss of life
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

A �������������������������������������� ampere
A/D �������������������������������� analog-to-digital
AC ������������������������������������ alternating current
AEIC ������������������������������� American Energy Innovation Council
AHJ ��������������������������������� authority having jurisdiction
AMI ��������������������������������� advanced metering infrastructure
AMR �������������������������������� automated meter reading
ANSI �������������������������������� American National Standards Institute
API ����������������������������������� application programming interface
ARRA ������������������������������ American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
ASIC �������������������������������� application specific integrated circuit
AT24 �������������������������������� average 24 hour ambient temperature
BIL ����������������������������������� basic impulse insulation level
BPL ��������������������������������� broadband over power line
BTU ���������������������������������� British Thermal Unit
CCVT ������������������������������� coupling capacitor voltage transformer
CDPD ������������������������������ cellular digital packet data
CEP ��������������������������������� cycloaliphatic epoxy
CMIL ������������������������������� circular mil
COMTRADE ������������������� Common Format for Transient Data Exchange
CPR ���������������������������������� cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CPU �������������������������������� central processing unit
CRC �������������������������������� cyclic redundancy check
CT ������������������������������������ current transformer
CTR ���������������������������������� current transformer ratio
CVT ��������������������������������� capacitive voltage transformers
DA ����������������������������������� distribution automation
DC ����������������������������������� direct current
DLMS/COSEM ��������������� Device Language Message Specification/Companion Specification for
Energy Metering
DNP ������������������������������� distributed network protocol
DNP ������������������������������� distributed network protocol
DOE ��������������������������������� U.S. Department of Energy
DPF ���������������������������������� displacement power factor
DRAM ���������������������������� dynamic RAM
DSP ��������������������������������� digital signal processors
EDL ���������������������������������� exchange data language
EEI ���������������������������������� Edison Electric Institute
EEPROM ������������������������� electrically -erasable programmable read only memory
EISA 2007 ������������������������ Energy Independence and Security Act
EMF ��������������������������������� electromotive force
EMS ��������������������������������� energy management systems
EMU ������������������������������� electromagnetic unit
EOI ��������������������������������� end-of-interval indicator
EPDM ����������������������������� ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer
EPROM ���������������������������� erasable programmable read only memory
EPSEM ���������������������������� extended PSEM xxix
ES ������������������������������������ enterprise systems
EV ����������������������������������� electric vehicle

CONTENTS
F ��������������������������������������� farad
Faa ���������������������������������� aging acceleration factor
FAT ����������������������������������� first article testing
FCF ��������������������������������� final correction factor
Feqa �������������������������������� equivalent aging factor of insulation
FERC �������������������������������� Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FLC ���������������������������������� function limiting control
FLW �������������������������������� full load watt losses
FTP ���������������������������������� file transfer process
GB ���������������������������������� gigabyte
GFCI ������������������������������� ground fault circuit interrupter
GP ����������������������������������� HomePlug Green PHY
GPS ���������������������������������� global positioning system
H �������������������������������������� henries
HAN �������������������������������� home area network
HES ��������������������������������� head end system
hp ������������������������������������ horsepower
HST ��������������������������������� hottest spot temperature
HTTP ������������������������������� hypertext transfer protocol
HVDC ������������������������������ high-voltage direct current
Hz ������������������������������������ hertz
IC ������������������������������������ integrated circuit
IEC ����������������������������������� International Electrotechnical Commission
IED ��������������������������������� intelligent electronic devices
IEEE ��������������������������������� Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE-SA ���������������������������� IEEE Standards Association
IP ������������������������������������ internet protocol
ISM ��������������������������������� industrial, scientific, and medical band
IT ������������������������������������� instrument transformer; also information technology
JWG ��������������������������������� joint working groups
KCL ���������������������������������� Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Ke ������������������������������������� KYZ output constant
Kh ������������������������������������� watthour meter constant
kHz ���������������������������������� kiloHertz
Km ����������������������������������� mass memory constant
Kr ������������������������������������ register constant
Kt ������������������������������������ test constant
kVA ���������������������������������� kilovoltampere
kVAh �������������������������������� kilovoltampere hours
kVAR �������������������������������� kilovoltamperes reactive
kVARh ������������������������������ kilovoltampere reactive hours
KVL ���������������������������������� Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
kW ����������������������������������� kilowatts
kWh ��������������������������������� kilowatthours
KYZ ���������������������������������� pulse initiator output
LAN �������������������������������� local area network
 xxx LC ����������������������������������� loss compensation
LCD ��������������������������������� liquid crystal display
LED ���������������������������������� light emitting diode
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

LEOS ������������������������������� low earth orbiting satellites

LTE ���������������������������������� long term emergency
mA ���������������������������������� milliamp
MAC ������������������������������� media access control
MC ���������������������������������� Measurement Canada
MCU ������������������������������� microcontroller
MDM ������������������������������� mobile device management
MDMA ���������������������������� mobile data monitoring application
MDMS ����������������������������� meter data management system
mH ���������������������������������� milliHenry
MHz ��������������������������������� megaHertz
mmf ��������������������������������� magneto-motive force
MOVs ������������������������������ metal oxide varistors
Mp ���������������������������������� pulse multiplier
ms ������������������������������������ milliseconds
MTs ���������������������������������� maintenance teams
MVA ������������������������������� mega voltampere
NAEDRA �������������������������� North American End Device Registrar Authority
NEC �������������������������������� National Electrical Code
NEMA ������������������������������ National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NIC ��������������������������������� network interface card
NIL ��������������������������������� normal insulation life of a CT
NIST �������������������������������� National Institute of Standards and Technology
NLW ������������������������������� no-load watt losses
NOC ������������������������������� Satellite Network Operations Center
NVRAM �������������������������� non-volatile random-access memory
O&M ������������������������������� operation and maintenance
OID ��������������������������������� Object ID Oversight Committee
OIML ������������������������������� International Organization for Legal Metrology
P/DR ������������������������������� pulses/disk revolutions
PACF ������������������������������� phase angle correction factor
PF ������������������������������������� power factor
PLC ��������������������������������� power line carrier; also programmable logic controller
PPE ��������������������������������� personal protective equipment
PQ ���������������������������������� power quality
PQDIF ���������������������������� power quality data interchange format
PROM ����������������������������� programmable read only memory
PSEM ������������������������������ Protocol Specifications for Electric Metering
PSTN ������������������������������� public switched telephone network (a.k.a. POTS)
PT ������������������������������������� project team
PT ������������������������������������ potential transformer
R/I ���������������������������������� revolutions per impulse
RAM �������������������������������� random access memory
RCF ��������������������������������� ratio correction factor
RDI ��������������������������������� demand interval—rolling
RF ������������������������������������� radio frequency
Rg ������������������������������������� watthour meter gear ratio xxxi
rms ���������������������������������� root-mean-square
ROM �������������������������������� read only memory

CONTENTS
Rr ������������������������������������ watthour meter register ratio
RTU ��������������������������������� remote terminal unit
SCADA ����������������������������� supervisory control and data acquisition
SE ������������������������������������ service entrance
SEP ���������������������������������� Smart Energy Profile
SEP2 ��������������������������������� Smart Energy Profile 2.0
SMMAA ��������������������������� Smart Meter Manufacturers’ Association of America
SRAM ������������������������������ static RAM
TA ������������������������������������ test ampere
TC ������������������������������������ technical committee
TCF ��������������������������������� transformer correction factor
TCP ��������������������������������� transmission control protocol
TCP/IP ���������������������������� transmission control protocol/internet protocol
TDL ���������������������������������� task description language; also table definition language
TDM �������������������������������� time-division-multiplier
THD �������������������������������� total harmonic distortion
TOU ��������������������������������� time-of-use
TPE ���������������������������������� thermoplastic elastomers
TWACS ��������������������������� two-way automatic communications system
UART ������������������������������ universal asynchronous receiver and transmitter
UL ������������������������������������ Underwriters Laboratories
UOM ������������������������������ unit of measure
V �������������������������������������� ohm
V �������������������������������������� volt
VA ������������������������������������ voltampere
VAh ���������������������������������� voltampere hours
VAR ���������������������������������� voltamperes reactive
VARh �������������������������������� voltampere reactive hours
VPN �������������������������������� virtual private network
VT ������������������������������������ voltage transformer
VTR ���������������������������������� voltage transformer ratio
W ������������������������������������� watt
WAN ������������������������������� wide area network
WG ���������������������������������� working group
Wh ����������������������������������� watthour
XML ��������������������������������� extensible markup language
ZSE ��������������������������������� ZigBee Smart Energy 1.x
µF ������������������������������������� microfarad
 Chapter 1
Introduction to the
Meter Department
The Electric Utility and the Community
THE ELECTRIC COMPANY and the community which it serves are permanently interdependent. An
electric company, by the nature of its business, cannot pick up its generating plant, transmission, or
distribution system and move to a different community. It is firmly rooted where it is located. Its prog-
ress depends to a large extent upon the progress of the area it serves, as well as upon the respect and
active support of its customers. It makes good sense for the electric company to work cordially and
cooperatively with its customers toward the improvement of economic and civic conditions. Because
of this, the meter reader or meter technician must be aware that they represent the “Company”when
calling on a customer’s home or business.
What the electric company sells and/or delivers has become essential to the point that loss of
electric power causes more than inconvenience; it can mean real hardship, even tragedy. In addition,
large quantities of electricity cannot be produced and stored and so must be immediately available in
sufficient quantities upon demand. What this means is that we sell and/or deliver not only the com-
modity of electric energy but also a very valuable service.
The service performed by the electric company and its employees should be such that every mem-
ber of the company and the community can be proud of it.

The Duties of the Meter Department

The primary function of the meter department is to maintain revenue metering installations at the
high level of accuracy and reliability as specified by company and regulatory requirements. This usually
involves the installation, testing, operation, and maintenance of meters and metering systems.
Additional functions, which vary with individual companies, may include: appliance repair, con-
nection of services, testing of rubber protective equipment, stocking and tracking metering equipment,
operation of standards laboratories, manual meter reading, automated meter reading (AMR), advanced
metering infrastructure (AMI), systems interval data retrieval and processing, installation and
maintenance of advanced meter options, acceptance testing of material and equipment, instrument
calibration and repair, investigation of customer complaints, revenue protection and metering security,
installation and maintenance of load survey and load management equipment, and relay testing and
high-voltage testing. Although possibly quite removed from metering, these and many similar func-
tions may become the responsibility of the meter department due to the direct association of the work
with metering (e.g., meter reading) and the characteristic ability of meter personnel to translate their
knowledge and techniques to other fields requiring detailed electrical knowledge and specialized skills
(e.g., the operation of standards laboratories and for instrument repair).
The electric meter, since it generally serves as the basis for customer billing, must be installed,
maintained, tested, and calibrated to ensure accuracy of registration. To accomplish this, the accuracy

1
 2 of all test equipment must be traceable to the basic and legal standards of electrical measurement
maintained by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Quality of workmanship
and adherence to procedures must be consistently maintained at a level which will achieve this desired
accuracy. Poor workmanship or deviation from procedures can have a serious effect on the customer
Handbook for Electricity Metering

and the company. Standards, procedures, and instructions are essential to ensure uniformity of opera-
tions and to prevent errors, as well as for overall safety and economy.

Customer Contacts
Due to the electric company’s place in the community and since members of the meter department
may frequently meet customers face-to-face, it is important that all meter personnel exemplify those
qualities of integrity and courtesy which generate confidence in the company. Day-to-day contacts
with customers provide these employees with exceptional opportunities to serve as goodwill ambas-
sadors and may earn public appreciation for the services that they and their company perform. To
achieve this appreciation, employees must demonstrate a sincere desire to be helpful and show high
ethical standards in the performance of their work.
However, in many companies, the increase in outdoor meters as well as the implementation of
automated meter reading systems has resulted in a decrease in the meetings between customers and
company employees. Therefore, every effort should be made to make a good first impression with the
customer through any available area of customer contact.
First impressions are often lasting impressions. It is desirable that meter personnel look their best
so that a good image of the company they represent will be left in the customer’s mind. Neatness and
cleanliness are of utmost importance. The little things which customers notice may have considerable
influence on the company’s reputation.
Visits to a customer’s premises for meter reading, testing, or for other reasons, afford opportuni-
ties for personnel to demonstrate the company’s interest in the customer’s welfare. Courteous consid-
eration of every request will create satisfaction and appreciation of the efforts made by the company to
render good service to its customers.
Please note, however, that customers should be referred to the appropriate department or per-
son for answers to all questions on rates, billing, or any other matter which is outside the meter
employee’s area of expertise. Promises requiring action beyond the employee’s own capability should
be avoided. In practically all cases, assurance that any request will be conveyed to the proper party will
satisfy the customer.
Upon entering a customer’s premises, meter personnel should make their presence and busi-
ness known and should cheerfully present their identification card, badge, or other credentials
when requested. All work done on customers’ premises should be planned carefully and carried out
promptly. While on customers’ premises, conversations between company personnel should only be
about the work at hand and should not be argumentative.
If utility personnel notice any unusual conditions on the customer’s premises or in the immedi-
ate vicinity which might affect safety, the company’s system, or the customer’s electric service, utility
personnel should report the conditions promptly to their immediate supervisors.
Telephone conversations with customers, like premise visits, can go a long way toward express-
ing the company’s interest in the customer. Phone conversations should always be conducted with
patience, intelligence, and understanding, and in a courteous tone of voice.

Knowledge Required in Metering

The theory of metering is highly technical. To understand their jobs, meter personnel must have a
working knowledge of instruments and meters, elementary electricity, elementary mathematics, and
certain practical aspects of electric services. A good understanding of electronics and personal com-
puters has become a requirement for work on electronic metering equipment such as programmable
electronic meters and interval data recorders. Today’s meter technician should be competent in the
following subjects:
• Math (fractions and decimals are necessary to calculate meter constants, register ratios, and
pulse values).
• Electrical circuits, especially alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) circuits, with
particular reference to Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Law.
 • Inductance, capacitance, power factor, and vector analysis. 3
• Electronic components and circuits.
• Personal computers and how they communicate with and program electronic meters.

INTRODUCTION to the meter department

• The current-carrying capacity of wire, the relationship between electricity and heat, and the
causes and effects of voltage drops.
• The principles of indicating instruments.
• The principles of operation for electromechanical and electronic watthour meters, and a good
understanding of how to test and calibrate those meters.
• Single and polyphase circuits and how to meter them correctly.
• Blondel’s Theorem and its application.
• Principles of power, current, and voltage transformers and how to interconnect them.
• The correct methods of bonding, grounding, and shielding for safety as well as the protection of
electronic equipment.
• The application of fuses or circuit breakers.
• Basic telecommunication principles and practices.
• Basic knowledge of AMI and AMR systems, their components and associated communication
technology.
• The equipment used to test meters.
Various books on metering can be studied to attain technical knowledge and are generally made
available within the company. There are also many excellent instructional books and pamphlets issued
by manufacturers.
In addition to the technical subjects mentioned, effective meter personnel must be familiar with
company policies, procedures, standards, and work practices that relate to metering. They should
attain such additional knowledge of electrical engineering, self-improvement, and the utility business
in general, as opportunities provide. Above all, meter personnel must be willing to study and learn.

Meter Security
As the cost of electricity rises, so does the temptation to violate the security of metering equipment for
the purpose of energy theft. Therefore, the meter employee must be aware of the various techniques
of energy theft and be constantly on the lookout for such violations. Since meter security systems vary
throughout the industry, it is necessary for meter employees to familiarize themselves with their com-
pany’s policy for securing meters and associated devices. Incidents of tampering should be reported
immediately and in accordance with company instructions, taking care to preserve all evidence and to
submit complete, well documented reports.
Circumstantial evidence of tampering should not be interpreted as guilt until all evidence has
been examined by those designated to do so. Therefore, courtesy toward all customers, even in strained
circumstances, will speak well for you, your department, and your company.
Meter security begins with the seal that secures the glass cover to the base of the meter. This
seal is applied without a tool and offers no interference when installing the meter. After the meter
is installed, a seal must be applied to secure the meter mounting device, whether that device is the
ring-type or ringless. Ring-type sockets are secured by sealing the ring that holds the meter in place.
Ringless sockets are secured by installing the socket cover after the meter is in place, then sealing the
cover hasp.
The demand reset mechanism also needs to be secured with a seal to prevent undetected tamper-
ing. It should be sealed each time the demand is reset. If a different color seal is used each reading
cycle, there is assurance that the demand was reset at the end of the last cycle.
To be sure your company’s sealing program maintains its integrity, seals should be treated as
security items. Only authorized personnel should have access to seals, and they should not be left
where unauthorized people would come in contact with them.
The most important part of the sealing procedure is the follow-up. Every time the meter is read,
the seal should be inspected both visually and physically. This seal should be tugged on and visually
inspected to make sure it has not been tampered with and that it is the proper seal for that meter.
Evidence of tampering should be reported immediately.
 4 There are a wide variety of seals. Some require tools for installation, while others do not. Some are
all metal, some all plastic, and some a combination of both. Whatever seal is used, however, it should
offer the following benefits:
Handbook for Electricity Metering

• Be unique to your company and readily identifiable.

• Be impossible to remove without leaving visible signs of tampering.
• Be numbered so that particular seals can be identified with the location or installer.
Electronic meters may require software security, i.e., password protection. Most manufacturers
provide for at least two-level password protection. These levels are particularly useful to allow “read
only” access to the meter by another department or company. In this case, one password will allow
for simply reading or retrieving data from the meter and the other password will allow for reading
and writing or programming from and to the meter. It is important to maintain strict security on all
metering passwords in accordance with company policy.

Safety
Safety is a full-time business and requires the hard work and full cooperation of every meter employee.
Safety procedures are measures which, if followed, will enable personnel to work without injury to
themselves or others and without damage to property.
Simply issuing safety procedures or rules does not guarantee safe work practices or produce good
safety records. Meter employees must learn the safety rules of their company, apply them daily, and
become safety-minded.
Meter personnel owe it to themselves, their families, and their company to do each step of every
job the safe way. Careful planning of every job is essential. Nothing should be taken for granted.
The meter employee must take responsibility for his/her own safety. Constant awareness of safety is
needed, coupled with training, experience, and knowledge.
Some common safety rules are:
• Horseplay and practical jokes are dangerous. Work safely, consider each act, and do nothing to
cause an accident.
• Knowledge of safe practices and methods, first aid, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is
a must for meter personnel.
• Beware of your surroundings and alert to unsafe conditions.
• Report unsafe conditions or defective equipment to your immediate supervisor without delay.
• Treat injuries immediately.
• Report all accidents as prescribed by company safety rules.
• Complete a job hazard analysis when appropriate before beginning a job. Re-assess when some-
thing unexpected happens during the job.
• Exercise general care and orderliness in performance of work.
• The right way is the safe way. Do not take short cuts.
• Study the job! Plan ahead! Prevent accidents!
• Select the right tools for the job and use them properly.
• Keep tools in good working order.
• Use personal protective equipment when appropriate.
• Use the appropriately-rated category of clothing for protection from arc flash incidents.
• Exercise good housekeeping at all times.
• Handle material with care. Lift and carry properly.
• Respect secondary voltage. It can be fatal.
• Never substitute assumptions for facts.
• Be knowledgeable about the safe operation of automotive vehicles.
 Chapter 2
Common Terms
Used In Metering
THE FOLLOWING DEFINITIONS are to be considered as practical, common understandings. In order
to keep the explanations as clear and simple as possible, occasional departures from exact definitions
have been permitted. The explanations given are intended to be useful for meter personnel rather than
for scientists. For additional definitions, see the current version of American National Standards Insti-
tute (ANSI) C12.1 Code for Electricity Metering, Definitions Section, and ANSI/Industry of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 100-1988, Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms.
A-Base
See Bottom-Connected Meter.
Accuracy
The extent to which a given measurement agrees with the defined value.
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
AMI is the communications hardware, software, and associated system and data management software
that creates a network between advanced meters and utility business systems. It allows for the collec-
tion and distribution of information to the utility and its customers, as well as to other parties (e.g.,
competitive retail providers).
Also, according to FERC, advanced metering is a metering system that records customer consump-
tion (and possibly other parameters) hourly or more frequently and that provides for daily or more
frequent transmittal of measurements over a communication network to a central collection point.
Alternate Display
A display sequence usually containing constants and diagnostic information.
Ammeter
An instrument to measure current flow, usually indicating amperes. Where indication is in mill
amperes, the instrument may be called a milliammeter.
Ampere
The practical unit of electric current. One ampere is the current caused to flow through a resistance of
1 ohm by 1 volt.
Ampere-Hour
The average quantity of electric current flowing in a circuit for one hour.
Ampere-Turn
A unit of magneto motive force equal to that produced by one ampere flowing in a single turn of wire.

5
 6 AMI Communication Module
A physical hardware device that enables two-way and end-to-end communications capabilities between
an end device (such as a meter) and the utility. AMI communication modules service layers 4-1 of the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) 7-layer protocol stack.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

AMI Integrated Meter

An ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) that implements both the metrology registers (C12.19
Tables) and all 7-layers of the OSI communication protocol and hardware using an integrated solu-
tion. An AMI integrated meter does not have an interchangeable AMI communication module.
AMI Meter
An AMI modular meter or an AMI integrated meter.
AMI Modular Meter
An ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) that implements the metrology registers (C12.19 Tables)
and can be physically attached (internally or externally) to one or more interchangeable AMI com-
munication modules. As seen from the network, it is not possible to distinguish between an AMI
integrated meter and an AMI modular meter.
AMI Interchangeable Communication Module
An AMI communication module that attaches to an end device (e.g., an AMI modular meter) using
the end device’s internal or an external physical interface. The AMI interchangeable communication
module enables communication to at least one local area network (LAN)/wide area network (WAN)
that can reach the utility.
ANSI C12.19 Device
Any device that contains ANSI C12.19 data tables and uses ANSI C12.18, ANSI C12.21, or ANSI
C12.22 protocols for communication in any combination.
ANSI C12.19 Meter (a.k.a. End Device)
An AMI meter that contains ANSI C12.19 data tables and uses ANSI C12.18, ANSI C12.21, or ANSI
C12.22 protocols for communication in any combination.
Annunciator
A label that is displayed to identify a particular quantity being shown.
Automated Meter Reading (AMR)
The automated meter reading application is software that enables users to read and program ANSI
C12.19 Standard-based meters. It communicates using any of the ANSI C12.18, ANSI C12.21, or
ANSI C12.22 standard communication protocols. It may also accept and use table definition language
(ANSI C12.19 Extensible Markup Language [XML]/Task Description Language [TDL] Form) and
Exchange Data Language (EDL) (ANSI C12.19 XML/EDL Form) files. These are XML files which
describe the meter’s specific tables architecture, default sets used, and constant values associated with
the ANSI C12.19 meter registered with a ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) class. The ANSI
C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) class may be obtained from the North American End Device
Registrar Authority (NAEDRA), which is overseen by the IEEE/ANSI/MC Object ID Oversight (OID)
Committee.
Autotransformer
A transformer in which a part of the winding is common to both the input and output circuits. Thus,
there is no electrical insulation between input and output as in the usual transformer. Because of this
interconnection, care must be exercised in using autotransformers.
Auxiliary Device
An add-on device mounted under the meter cover that adds functionality to the meter device.
Average Power Factor Kilovolt Amps (kVA)
There are at least two methods of measuring/calculating kVA demand for billing. The straightforward
method is to directly measure maximum kVA. This is the method presently used for any new custom-
ers on kVA rates. However, average power factor kVA is an older method that was developed before the
introduction of electronic meters. It requires less complicated measurement techniques, which make it
more suitable for use with mechanical meters. It measures the average power factor (PF) over an entire
billing period, then applies this PF to the maximum kilowatts (kW) measured during the period.
Balanced Load 7
Equal currents in all phases and relatively equal voltages between phases and between each phase and
neutral (if one exists), with approximately equal watts in each phase of the load.

Common Terms used in Metering

Bar-Type Current Transformer (CT)
Basically, a bar-type CT is a window CT with the addition of a bar that passes through
the window. The service conductor is cut at the CT and bolted to each end of the bar.
The bar serves as the primary winding for the CT. The bar style is available in low
voltage [600 volt (v)] and medium voltage (5–15 kV) CT classes.
Base Load
The normal minimum load of a utility system, which is carried 24 hours a day. Plants supplying this
load and operating day and night are spoken of as “base-load plants.”
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)
A specific insulation level expressed in kilovolts of the crest value of a standard lightning impulse
(1.2  50 micro-second wave).
Bi-Directional Metering
A method of metering that is typically used at meter points where power is expected to flow in either
direction. Power is delivered to the customer at times as well as receiveed at other times. Examples
include (1) a conventional customer who installs sufficient generation that it can feed power back
into the system, or (2) a system interconnect meter point (e.g., a transmission intertie) where power
flow can be in either direction. The bi-directional meter independently measures received and delivered
quantities. Although all measurements are accomplished in a single meter, the individual values are
the same as if two meters were used—one to measure received quantities and the other to measure
delivered quantities. These measurements provide us the ability to evaluate the quantities independent
of each other and to price them differently. For example, consider a residential customer with genera-
tion capability. In a typical month, this customer might take 1200 kWh from the system and during
the same month might generate 250 kWh back into the system. The bi-directional meter would
provide both these numbers.
Blondel’s Theorem
In a system of “N” conductors, N-l meter elements that are properly connected will measure the
power or energy taken. The connection must be such that all voltage coils have a common tie to the
conductor that does not have a current coil.
Bottom-Connected Meter
A meter having a bottom connection terminal assembly. Also referred to as an A-base electricity meter.
Bridge, Kelvin
An arrangement of six resistors, electromotive force, and a galvanometer for measuring low values of
resistance. In this bridge, a large current is passed through the unknown resistance as well as a known
low resistance. The galvanometer compares the voltage drops across these two resistors in a high-
resistance double ratio circuit made up of the other four resistors. Hence, the bridge is often called a
“double bridge.”
Bridge, Wheatstone
An arrangement of four resistances, one of which may be unknown and one generally adjustable, to
which is applied an electromotive force. A galvanometer is used for continually comparing the voltage
drops, thereby indicating the resistance values.
British Thermal Unit (BTU)
A unit of heat. One kilowatt-hour is equivalent to 3,413 BTUs.
Burden
The load, usually expressed in volt-amperes at a specified power factor, placed on instrument trans-
former secondaries by the associated meter coils, leads, and other connected devices.
If the imposed burden exceeds a CT’s or voltage transformer’s (VT’s) rated limit, the accuracy of
the CT or VT suffers. A CT feeds into a low impedance series secondary, ideally short, circuit. Minimiz-
ing its burden is accomplished by limiting the impedance in its secondary circuit, most commonly by
restricting the length of meter cable. A VT, on the other hand, feeds into a high impedance parallel,
 8 ideally open, circuit. Minimizing its burden means limiting the number of devices connected to its
secondary.
Bypass Socket
Handbook for Electricity Metering

The bypass feature refers to a load-rated current path built into the meter socket in
parallel with the meter. The normal condition of the bypass is open, so all load cur-
rent flows through the meter. When closed, the bypass shunts load current around
the meter. This allows the meter to be removed for testing or replacement without
interrupting service to the customer. The bypass is not rated for breaking load. It
must not be opened under load except when a meter is in place. Bypass sockets are
useful for commercial and industrial customers whose loads do not require CTs or
VTs. An additional feature of the bypass mechanism is that it provides clamping
pressure at its jaws to secure the meter blades. The bypass releases the pressure on the
meter blades in the abnormal, or closed, position, facilitating the removal or insertion of the meter.
Calibration
Comparison of the indication of the instrument under test, or registration of meter under test, with
an appropriate standard.
Capacitance
That property of an electric circuit which allows storage of energy and exists whenever two conductors
are in close proximity to each other but are separated by an insulator or dielectric material. When
direct voltage is impressed on the conductors, a current flows momentarily while energy is being stored
in the dielectric material, but stops when electrical equilibrium is reached. With an alternating volt-
age between the conductors, the capacitive energy is transferred to and from the dielectric materials,
resulting in an alternating current flow in the circuit.
Capacitive Reactance
Reactance due to capacitance, which is expressed in ohms. The capacitive reactance varies indirectly
with frequency.
Catastrophic Failure, a.k.a. Fatal Failure
A failure that results in temporary or permanent disruption of communication, corruption of protocol,
corruption of data, unexpected manipulation of data, delivery of wrong data, unexpected data format,
or incorrect placement of data within transported record. The assessment is performed by a reference
implementation (a test that is based upon the registered end device table data model).
Central Station
Control equipment, typically a computer system, which communicates with metering and load control
devices. The equipment may also interpret and process data, accept input from other sources, and
prepare reports.
Certified Meter Type
A metering device which is tested and certified to meet the certification testing as specified in the
standard for a specific meter type. It includes any optional circuit boards, devices, or modules enclosed
within the meter cover as part of the certified meter type.
Circuit, Three-Wire
A metallic circuit formed by three conductors insulated from each other. See Three-Wire System.
Circuit, Two-Wire
A metallic circuit formed by two adjacent conductors insulated from each other. When serving domes-
tic loads, one of these wires is usually grounded.
Circuit Breaker
A device, other than a fuse, designed to open a circuit when an overload or short circuit occurs.
The circuit breaker may be reset after the conditions which caused the breaker to open have been
corrected.
Circular Mil
The area of a circle whose diameter is one mil (1/1000 inches) or approximately 0.7854 millionths of
a square inch. The area of a circle in circular mils is equal to the square of its diameter in mils.
Class Amperes 9
The maximum continuous current at which a meter can operate without exceeding its rated accuracy
limits. Typical self-contained meters are Class 200, Class 320, or Class 400; meters for use with cur-
rent transformers are Class 10 or Class 20.

Common Terms used in Metering

Class Designation
The maximum of the watthour meter load range in amperes.
Clearance
The shortest distance measured in air between conductive parts.
Clockwise Rotation
Motion in the same direction as that of the hands of a clock, front view.
Cold Load Pickup
See Demand Delay.
Conductance
The ability of a substance or body to pass an electric current. Conductance is the reciprocal of
resistance.
Conductor Losses
The watts consumed in the wires or conductors of an electric circuit. Such power only heats the wires,
doing no useful work, so it is a loss. It may be calculated from I2R where I is the conductor current
and R is the circuit resistance.
Connected Load
The sum of the continuous ratings of the connected load-consuming apparatus.
Constant
A quantity used in an equation, the value of which remains the same regardless of the values of other
quantities used in the equation.
Constant, KYZ Output (Ke)
Pulse constant or the KYZ outputs of a solid-state meter, programmable in unit-hours per pulse.
Constant, Mass Memory (Km)
The value, in unit quantities, of one increment (pulse period) of stored serial data. Example: Km 
2.500 watthours/pulse.
Constant, Watthour
(a) For an electromechanical meter (Kh): The number of watthours represented by one revolu-
tion of the disk, determined by the design of the meter and not normally changed. Also
called Disk Constant.
(b) For a solid-state meter (Kh or Kt): The number of watthours represented by one increment
(pulse period) of serial data. Example: Kh or Kt  1.8 watthours/pulse.

Constant Kilowatthour of a Meter (Register Constant, Dial Constant)

The multiplier applied to the register reading to obtain kilowatthours.
Core Losses
Core losses usually refer to a transformer and are the watts required in the excitation circuit to supply
the heating in the core. Core heating is caused by magnetic hysteresis, a condition which occurs when
iron is magnetized by alternating current, and by the eddy currents flowing in the iron. Core losses are
often called iron losses.
Coupling-Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT)
A voltage transformer comprised of a capacitor divider and an electromagnetic unit so designed and
interconnected that the secondary voltage of the electromagnetic units is substantially proportional
to, and in phase with, the primary voltage applied to the capacitor divider for all values of secondary
burdens within the rating of the coupling-capacitor voltage transformer.
 10 Creep
For mechanical meters, a continuous motion of the rotor of a meter with normal operating voltage
applied and the load terminals open-circuited. For electronic meters, a continuous accumulation of
data in a consumption register when no power is being consumed.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Creepage Distance
Shortest distance measured over the surface of insulation between conductive parts.
CT VT Ratio or CT  VT
A factor representing the product of the current transformer ratio and the voltage transformer ratio.
Also called the dial constant.
Example:
If a meter is connected to 7200:120 volt VTs (60:1) and 400:5 amp CTs (80:1), the CT  VT ratio
is 60  80  4800.
A meter installation may have CTs and no VTs in which case the CT VT ratio is just the CT ratio
(expressed as equivalent ratio to 1). For a transformer rated meter, the meter multiplier equals the CT
VT Ratio. For modern electronic transformer rated meters, the demand multiplier also equals the CT
VT Ratio.
Current Circuit
Internal connections of the meter and part of the measuring element through which flows the current
of the circuit to which the meter is connected.
Current Coil
The coil of a watthour meter through which a magnetic field is produced that is proportional to the
amount of current being drawn by the customer.
Current Transformer
An instrument transformer designed for the measurement or control of current. Its primary winding,
which may be a single turn or bus bar, is connected in series with the load. It is normally used to
reduce primary current by a known ratio to within the range of a connected measuring device.
Current Transformer (CT)
A high accuracy transformer that converts load current to another (usually smaller) value by some
fixed ratio. The industry refers to a CT in terms of its nameplate primary current as a ratio to five
amps secondary current. (e.g., 400:5). A CT is not necessarily limited to this nameplate current. See
Rating Factor. Also see Bar, Window, and Wound-type CTs.
Current Transformer, Continuous Thermal Current Rating Factor
The factor by which the rated primary current is multiplied to obtain the maximum allowable primary
current based on the maximum permissible temperature rise on a continuous basis.
Current Transformer Phase Angle
The angle between the current leaving the identified secondary terminal and the current entering the
identified primary terminal. This angle is considered positive when the secondary current leads the
primary current.
Customer Alert
A switching output used to indicate events or conditions.
Cutout
A means of disconnecting an electric circuit. The cutout generally consists of a fuse block and latching
device or switch.
Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating current or voltage. These values
repeat themselves at regular intervals (see Hertz).
Damping of an Instrument 11
A term which denotes the manner in which a pointer settles to its steady indication after a change
in the value of the measured quantity. Two general classes of damped motion are distinguished as
follows:

Common Terms used in Metering

(a) Under-Damped—When a meter pointer oscillates about the final position before coming to
rest.
(b) Over-Damped—When the pointer comes to rest without overshooting the rest position.
The point of change between under-damped and over-damped is called critical damping and occurs
when the degree of pointer overshoot does not exceed an amount equal to one half the rated accuracy
of the instrument.
Dead-Front
Equipment which, under normal operating conditions, has no live parts exposed.
Decade
A functional grouping of tables into groups of ten (10). The tables are numbered X0 through X9, with
X representing the decade number.
Demand
The average value of power or related quantity over a specified interval of time. Demand is expressed
in kilowatts, kilovoltamperes, kiloVARs, or other suitable units. An interval may be 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, or
60 minutes.
Demand, Aggregate
Similar to coincidental demand, aggregate demand is derived from the summation of multiple meters.
Typically, aggregate demand is obtained from the aggregation of load profile data from multiple
meters.
Demand, Coincidental
The maximum demand that is obtained from two or more meters when all metered loads are summed
coincidentally. The summation of the individual demands must be performed on a demand interval
basis.
The sum of the previous billing period maximum demands and the present period maximum
demand.
Demand, Cumulative
The sum of the previous billing period maximum demand readings. At the time of billing period reset,
the maximum demand for the most recent billing period is added to the previously accumulated total
of all maximum demands.
Demand, Maximum
The highest demand measured over a selected period of time, such as one month. Also called Peak
Demand.
Demand, Rolling Interval
A method of measuring power or other quantities by taking measurements within fixed intervals of
the demand period. This method can be used to determine total demand, average demand, maximum
demand, and average maximum demand during the full interval. Also called sliding window demand.
Demand, Sliding Window
See Demand, Rolling Interval.
Demand, Threshold Alert
An output to indicate that a programmed value of demand has been exceeded.
Demand, Totalized
Totalization, as applied to revenue metering, is the addition of two or more metered electrical loads.
Totalization is often requested by customers that have two or more metered loads. Benefits of totaliza-
tion include the ability to obtain coincidental demands, simplified meter reading, and billing and
subsequent accounting procedures. Totalization is the algebraic sum of two identical energy values
performed on a real time or near instantaneous basis.
 12 Demand Constant (Pulse Receiver)
The value of the measured quantity for each received pulse, divided by the demand interval, expressed
in kilowatts per pulse, kiloVARs per pulse, or other suitable units. The demand interval must be
expressed in parts of an hour such as ¼ for a 15 minute interval or 1/12 for a 5 minute interval.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Demand Delay
The programmable amount of time before demand calculations are restarted after a power outage. Also
called Cold Load Pickup and Demand Forgiveness.
Demand Deviation
The difference between the indicated or recorded demand and the true demand, expressed as a per-
centage of the full scale value of the demand meter or demand register.
Demand Energy
The rate of energy usage averaged over some period of time (typically fifteen minutes). Commonly
expressed as Kilowatthours per Hour  Kilowatts. For further explanation, see Demand and Demand
Metering.
Demand Factor
The ratio of the maximum demand to the connected load.
Demand Interval (Block-Interval Demand Meter)
The specified interval of time in which a demand measurement is based. Intervals such as 10, 15, or
60 minutes are commonly specified.
Demand Interval Deviation
The difference between the measured demand interval and the specified demand interval, expressed as
a percentage of the specified demand interval.
Demand Interval—Rolling (RDI)
An interval of time, the beginning of which progresses in steps of sub-intervals and where the interval
length is equal to an integer multiple of sub-intervals.
Demand Interval Synchronization
Physical linking of meters to synchronize the demand intervals of all meters. Also called Demand
Timing Pulse.
Demand—Maximum
The highest demand measured over a selected period of time.
Demand Meter
A metering device that indicates or records the demand, maximum demand, or both. Since demand
involves both an electrical factor and a time factor, mechanisms responsive to each of these factors
are required, as well as an indicating or recording mechanism. These mechanisms may be separate or
structurally combined with one another.
Demand Meter, Indicating
A demand meter equipped with a readout that indicates demand, maximum demand, or both.
Demand Meter, Integrating (Block-Interval)
A meter that integrates power or a related quantity over a fixed time interval and indicates or records
the average.
Demand Meter, Lagged
A meter that indicates demand by means of thermal or mechanical devices having an approximately
exponential response.
Demand Meter, Time Characteristic (Thermal or Lagged-Demand Meter)
The nominal time required for 90% of the final indication, with constant load suddenly applied. The
time characteristic of lagged-demand meters describes the exponential response of the meter to the
applied load. The response of the lagged-demand meter to the load is continuous and independent of
selected discrete time intervals.
Demand Meter, Timing Deviation 13
The difference between the elapsed time indicated by the timing element and the true elapsed time,
expressed as a percent of the true elapsed time.

Common Terms used in Metering

Demand Register
A mechanism for use with an integrating electricity meter that indicates maximum demand and also
registers energy (or other integrated quantities).
Demand Register—Block Interval
A demand register that indicates and/or records the maximum demand obtained by averaging the
meter registration over a regularly repeated time interval.
Demand Register—Continuous Cumulative
The sum of all previous billing period maximum demands and the highest demand to date for the
present billing period.
Demand Register—Cumulative
A register that indicates the sum of the previous maximum demand readings prior to reset.
Please note that when reset, the present reading is added to the previously accumulated readings.
The maximum demand for the present reading period is the difference between the present and previ-
ous readings.
Demand Register—Dual Range (Single Pointer Form)
An indicating demand register having an arrangement for changing the full-scale capacity from one
value to another, usually by reversing the scale plate. For example, Scale Class 1/2; Scale Class 2/6. An
interlock ensures proper scale and scale-class relation.
Demand Register—Full-Scale Value
The maximum scale capacity of the register. If a multiplier exists, the full-scale value will be the
product of the maximum scale marking and the multiplying constant.
Demand Register—Indicating Single-Pointer Form
An indicating demand register from which the demand is obtained by reading the position of a pointer
relative to the markings on a scale. When reset, the single pointer returns to zero.
Demand Register—Scale Class
Denotes, with respect to single-pointer form, dual-range single-pointer form, or cumulative-form
demand registers, the relationship between the full-scale value of the register and the test kVA rating
of the meter with which the register is used.
Detent
A device installed in a meter to prevent reverse rotation (or meter registration).
Detent Metering
Detent metering, or a detent meter, will only record the power flow delivered from the electric service
provider to the customer. This is also known as delivered power only.
Dial-Out Capability
Ability of a meter to initiate communication with a central station.
Dial Constant
See Meter Multiplier.
Disk Constant
See Constant, Watthour (a).
Disk Position Indicator, or “Caterpillar”
An indicator on the display of a solid-state register that simulates rotation of a disk at a rate propor-
tional to power.
Display
A means of visually identifying and presenting measured or calculated quantities and other informa-
tion. (Definition from ANSI C12.1 American National Standard for Electric Meters, Code for Electric-
ity Metering.)
 14 Distributed Network Protocol (DNP)
An open and public protocol for the transmission of data between points using serial and Internet
Protocol (IP) communications. It was originally developed to support data transfer among substation
computers, remote terminal units (RTUs), and other intelligent electronic devices. It is primarily used
Handbook for Electricity Metering

by utilities such as electric, water, and transportation companies. For more information, see
www.dnp.org.
Diversity
A result of variation in time of use of connected electrical equipment so that the total maximum
demand is less than the sum of the maximum demands of the individual units.
Eddy Currents
Those currents that result from voltages which are introduced in a conducting material by a variation
of magnetic flux through the material.
Effective Resistance
Equal to watts divided by the square of the effective value of current.
Effective Value (Root-Mean-Square Value)
The effective value of a periodic quantity is the square root of the average of the squares of the instan-
taneous value of the quantity taken throughout one period. This value is also called the root-mean-
square value and is the value normally reported by alternating current instruments.
Electrical Degree
The 360th part of one complete alternating current cycle.
Electricity Meter
A device that measures and records the summation of an electrical quantity over a period of time.
Electromagnet
A magnet whose magnetic field is produced by an electric current. A common form of electromagnet
is a coil of wire wound on a laminated iron core, such as the voltage coil of a watthour meter stator.
Electromechanical Meter
A meter in which currents in fixed coils react with the currents induced in the conducting moving
element, generally a disk(s), which causes their movement proportional to the energy to be measured.
Also called induction watthour meter.
Electromotive Force (EMF)
The force which produces an electric current in a circuit. The common unit of electromotive force is
the volt.
Electronic Storage Register
An electronic circuit where data is stored for display and/or retrieval.
Element
A combination of a voltage-sensing unit and a current-sensing unit which provides an output pro-
portional to the quantities measured. Electricity meters normally include 1, 1½, 2, 2½, or 3 elements.
The 2½-element meter refers to 2-stator 4-wire wye meter as described in section A.2.7.2. The three-
wire element is a single element using the sum of two current circuits and one potential circuit. For
example, if one input signal is voltage and the other input signal is current, then the output is power
(watts). Also known as stator.
Embedded Coil
A coil in close proximity to, and nested within, a current circuit loop of a meter used to measure the
strength of a magnetic field and develop a voltage proportional to the flow of current.
Embedded System
A microcomputer system including microprocessor, memory, power supply, and supporting input and
output devices, usually designed for a dedicated application.
End Device
The closest device to the sensor or control point within a metering application communication system
which is compliant with the Utility Industry End Device Data Tables (ANSI C12.19-2008, Sec. 3.30).
End-of-Interval Indicator (EOI) 15
An indicator for the end of the demand interval for non-rolling (block)—interval demand, or the end
of the sub-interval for rolling-interval demand.

Common Terms used in Metering

Energy
The integral of active power with respect to time.
Energy Flow
Energy flow from line to load terminals shall be considered as energy delivered to the load terminals
of the meter. Energy in the opposite direction, i.e., from load to line terminals, shall be considered as
received.
Enterprise Systems (ES)
Large-scale, integrated application software packages that use the computational, data storage, and
data transmission power of modern information technology (IT) to support processes, information
flows, reporting, and data analytics within and between complex organizations.
Event Logger Data
The entire content of all tables designated as program tables (and secured read tables), all associated
pointers, and all signatures that are expressed by or implied by event logger record for a specific event.
Event logger data originates inside the end device, but it may extend into the end device agent record-
keeping system (ANSI C12.19-2008, Sec. 3.34).
Exchange Data Language (EDL)
The EDL file form is used to express ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) data values that make
up the device tables (this is in contrast to TDL, which describes the device’s tables structures). The
EDL file is associated with one specific ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) model, and is thus
uniquely associated with a registered ANSI C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) class.
EDL file content is derived from the data model of all the tables used (standard and manufac-
turer) and all of the procedures used (standard and manufacturer) that are defined for the ANSI
C12.19 End Device Tables (Meters) class referenced.
EDL files are used to express imported and exported values and parameters to and from the refer-
ence AMR application or reference test application and among utilities.
Extended PSEM (EPSEM)
Extended PSEM defines the application layer services of ANSI C12.22/IEEE 1703/MC12.22. For a
complete description of EPSEM, see the referenced standards ANSI C12.12/IEEE 1703/MC12.22. See
also PSEM.
Farad
The practical unit of capacitance. The common unit of capacitance is the microfarad.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
The U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is an independent agency that regulates the interstate
transmission of electricity, natural gas, and oil.
Field, Stray
Usually a disturbing magnetic field produced by sources external or foreign to any given apparatus.
Firmware
Computer programs used by embedded systems and typically stored in read-only memories. See
Memory.
Flagging
An action of the end device whereby a status bit is set in a C12.19 status table, an event logger data
is created, or a history logger data is created as a result of a noteworthy event (e.g., automatically
flagging the fact that during the daily time validation the end device time is greater than some con-
figurable value or it is out of synchronization with the external time reference).
 16 Form
Meter form refers to those characteristics of a meter that determine the kind of circuit on which it
can be used (e.g., the layout of meter terminals, internal wiring, and meter class). Meter forms used
on our system include:
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Form 1 2-wire single-phase self-contained

Form 2 3-wire single-phase self-contained
Form 3 2-wire single-phase transformer rated
Form 4 3-wire single-phase transformer rated
Form 5 3-wire network or delta transformer rated
Form 8 4-wire delta three-phase transformer rated
Form 9 4-wire wye three-phase transformer rated
Form 12 3-wire network self-contained
Form 15 4-wire delta three-phase self-contained
Form 16 4-wire wye three-phase self-contained

As its name implies, a multiform meter can take the place of multiple forms from this list. Two com-
mon multiform meters are Form 15/16 and Form 8/9.
The form number will sometimes be followed by an alphabetic suffix, such as Form 9S or Form
5A. The ‘S’ refers to a socket-base meter, while the ‘A’ refers to an A-base meter. See Meter Bases.
Full Load
A current level for testing the accuracy of a watthour meter, typically indicated on a meter by the
abbreviation “TA,” for test amps.
Function Limiting Control (FLC)
ANSI C12.19 Function Limiting Control Tables (X0/X1, where X is the decade number 0-204).
Galvanometer
An instrument for indicating a small electric current.
Gear Ratio
The number of revolutions of the rotating element of a meter compared to one revolution of the first
dial pointer.
Ground
A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electric circuit or equipment
and earth.
Ground Return Circuit
A current in which the earth is utilized to complete the circuit.
Grounding Conductor
A conductor used to connect any equipment device or wiring system with a grounding electrode or
electrodes.
Grounding Electrode
A conductor embedded in the earth which has conductors connected to it to maintain a ground
potential and to dissipate current into the earth.
Head-end
An application associated with both one-way and two-way metering and end point systems that
provides some of the following features:
1. Manages the communication network for meters and end points.
2. Manages the collection of data.
3. Allows operators of the system to extract data and send commands to meters and end points.
4. Supplies metering and associated data to enterprise systems, such as a Mobile Device Manage-
ment (MDM).
Henry 17
The practical unit of inductance. The millihenry is commonly encountered. The common unit of
inductance is the millihenry.

Common Terms used in Metering

Hertz (Cycles per Second)
The practical unit of frequency of an alternating current or voltage. It is the number of cycles, sets of
positive and negative values, occurring in one second.
History Logger Data
The entire content of all ANSI C12.19 tables that are designated as history logger that capture end
device events. History logger provides for monitoring any end device activity or events which may
be of general interest to the operator, utility, or technician (e.g., communication access logs, debug-
ging information, clock drift data, demand reset tracking, etc.). Both history logger and event logger
(secured audit trail) coexist in an end device.
Home Area Network (HAN)
A HAN is a communication network within a customer’s residence, which may be capable of commu-
nicating with an AMI meter, energy management system, or other gateways or devices inside a home.
Homogeneous Meter Group
A population of meters from which a random sample is selected that, as far as is practicable, consists
of meters of the same basic type or model designation, have the same general construction, are
produced by the same manufacturer, and have the same relationship of parts.
Horsepower
A commercial unit of power equal to the average rate of doing work when 33,000 pounds are raised
one foot in one minute. One horsepower is approximately equal to 746 watts.
Hot-Wire Instrument
An electrothermic instrument whose operation depends on the expansion by heat of a wire that
­carries the current which produces the heat.
Hybrid Meter
A watthour meter with electromechanical and solid-state components.
Hysteresis Loss
The energy lost in a magnetic core due to the variation of magnetic flux within the core.
Impedance
The total opposing effect to the flow of current in an alternating current circuit. It may be determined
in ohms from the effective value of the total circuit voltage divided by the effective value of total
circuit current. Impedance may consist of resistance or resistance and reactance.
Induced Current
A current flow resulting from an electromotive force induced in a conductor by changing the number
of lines of magnetic force linking the conductor.
Inductance
That property of an electric circuit which opposes any change of current through the circuit. In a
direct current circuit, where current does not change, there is no inductive effect except at the instant
of turn-on and turn-off. However, in alternating current circuits, the current is constantly changing,
so the inductive effect is appreciable. Changing current produces changing flux which, in turn, pro-
duces induced voltage. The induced voltage opposes the change in applied voltage, hence the opposi-
tion to the change in current. Since the current changes more rapidly with increasing frequency, the
inductive effect also increases with frequency.
Inductance, Mutual
Occurs when the current change causes induced voltage and an opposing effect in a second conductor.
Inductance, Self
If mutual inductance occurs in the same conductor as that carrying the current, there is self-­
inductance. The self-inductance of a straight conductor at power frequency is almost negligible because
the changing flux will not induce any appreciable voltage, but self-inductance increases rapidly if the
conductor is in the form of a coil and more so if the coil is wound on iron.
 18 Inductive
Having inductance, e.g., inductive circuit and inductive load. Circuits containing iron or steel that is
magnetized by the passage of current are highly inductive.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Inductive Reactance
Reactance due to inductance expressed in ohms. The inductive reactance varies directly with the
frequency.
Instrument Transformer
A transformer that reproduces in its secondary circuit in a definite and known proportion the voltage
or current of its primary circuit with the phase relation substantially preserved.
Instrument Transformer (IT)
General name for the family of CTs and VTs used in metering and relaying.
Instrument Transformer, Accuracy Class
The limits of transformer correction factor in terms of percent error that have been established to
cover specific performance ranges for line power factor conditions between 1.0 and 0.6 lag.
Instrument Transformer, Accuracy Rating for Metering
The accuracy class together with the standard burden for which the accuracy class applies.
Instrument Transformer, Burden
The impedance of the circuit connected to the secondary winding. For voltage transformers it is con-
venient to express the burden in terms of the equivalent voltamperes and power factor at its specified
voltage and frequency.
Instrument Transformer, Correction Factor
The factor by which the reading of a wattmeter or the registration of a watthour meter must be multi-
plied to correct for the effects of the error in ratio and the phase angle of the instrument transformer.
This factor is the product of the ratio and phase angle correction factors for the existing conditions of
operation.
Instrument Transformer, Marked Ratio
The ratio of the rated primary value to the rated secondary value as stated on the transformer’s
nameplate.
Instrument Transformer, Phase Angle
The angle between the current or voltage leaving the identified secondary terminal and the current or
voltage entering the identified primary terminal. This angle is considered positive when the secondary
circuit or voltage leads the primary current or voltage.
Instrument Transformer, Phase Angle Correction Factor
The factor by which the reading of a wattmeter or the registration of a watthour meter, operated
from the secondary of a current transformer, or a voltage transformer, or both, must be multiplied
to correct for the effect of phase displacement of secondary current, or voltage, or both, with respect
to primary values. This factor equals the ratio of true power factor to apparent power factor and is a
function of the phase angle of the instrument transformer as well as the power factor of the primary
circuit being measured.
Instrument Transformer, Ratio Correction Factor
The factor by which the marked ratio of a current transformer or a voltage transformer must be
multiplied to obtain the true ratio. This factor is expressed as the ratio of true ratio to marked ratio. If
both the current transformer and the voltage transformer are used in conjunction with a wattmeter or
watthour meter, the resultant ratio correction factor is the product of the individual ratio correction
factors.
Instrument Transformer, True Ratio
The ratio of the magnitude of the primary quantity (voltage or current) to the magnitude of the cor-
responding secondary quantity.
Interface
The means for transmitting information between the meter or register and peripheral equipment.
Interval Data 19
Some meters are capable of generating periodic data, typically kWH (and kVARh, if applicable).
The data is synchronized to the 15 minute intervals that the meter uses for measuring demand. A
meter can send this data as pulses to a customer or to an external device or can save the data in its

Common Terms used in Metering

internal solid state memory. When the data is retrieved from storage and translated, it creates an
interval-by-interval detail of the energy usage seen by the meter. This energy usage is easily converted
to equivalent interval-by-interval demand information. Uses for interval data include customer bill-
ing, load studies, marketing load research, regulatory studies, demand totalization, bill estimates, and
monitoring equipment loading.
Essentially all meters the company purchases today for use on commercial or industrial customers
include the ability to record interval data.
Joule’s Law
The rate at which heat is produced in an electric circuit of constant resistance which is proportional to
the square of the current.
K-Base
A meter having a bolted connection terminal assembly, typically found on Class 400 meters.
Kilo
A prefix meaning one thousand of a specified unit (kilovolt, kilowatt). 1000 watts  1 kilowatt.
Kilovoltampere (kVA)
KVA is the common abbreviation for kilovoltampere (equal to 1000 voltamperes).
KYZ Output
A three-wire pulse output from a metering device to drive external control or recording equipment.
Each pulse or transition represents a predetermined increment of energy or other quantity. Average
power can be determined with a given energy pulse value and a known pulse count over a specified
period.
Laboratory—Independent Standards
A standards laboratory maintained by, and responsible to, a company or authority that is not
under the same administrative control as the laboratories or companies submitting instruments for
calibration.
Laboratory—Meter
A laboratory responsible for maintaining reference standards and assigning values to the working
standards used for the testing of electricity meters and auxiliary devices.
Lagging Current
An alternating current which, in each half-cycle, reaches its maximum value a fraction of a cycle later
than the maximum value of the voltage which produces it.
Laminated Core
An iron core that is composed of sheets stacked in planes parallel to its magnetic flux paths in order
to minimize eddy currents.
Leading Current
An alternating current which, in each half-cycle, reaches its maximum value a fraction of a cycle
sooner than the maximum value of the voltage which produces it.
Lenz’s Law
The induced voltage and resultant current flow in a conductor as a result of its motion in a magnetic
field which is in such a direction as to exert a mechanical force opposing the motion.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A device used to provide a light signal in a pulse initiator. Also used as an information display format.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A type of information display format used with solid-state registers and solid-state meters.
Load, Artificial
See Phantom Load.
 20 Load, System
The load of an electric system is the demand in kilowatts.
Load Compensation
Handbook for Electricity Metering

That portion of the design of a watthour meter which provides favorable performance and accuracy
over a wide range of loads. In modern, self-contained meters, this load range extends from load cur-
rents under 10% of the rated meter test amperes to 667% of the test amperes for class 200 meters.
Load Control
A procedure for turning off portions of customers’ loads based on predetermined time schedules,
system demand thresholds, or other circumstances.
Load Factor
The ratio of average load over a designated time period to the maximum demand occurring in that
period.
Load Profile
The recording, storage, and analysis of consumption, demand, and other sensory data over a period of
time, using ANSI C12.19 load profile tables from Decade 6 (Standard Tables 60–69).
Loading Transformer
A transformer of low secondary voltage, usually provided with means for obtaining various definite
values of current, whereby the current circuit of the device under test and of the test standard can be
energized.
Loss Compensation
A means for correcting the reading of a meter when the metering point and point of service are physi-
cally separated, resulting in measurable losses, including iron core and I2R losses in conductors and
transformers. These losses may be added to, or subtracted from, the meter registration.
Magnetic
A region of magnetic influence surrounding a magnet or a conductor carrying electric current.
Magneto Motive Force
The force which produces magnetic flux. The magneto motive force resulting from a current is directly
proportional to the current.
Manufacturer (Supplied) Tables
Tables defined by the manufacturer of the C12.19 meter. Manufacturer table descriptions shall use
table description syntax. These tables shall be available and readable and used for configuration, setup,
and data storage of component data and only for processes not already fully or partially covered by
ANSI C12.19.
Mega
A prefix meaning one million of a specified unit (megawatt, megohm). 1 megohm  1,000,000 ohms.
Memory
Electronic devices which store digital information such as computer instructions and data.
(a) Volatile memory can be written to and read from repeatedly. Random access memory (RAM)
requires uninterrupted power to retain its contents.
(b) Non-volatile memory, also known as Read Only Memory (ROM), is able to retain informa-
tion in the absence of power. ROMs are programmed, may only be read repeatedly, and are
typically used to store firmware in dedicated systems.
Meter
A device that measures the amount of electrical, gas, or water utility commodities supplied, generated,
or consumed. Some or all values measured by these meters may be used for the purpose of billing.
Meter, Excess
A meter that records, either exclusively or separately, that portion of the energy consumption taken at
a demand in excess of a predetermined demand.
Meter Bases 21
Meters are manufactured in several physical configurations, the most common of which is the socket-
base meter. The socket-base meter has blade terminals on the back that plug into corresponding jaw
terminals in the meter socket. Another configuration is the A-base meter, in which the typical round

Common Terms used in Metering

meter is built into a base suitable for surface-mounting on a wall or panel. The wiring terminals are at
the bottom of the base. A third configuration is the switchboard-base meter, where the meter is built
into a rectangular case intended for flush or semi-flush mounting in a switchboard panel. The wiring
terminals are on the back of the case.
Meter Cable
Wiring from the secondary terminals of instrument transformer(s) to the inputs of a transformer
rated meter. This conductor provides the secondary level current and voltage signals to the meter. Indi-
vidual conductors are typically used for the signal and the return for each current or voltage circuit,
yielding a maximum of 12 conductors (for 3-phase, 3-element metering). Also, a #12 copper 12-con-
ductor color-coded cable (20-42497) is standard for all installations. With meter cable, the length of
the secondary meter circuit is of particular concern. Excessive length causes excessive burden in the CT
circuit(s), resulting in metering errors. It is recommended to limit installations to 709 lateral distance
between the instrument transformers and the meter. For greater distances, contact Metering Services.
Meter Data Management System (MDMS)
An MDMS performs long-term data storage and management for the vast quantities of data that are
now being delivered by advanced metering systems. This data consists primarily of usage data and
events that are imported from the head-end applications that manage the data collection in AMI or
AMR systems. An MDMS will typically import the data, then validate, cleanse, and process it before
making it available for billing and analysis.
Meter Multiplier
A transformer rated meter measures and displays energy and demand based on secondary current and
voltage signals it receives from CTs and VTs. These displayed values must be multiplied by some factor
to convert them to the values actually present in the service on the primary side of the CTs and VTs.
For energy readings and demand readings on electronic meters, this multiplier is the CT VT ratio and
the value is written on the face of the meter. Mechanical demand meters often use a different mul-
tiplier for the demand reading. On these older meters, two multipliers are written on the face of the
meter, one for energy and one for demand. A self-contained meter, so named since it does not use CTs
or VTs, does not need a multiplier (more correctly, it has a multiplier of 1.0). Again, older mechanical
meters may use a different multiplier for demand.
Meter Sequence
Refers to the order in which a meter, service switch, and fuses are connected. Meter-switch-fuse is a
common modern sequence. Switch-fuse-meter sequence is also used.
Meter Type
Term used to define a particular design of meter, manufactured by one manufacturer, having:
(a) similar metrological properties;
(b) the same uniform construction of parts determining these properties;
(c) the same ratio of the maximum current to the reference current;
(d) the same number of ampere-turns for the current winding at basic current and the same
number of turns per volt for the voltage winding at reference voltage (for an electromechani-
cal meter).
Metering Devices
Equipment used in energy revenue metering, such as watthour meters, demand meters, demand and
TOU registers and various forms of pulse initiating, receiving, and totalizing devices.
Micro
A prefix meaning one millionth part of a specified unit (microfarad, microhm). 1 microhm 
0.000001 ohm.
 22 Mil
A unit of length equal to one thousandth of an inch.
Milli
Handbook for Electricity Metering

A prefix meaning one thousandth part of a specified unit (milliampere, millihenry, millivolt).
1 millivolt  0.001 volt.
Modbus
A serial communication protocol originally published by Modicon® for use with its programmable
logic controllers (PLCs). It has become a de facto standard protocol in industry, commonly used to
interconnect industrial electronic devices. Modbus is often used to connect a master computer with
a remote terminal unit (RTU) in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Modbus
supports serial and transmission control protocol (TCP), or Ethernet, connections. For more informa-
tion, see www.modbus.org.
Modem
An internal or external device used to modulate/demodulate (or transfer) electronic data between two
locations.
Multiform Meter
Recent designs of electronic meters are of a type known as multiform. This refers to the meter’s
wide-range voltage capability (a single meter can operate on circuits from less than 120 volts up to
277 volts) and its ability to operate on multiple wiring configurations known as meter forms. For
example, one multiform meter can be used on 120/208 volt 4-wire wye, 120/240 volt 4-wire delta,
and 277/480 volt 4-wire wye services. The remaining options for the meter are whether it needs to
be transformer rated (Form 8/9) or self-contained (Form 15/16), whether or not it needs to measure
reactive power, and how it should be programmed.
Multi-Function Meter
A meter that displays more than one electricity-related quantity. Typically an electronic meter.
Multi-Rate Meter
An energy meter provided with a number of registers, each becoming operative at specified time
intervals corresponding to different tariff rates.
National Electrical Code (NEC)
A regulation covering the electric wiring systems on the customer’s premises, particularly in regard to
safety. The code represents the consensus of expert opinion as to the practical method and materials
of electrical equipment installation to provide for the safety of people and property.
Net Metering
A method of metering that might be used at meter points where power is expected to flow in either
direction. That is, where we expect to deliver power to the customer at times as well as receive power
at other times. Examples include (1) a conventional customer who installs sufficient generation that it
can feed power back into APC’s system, or (2) a system interconnect meter point (e.g., a transmission
intertie) where power flow can be in either direction. The net meter “sees” both received and delivered
quantities but does not register them separately. Instead, it treats a delivered quantity as a positive
value and a received quantity as a negative value and sums the two to create the net value. This net
value is the only one saved by the meter.
Net metering allows a customer to net the energy produced by its generating facility against the
energy received from its electric service provider. The power flow measurement performed by net
metering is |delivered|—|received|.
Contrast this to bi-directional metering.
Normal Mode
The operating mode of the register usually displaying the billing data.
Ohm
The practical unit of electrical resistance. It is the resistance which allows one ampere to flow when
the impressed electromotive force is one volt.
Ohm’s Law 23
Ohm’s Law states that the current which flows in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the
electromotive force impressed on the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance in a direct
current circuit or the impedance in an alternating current circuit.

Common Terms used in Metering

Optical Port
A communications interface on metering products which allows the transfer of information while
providing electrical isolation and metering security. The communications medium is typically infrared
light transmitted and received through the meter cover.
Optical Probe
An interface device which mates with the optical port of the meter to read data or to program the
meter.
Padmount CT
A special instance of a window CT, the padmount CT is a 600 volt class CT with an
oval window sized to fit on the secondary terminals (spades) of three-phase padmount
transformers. The transformer spade serves as the primary circuit of the CT.
Peak Load
The maximum demand on an electric system during any particular period. Units may be
kilowatts or megawatts.
Percent Error
The difference between a meter’s percent registration and 100%.
Percent Registration
The ratio of the actual registration of the meter to the true value of the quantity measured in a given
time, expressed as a percent. Also referred to as the accuracy of the meter.
Phantom Load
A device which supplies the various load currents for meter testing and is used in portable form for
field testing. The power source is usually the service voltage which is transformed to a low value. The
load currents are obtained by suitable resistors switched in series with the isolated low voltage second-
ary and output terminals. The same principle is used in most meter test boards.
Phantom Voltage
The procedures used to identify faulted wiring in a customer premise depend on voltage measure-
ments between the load and line terminals of the meter socket. A reading of full voltage indicates a
possibility of a short circuit in the customer’s wiring. However, with a typical high impedance digital
or analog voltmeter, there are other conditions that can cause the voltmeter to register full or near
full voltage. An example is a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) in the customer’s wiring. A tiny
potential coil in some GFCI’s provides a sufficient path between a hot phase and a grounded circuit
conductor to cause many voltmeters to read full voltage at the meter socket during this test. Other
customer loads can cause a similar situation. Voltage readings in these false indications of a ­possible
short circuit are called “phantom voltage.” This is a misnomer. The voltage is real. However, a lower
impedance voltmeter would not report full voltage under the same circumstances. It will still report
full voltage if an actual short circuit exists.
Phase Angle
The phase angle or phase difference between a sinusoidal voltage and a sinusoidal current is the
number of electrical degrees between the beginning of the cycle of voltage and the beginning of the
cycle of current.
Phase Sequence
The order in which the instantaneous values of the voltages or currents of a polyphase system reach
their maximum positive values.
Phase Shifter
A device for creating a phase difference between alternating currents and voltages or between voltages.
 24 Phase-Shifting Transformer
An assembly of one or more transformers intended to be connected to a polyphase circuit so as to
provide voltages in the proper phase relations for energizing varmeters, varhour meters, or other
measurement equipment. This type of transformer is sometimes referred to as a phasing transformer.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Phasor (Vector)
A quantity which has magnitude, direction, and time relationship. Phasors are used to represent
sinusoidal voltages and currents by plotting on rectangular coordinates. If the phasors were allowed
to rotate about the origin and a plot was made of ordinates against rotation time, the instantaneous
sinusoidal wave form would be represented by the phasor.
Phasor Diagram
A phasor diagram contains two or more phasors drawn to scale showing the relative magnitude and
phase or time relationships among the various voltages and currents.
Photoelectric Tester (or Counter)
A device used in the shop testing of meters to compare the revolutions of a watthour meter standard
with a meter under test. The device receives pulses from a photoelectric pickup which is actuated by
the anti-creep holes in the meter disk or the black spots on the disk. These pulses are used to control
the standard meter revolutions on an accuracy indicator by means of various relay and electronic
circuits.
Ping Relative to AMI
Ping relative to AMI is a head-end administration utility used to test the reachability of an end point,
typically the meter. The PING utility confirms reachability of the end point with a minimum of data
transport information.
Polarity
The relative direction of current or voltage in a circuit at a given instant in time.
Polarity marks on CTs and VTs indicate a relationship between the primary and secondary wind-
ings of the transformers. On a CT, when current enters the primary polarity terminal, a secondary
current in phase with the primary will leave the secondary polarity terminal. On a VT, when a primary
voltage is applied from the polarity to the non-polarity terminal, a voltage in phase with the primary
will be produced on the secondary from polarity to non-polarity terminal. Wiring diagrams indicate
polarity marks for both CTs and VTs. Incorrect wiring with respect to polarity marks can result in
reverse flow or incorrect registration in single-phase and three-phase meters.
Potential Transformer (PT)
See Voltage Transformer.
Power, Active
The time average of the instantaneous power over one period of the wave. For sinusoidal quantities
in a two-wire circuit, it is the product of the voltage, the current, and the cosine of the phase angle
between them. For nonsinusoidal quantities, it is the sum of all the harmonic components, each
determined as above. In a polyphase circuit, it is the sum of the active powers of the individual phases.
Power, Apparent
The product of the root-mean-square current and root-mean-square voltage for any waveform. For
sinusoidal quantities, apparent power is the square root of the sum of the squares of the active and
reactive powers.
Power, Reactive
For sinusoidal quantities in a two-wire circuit, reactive power is the product of the voltage, the cur-
rent, and the sine of the phase angle between them with the current taken as reference. With non-
sinusoidal quantities, it is the sum of all the harmonic components, each determined as above. In a
polyphase circuit, it is the sum of the reactive powers of the individual phases.
Power Factor
The ratio of the active power to the apparent power.
Power Line Carrier
A type of communication where data may be transmitted through existing electrical power lines.
Precision 25
The repeatability of measurement data, customarily expressed in terms of standard deviation.
Pre-Wired Socket

Common Terms used in Metering

Designed to be used with a transformer rated meter, this socket contains a meter jaw block assembly
and a test switch. The manufacturer installs wiring from the top side of the test switch to the meter
block, giving the socket its “pre-wired” name. Company personnel attach CT and VT wiring to the
bottom side of the test switch. These sockets are commonly used in single-phase (6 terminal) and
three-phase (13 terminal) models. Less common, but also available, is the three-phase (8 terminal)
version, used mostly for three-wire network services.
Primary–Secondary
In distribution and meter work, primary and secondary are relative terms. The primary circuit usually
operates at the higher voltage. For example, a distribution transformer may be rated at 14,400 volts to
2,400 volts, in which case the 14,400-volt winding is the primary and the 2,400-volt winding is the
secondary. Another transformer may be rated 2,400 volts to 240 volts, in which case the 2,400-volt
winding is the primary. Thus, in the former case the 2,400-volt rating is secondary an is a primary
value in the latter case.
Programming – Programmable
Programming refers to the action of writing values to ANSI C12.19 tables. Programming may be used
to configure the end device operating characteristics as well as to upgrade the end device firmware, the
firmware of the end device’s communication modules, or its embedded electronic accessories. A device
is considered programmable if it can be successfully programmed.
Protocol Specifications for Electric Metering (PSEM)
PSEM defines the application layer services of ANSI C12.18/IEEE 1701/MC12.18 or ANSI C12.21/IEEE
1702/MC12.21. In implementations that are not restricted just to electricity metering (e.g., gas and
water), the acronym PSEM may also equivalently represent the Protocol Specifications for Electronic
Metering.
Pulse
An electrical signal which departs from an initial level for a limited duration of time and returns to
the original level. Example: A sudden change in voltage or current produced by the opening or closing
of a contact.
Meter pulses, also called load control or demand control pulses, are generated in a meter by the
opening and closing of a switch. This action is controlled by the amount of load flowing through the
meter. Each pulse represents a fixed amount of energy (usually kWH or kVARh). The power company
is often asked to provide pulse circuits to a customer. The customer attaches a computer or other
device to the pulse circuit. This device counts the pulses coming from the meter. From the pulse
count, the amount of energy the meter has registered can be estimated. By counting pulses over a fixed
time interval (e.g., over a 15 minute demand interval), the customer’s device can estimate demand
(kW or kVAR) for that interval. Also, by looking at pulses during a much shorter time frame, some
devices can predict what the 15 minute demand will be for the interval in progress. Customers often
also request an end of interval or time pulse to synchronize their demand calculation intervals to
those of the meter.
Pulse Amplifier or Relay
A device used to change the amplitude or waveform of a pulse for retransmission to another pulse
device.
Pulse Capacity
The number of pulses per demand interval that a pulse receiver can accept and register without loss.
Pulse Device (for Electricity Metering)
The functional unit for initiating, transmitting, re-transmitting, or receiving electric pulses, represent-
ing finite quantities, such as energy, normally transmitted from some form of electricity meter to a
receiver unit.
 26 Pulse Initiator
Any device, mechanical or electrical, used with a meter to initiate pulses, the number of which are
proportional to the quantity being measured. It may include an external amplifier or auxiliary relay or
both.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Pulse—Initiator Output Constant (Ke or KWHC)

The value of the measured quantity for each outgoing pulse of a pulse initiator, expressed in kilowatt
hours per pulse, kilovarhours per pulse, or other suitable units.
Pulse—Initiator Output Ratio (R/P or Mp)
The number of revolutions of the meter rotor per output pulse of the pulse initiator.
Pulse Rate—Maximum
The number of pulses per second at which a pulse device is nominally rated.
Pulse Receiver
The unit that receives and registers the pulses.
Pulse Recorder
A device that receives and records pulses over successive demand intervals.
Pulse—Recorder Channel
One individual input, output, and intervening circuitry required to record pulse data.
Q-Hour Meter
An electricity meter that measures the quantity obtained by lagging the applied voltage to a watthour
meter by 60 degrees, or for electronic meters by delaying the digitized voltage samples by a time
equivalent to 60 electrical degrees.
Quadergy
The integral of reactive power with respect to time. (ANSI C12.1 American National Standard for
Electric Meters, Code for Electricity Metering definition.)
Rating Factor
Rating Factor is a term applied to a current transformer. The rating factor multiplied by the nameplate
rating of the CT gives the total current that the CT can carry while maintaining its rated accuracy
and staying within thermal limits. A typical rating factor might be 1.0, 2.0, or 3.0. As an example, a
200:5 CT with a rating factor of 3.0 can be used and will maintain its rated accuracy up to 600 amps.
(Note, however, that at 600 amps, this CT is producing 15 amps in its secondary. While this is fine
for use on a Class 20 meter, it would overload a Class 10 meter.) Rating factors for most CTs are
based upon open air outdoor conditions. When a CT is installed indoors or inside a cabinet, its rating
factor is reduced. Rating factors for padmount-type CTs listed in the Metering Selection Guide have
already been de-rated for use inside transformer cabinets.
Reactance
The measure of opposition to current flow in an electric circuit caused by the circuit properties of the
inductance and capacitance. Reactance is normally expressed in ohms.
Reactiformer
A phase-shifting auto transformer used to shift the voltages of a watthour meter 90 degrees when
reactive voltampere measurement is wanted.
Reactive Energy
The reactive energy in a single-phase circuit is the time integral of the reactive power.
Reactive Voltamperes
The out-of-phase component of the total voltamperes in a circuit which includes inductive or capaci-
tive reactance. For sinusoidal quantities in a two-wire alternating current circuit, reactive voltamperes
are the product of the total voltamperes and the sine of the angle between the current and voltage.
The unit of reactive voltamperes is the VAR.
Reactor
A device used for introducing reactance into a circuit for purposes such as motor starting, paralleling
transformers, and controlling currents.
Read Meter (Meter Reading) 27
The transmission from the meter to the company and/or head-end system of an entire or partial
C12.19 table is a meter reading operation. The act of data retrieval may require the invocation of some
or all the following (E)PSEM services as per the relevant communication protocol implemented by the

Common Terms used in Metering

meter: identification, negotiation, timing-setup, logon, wait, security, authenticate, read, write, logoff,
terminate, and disconnect.
Rectifier
A device which permits current to flow in one direction only, thus converting alternating current into
unidirectional current.
Reference Meter
A meter used to measure the unit of electric energy. It is usually designed and operated to obtain the
highest accuracy and stability in a controlled laboratory environment.
Reference Performance
A test used as a basis for comparison with performances under other conditions of the test. (ANSI
C12.1 American National Standard for Electric Meters, Code for Electricity Metering definition.)
Register
An electromechanical or electronic device which stores and displays information. A single display may
be used with multiple electronic memories to form multiple registers.
Register Constant
The number by which the register reading is multiplied to obtain kilowatthours. The register constant
on a particular meter is directly proportional to the register ratio, so any change in ratio will change
the register constant.
Register Freeze
The function of a meter or register to make a copy of its data, and perhaps reset its demand, at a pre-
programmed time after a certain event (such as demand reset) or upon receipt of an external signal.
Also called Self-Read, Auto-Read, and Data Copy.
Register Ratio
The number of revolutions of the gear meshing with the worm or pinion on the rotating element for
one revolution of the first dial pointer.
Registration
The registration of the meter is equal to the product of the register reading and the register constant.
The registration during a given period of time is equal to the product of the register constant and the
difference between the register readings at the beginning and the end of the period.
Reliable Transportation
In the context of billing and trade, this is a requirement that metered data shall be accurately and
safely transported across any communication media. The method of transportation of the metered
data shall ensure that the metered data remains intact upon arrival at its destination (e.g., billing
system) regardless of the medium the metered data are transported.
Resistance
The opposition offered by a substance or body to the passage of an electric current. Resistance is the
reciprocal of conductance.
Retarding Magnet
A permanent magnet placed near the outer edge of a meter disk to regulate the disk’s rotation.
Rheostat
An adjustable resistor so constructed that its resistance may be changed without opening the circuit in
which it is connected.
S-Base
See Socket-Connected Meter.
 28 Secure Metering
Secure metering does not enable a customer to net the energy produced by its generating facility
against the energy received from its electric service provider. The power flow measurement performed
by secure metering is |delivered|  |received|.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Self-Contained Meter
A watthour meter that is connected directly to the supply voltage and is in series with the customer
loads; a meter designed for installation directly in a customer’s service circuit. The meter is connected
such that full service current passes through it and full service voltage is applied across its terminals.
Typical self-contained meters operate at 120, 240, or 277 volts and as high as 480 amps continuous
rating. The most common of these is the Class 200, 120/240 volt, single-phase, 3-wire meter used on
most residences. Also see Transformer Rated Meter.
Service
The conductors and equipment for delivering electric energy from a street distribution system to, and
including, the service equipment of the premises served.
Service Conductors
The conductors which extend from a street distribution system, transformers on private property, or
a private generating plant outside the building served, to the point of connection with the service
equipment.
Service Drop
That portion of the overhead service conductors between the last pole or other aerial support and the
first point of attachment to the building or structure.
Service Entrance (SE) Cable
A service entrance cable usually consists of two conductors with conventional insulation laid parallel
with a third stranded bare neutral conductor (which may or may not be insulated). The final covering
is a flame retarding and waterproof braid. ASE cable is a variant of the SE cable in which a flat steel
strip is inserted between the neutral conductor and the outside braid.
Service Entrance Conductors
For an overhead service, that portion of the service conductors which connect the service drop to the
service equipment. The service entrance conductors for an underground service are that portion of the
service conductors between the terminal box located on either the inside or outside building wall, or
the point of entrance in the building if no terminal box is installed, and the service equipment.
Service Equipment
The necessary equipment, usually consisting of one or more circuit breakers or switches and fuses, and
their accessories, intended to constitute the main control and means of disconnecting the load from
the supply source.
Shaft Reduction (Spindle Reduction, First Reduction)
The gear reduction between the shaft or spindle of the rotating element and the first gear of the
register.
Shop, Meter
A place where meters are inspected, repaired, tested, and adjusted.
Short Circuit
A fault in an electric circuit, instrument, or utilization equipment such that the current follows a
lower resistance by-pass instead of its intended course.
Simulated Meter
A meter cover, base, and jumper bars constructed to represent the thermal characteristics of a specific
class of watthour meter to be used in the testing of a meter socket and in determining the empirical
temperature rise of the test meter at continuous ampere rating.
Socket (Trough)
The mounting device consisting of jaws, connectors, and enclosure for socket-type meters. A mounting
device may be a single socket or a trough. The socket may have a cast or drawn enclosure, the trough
an assembled enclosure which may be extensible to accommodate more than one mounting unit.
Socket-Connected Meter 29
A meter having a socket-type of connection terminal assembly. Also referred to as an S-base electricity
meter.

Common Terms used in Metering

Solid-State Meter
A meter in which current and voltage act on electronic (solid-state) elements to produce an output
proportional to the energy to be measured. Also called static meter.
Standard, Basic Reference
Those standards with which the value of electrical units are maintained in the laboratory, and which
serve as the starting point of the chain of sequential measurements carried out in the laboratory.
Standards—National
Standard electrical quantities that are maintained by the National Institute of Standards and Technol-
ogy (NIST).
Standard Watthour Meter—Basic Current Range
The current range of a multirange standard watthour meter designated by the manufacturer for its
calibration (normally the 5 A range).
Standard Watthour Meter—Basic Voltage Range
The voltage range of a multirange standard watthour meter designated by the manufacturer for its
calibration (normally the 120 V range).
Standard Watthour Meter—Rated Current
The nameplate current for each range of a standard watthour meter. The main adjustment of the
meter is ordinarily made with rated current on the basic current range.
Standard Watthour Meter—Rated Voltage
The nameplate voltage for a meter or for each range of a standard watthour meter.
The main adjustment of the standard meter is ordinarily made with rated voltage on the basic
voltage range.
Stator
The unit which provides the driving torque in a watthour meter. It contains a voltage coil, one or
more current coils, and the necessary steel to provide the required magnetic paths. Other names used
for stator are element or driving element.
Sub-Metering
The metering of individual loads within a building for billing or load control purposes. For billing
applications, the building is usually metered by a master meter and the property owner desires to
meter and charge individual tenants for their portion of the electricity consumed.
Switchboard-Mount Meter
A meter mounted in a drawn-out case where the meter may be removed as a functional module, with
provisions to properly shunt current paths before meter disconnection, leaving behind the outer case
to which service connections are permanently made. Referred to as F-Base.
Synchronism
This expresses the phase relationship between two or more periodic quantities of the same period
when the phase difference between them is zero. A generator must be in synchronism with the system
before it is connected to the system.
Table Definition Language (TDL)
ANSI C12.19 defines the tables’ syntax using the published document form (the printed standard).
The document form can be derived from a corresponding syntax using XML notation. Similarly, the
XML notation may be derived from the document form. The XML annotated file is also an input to an
AMR application that communicates with any C12.19 Device.
Temperature Compensation
For a watthour meter, this refers to the factors included in the design and construction of the meter
which make it perform with accuracy over a wide range of temperatures. In modern meters this range
may extend from 20°F to 140°F.
 30 Test—Acceptance
A test to demonstrate the degree of compliance of a device with the purchaser’s requirements.
Test Accuracy—In-Service
Handbook for Electricity Metering

A test made during the period that the meter is in service. It may be made on the customer’s premises
without removing the meter from its mounting, or by removing the meter for test either on the
premises or in a laboratory or meter shop.
Test—Accuracy—Referee
A test made by or in the presence of one or more representatives of a regulatory body or other impar-
tial agency.
Test—Accuracy—Request
A test made at the request of a customer.
Test Amperes (TA)
The load current specified by the manufacturer for the main calibration adjustment and the current
level used as a base for measuring registration accuracy. Typical TA for a Class 200 meter is 30 amps
and for a Class 20 meter is 5 amps.
Test—Approval
A test of one or more meters or other items under various controlled conditions to ascertain the
item’s compliance with the appropriate standard.
Test Mode
A separately-activated sequence that saves billing data while displaying test data. It reactivates the
billing data to the register when the normal mode is resumed.
Test Output
An output signal, optical, mechanical, or electrical, which provides a means to check calibration level
and verify operation of the meter.
Test—Switch
A device that can be opened to isolate a watthour meter from the voltage and current supplying it so
that tests or maintenance can be performed.
Testing, Periodic Sample
A testing method which conforms to acceptable testing practices whereby a meter is tested on a regular
reoccurring schedule based on either characteristics of the meter/meter type or service.
Testing, Statistical Sample
A testing method which conforms to accepted principles of statistical sampling based on either the
variables or attributes method. The following expressions are associated with statistical sample testing:
(a) Method of Attributes—A statistical sample testing method in which only the percent of
meters tested found outside certain accuracy limits is used for determining the quality or
accuracy of the entire group of meters.
(b) Method of Variables—A statistical sample testing method in which the accuracy of each
meter tested is used in the total results for determining the quality or accuracy of the entire
group of meters.
(c) Bar X—A mathematical term used to indicate the average accuracy of a group of meters
tested.
(d) Sigma—A mathematical term used to indicate the dispersion of the test results about the
average accuracy (Bar X) of a group of meters tested.
Thermocouple
A pair of dissimilar conductors so joined that two junctions are formed. An electromotive force is
developed by the thermoelectric effect when the two junctions are at different temperatures.
Thermoelectric Effect (Seebeck Effect)
One in which an electromotive force results from a difference of temperature between two junctions
of dissimilar metals in the same circuit.
Thermoelectric Laws 31
(1) The thermoelectromotive force is, for the same pair of metals, proportional through a consid-
erable range of temperature to the excess of temperature of the junction over the rest of the

Common Terms used in Metering

circuit.
(2) The total thermoelectromotive force in a circuit is the algebraic sum of all the separate
thermoelectromotive forces at the various junctions.
Three-Wire System (Direct Current, Single-Phase, or Network Alternating Current)
A system of electric supply comprising three conductors, one of which, known as the neutral wire, is
generally grounded and has the same approximate voltage between it and either of the other two wires
(referred to as the outer or “hot” conductors). Part of the load may be connected directly between the
outer conductors, while the remainder is divided as evenly as possible into two parts, each of which is
connected between the neutral and one outer conductor.
Timebase Primary
A timing system established from the frequency of the power line or other reference source.
Timebase Secondary
A timing system established from an alternate source when the primary source is not available.
Time Division Multiplication
An electronic measuring technique which produces an output signal proportional to two inputs, e.g.,
voltage and current. The width or duration of the output signal is proportional to one of the input
quantities and the height is proportional to the other. The area of the signal is then proportional to
the product of the two inputs, e.g., voltage and current.
Time-of-Use (TOU)
As applied to service rates, TOU refers to those rates that offer different energy (and/or demand)
prices for different time periods during the day. A TOU meter is one that is capable of measuring and
keeping track of energy usage or demand according to preset time periods for each day. That is, it can
keep separate subtotals of energy used and maximum demand reached for several periods, for example:
• Period 1—12:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m. to 12:00 a.m. each weekday and all day on
weekends.
• Period 2—8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. each weekday.
• Period 3—10:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. each weekday.
The TOU meter can also adjust the time periods it uses in different seasons, such as summer and
winter.
Time-of-Use (TOU) Metering
A metering method which records demand during selected periods of time so that consumption during
different time periods can be billed at different rates. TOU metering equipment records metered or
measured quantities according to a time schedule into separate registers (collection bins or tiers) using
ANSI C12.19 Standard Decade 2 (Time and TOU, Standard Tables 20–29) and Standard Decade 5
(Clock Standard Tables 50–59).
Time-of-Use Register
That portion of a watthour meter that, for selected periods of time, accumulates and may display
amounts of electric energy, demand, or other quantities measured or calculated.
Time-of-Use Register—Period
A selected period of time during which a specified rate will apply to the energy usage or demand, typi-
cally designated as A, B, C, and D.
Time-of-Use Register—Switch Point
The transition from one time-of-use period to another.
Torque of an Instrument
The turning moment produced by the electric quantity to be measured acting through the mechanism.
 32 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
The ratio of the root-mean-square of the harmonic content (excluding the fundamental) to the root-
mean-square value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percentage. (ANSI C12.1 American
National Standard for Electric Meters, Code for Electricity Metering definition.)
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Totalizing
A device used to receive and sum pulses from two or more sources for proportional transmission to
either another totalizing relay or to a receiver.
Transducer
A device to receive energy from one system and supply energy, of either the same or a different kind,
to another system, in such a manner that the desired characteristics of the energy input appear at the
output.
Transformer
An electric device without moving parts which transfers energy from one circuit to one or more other
circuits by means of electromagnetic fields. The name implies, unless otherwise described, that there is
complete electrical isolation among all windings of a transformer, in contrast to an auto-transformer.
Transformer—Loss Compensation
A method that adds to or subtracts from the meter registration to compensate for predetermined iron
and/or copper losses of transformers and transmission lines.
Transformer-Rated Meter
A watthour meter that requires external instrument transformer(s) to isolate or step-down the cur-
rent and, possibly, the voltage. This meter is designed to operate with reduced levels of current (and
sometimes voltage) that are directly proportional to the service current and voltage. The transformer-
rated meter is isolated from the current (and voltage) levels present in the customer’s service. Typical
transformer-rated meters operate at 120, 240, or 277 volts and 0–10 or 0–20 amps. Also see Self-
Contained Meter.
Transformer Ratio
A ratio that expresses the fixed relationship between the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer.
Translation
The term translation originally referred to the computerized process of reading meter interval data
recorded on magnetic tape and converting it to energy and demand information. The computer that
performs this function is known as the translator. In addition, the translator provides high levels of
data security and validation and manages the scheduling of automatic remote meter data downloads.
Today, most recording is done in solid state memory. When tape cartridges had to previously be
mailed to a central location for translation, faster means of retrieving the recorded data are now used,
including:
• Direct telephone communications between the translator and the meter.
• Downloading the meter data into a laptop computer and transferring the data to the translator
via modem.
• Downloading to a laptop and transferring the data via computer network.
Another form of translation is offered via software that can download interval data (remotely or via
direct connection) from various meters and generate load profiles, usage reports, and estimated bills.
Refer to the listing on Interval Data for the many uses of translated information.
Transocket
A high-capacity meter socket combining the advantages of a CT meter installation with the simplicity
of a self-contained meter socket. It contains current transformers and factory-installed meter wiring to
a socket for a standard transformer-rated meter.
Unit of Measure (UOM)
The unit of measure provides a method for describing a billing/trade quantity or selecting data source
attributes. Some of the attributes include the physical quantity measured, the time base used for
averaging, the scaling constants, direction of flow, method of measurement, and harmonic component
indication.
Upgrade/Upgrade Process 33
The series of communication steps required to replace or modify the existing operating firmware of a
meter and/or its associated communication and metrology components. The upgrade process does not
require the removal of the meter and/or its associated communication and metrology components

Common Terms used in Metering

from service.
VAR
The term commonly used for voltampere reactive.
VARhour Meter
An electricity meter that measures and registers the integral, with respect to time, of the reactive
power of the circuit in which it is connected. The unit in which this integral is measured is usually the
kiloVARhour.
VARhour Test Constant
The expression of the relation between the reactive energy applied to the meter and the corresponding
value of the test output. For electromechanical meters, one test output equals one disk revolution.
Volt
The practical unit of electromotive force or potential difference. One volt will cause one ampere to
flow when impressed across a one ohm resistor.
Voltampere
Voltamperes are the product of volts and the total current which flows because of the voltage. See
Power, Apparent.
Voltage Circuit
The internal connections of the meter, part of the measuring element, and, in the case of electronic
meters, part of the power supply, supplied with the voltage of the circuit to which the meter is
connected.
Voltage Transformer (VT)
An instrument transformer intended for measurement or control purposes which is
designed to have its primary winding connected in parallel with a circuit, the voltage of
which is to be measured or controlled.
It is a high accuracy transformer that converts voltage (typically high voltage) to
a level suitable for use in metering (usually 120 volts). The voltage transformer is also
called a potential transformer or PT. The industry refers to a VT in terms of its nameplate
primary voltage ratio to 120 or 115 secondary volts (e.g., 7200:120) or as the equivalent
ratio to 1 (60:1).
Voltage—Withstand Tests
Tests made to determine the ability of insulating materials and spacings to withstand specified over
voltages for a specified time without flashover or puncture.
Watt
The practical unit of active power which is defined as the rate at which energy is delivered to a circuit.
It is the power expended when a current of one ampere flows through a resistance of one ohm.
Watthour
The practical unit of electric energy which is expended in one hour when the average power during the
hour is one watt.
Watthour Meter
An electricity meter that measures and registers the integral, with respect to time, of the active power
of the circuit in which it is connected. This power integral is the energy delivered to the circuit during
the interval over which the integration extends, and the unit in which it is measured is usually the
kilowatthour.
Watthour Meter—Basic Reference Standards
Those standards with which the value of the watthour is maintained in the laboratory.
Watthour Meter—Bottom-Connected
A meter having a bottom-connected terminal assembly.
 34 Watthour Meter—Calibration
Adjustment to bring the percentage registration of the meter to within specified limits.
Watthour Meter—Class Designation
Handbook for Electricity Metering

The maximum specified continuous load in amperes.

Watthour Meter Constant (Kh)
The expression of the relationship between the energy applied to the meter and one disk revolution or
equivalent, expressed as watthours per revolution or watthours per equivalent revolution.
Watthour Meter—Detachable (Socket-Mounted)
A meter having bayonet-type (blade) terminals arranged on the back side of the meter for insertion
into matching jaws of a meter socket (or detachable meter-mounting device).
Watthour Meter—Field Standard
A portable meter that is used as a standard meter to calibrate the utility’s billing meters and is trace-
able to NIST. This meter is also known as a portable standard or working standard.
Watthour Meter—Form Designation
An alphanumeric designation denoting the circuit arrangement for which the meter is applicable
and its specific terminal arrangement. The same designation is applicable to equivalent meters of all
manufacturers.
Watthour Meter—Full Load
Full load is a test condition using test amps, rated voltage, and unity power factor.
Watthour Meter—Gear Ratio (Rg)
The number of revolutions of the meter’s rotor for one revolution of the first dial pointer.
Watthour Meter—Induction
A motor-type meter in which currents induced in the rotor interact with magnetic fields to produce
the driving torque.
Watthour Meter—Light Load
Light load is a test condition using rated voltage, 10% of test amps, and unity power factor.
Watthour Meter—Load Range
The maximum range in amperes over which the meter is designed to operate continuously with a
specified accuracy.
Watthour Meter—Multistator
A watthour meter containing more than one stator.
Watthour Meter—Percentage Error
The difference between percentage registration and 100%. A meter whose percentage registration is
95% is said to be 5% slow, or its error is ()5%.
Watthour Meter—Percentage Registration
The ratio of the actual registration of the meter to the true value of the quantity measured in a given
time, expressed as a percentage.
Watthour Meter Portable Standard
A special watthour meter used as the reference for tests of other meters. The standard has multiple
current and voltage coils or electronic equivalents, so a single unit may be used in the field or in the
shop for tests of any normally-rated meter. The portable standard watthour meter is designed and con-
structed to provide better accuracy and stability than would normally be required in customer meters.
The rotating standard has an electro-mechanical dial rotating at a specified watthour per revolution,
and the solid-state standard has a digital display of one watthour per revolution, or, essentially, a
measured watthour.
Watthour Meter—Reference Performance
A test used as a basis for comparison with performances under other conditions of the test.
Watthour Meter—Register 35
A device for use with an electricity meter that indicates or records units of electric energy or other
quantity measured.

Common Terms used in Metering

Watthour Meter—Register Constant (Kr)
The multiplier used to convert the register reading to kilowatthours (or other suitable units). This con-
stant takes into consideration the watthour constant, gear ratio, and instrument transformer ratios.
Watthour Meter—Register Ratio (Rr)
The number of revolutions of the first gear of the register for one revolution of the first dial pointer.
Watthour Meter—Registration
The amount of electric energy (or other quantity being measured) that was recorded by the meter. It is
equal to the product of the register reading and the register constant. The registration during a given
period is equal to the product of the register constant and the difference between the register readings
at the beginning and the end of the period.
Watthour Meter—Rotor
That part of an induction meter that is directly driven by electromagnetic action.
Watthour Meter—Self-Contained
A meter in which the terminals are arranged for connection to the circuit being measured without
using external instrument transformers.
Watthour Meter—Single Stator
A meter containing only one stator.
Watthour Meter—Stator
An assembly of an induction watthour meter which consists of a voltage circuit and one or more
current circuits, so arranged that their joint effect, when energized, is to exert a driving torque on the
rotor.
Watthour Meter—Test Constant (Kt)
The expression of the relationship between the energy applied to the meter and the corresponding
occurrence of one test output indication, expressed as watthours per test output indication.
Watthour Meter—Transport Standard
Standard meters of the same or better level of uncertainty as the basic reference standard meters that
are used for transferring the value of the watthour between standards.
Window-Type CT
Shaped like a cylinder with a hollow center or window, these are also called donut CTs.
The “donut” houses the steel transformer core and the secondary windings. The load
conductor passes through the window, serving as a one turn primary winding for the
CT. This is the most common CT style in the low voltage (up to 600 volts) class.
Wound-Type CT
This CT includes internal windings for both the primary and secondary windings. The
service conductor is cut at the CT and bolted to two spade-type terminals, so that the
service current passes through the primary winding of the CT. This design is most com-
mon for medium voltage (5–15 kV) class CTs.
Write/Program Meter
Writing and programming an ANSI C12.19 meter will have an effect on the entire
or partial ANSI C12.19 table set. The act of data writing may require the invocation of some meter
reading functions and any of the following (E)PSEM services as per the relevant communication
protocol implemented by the meter: identification, negotiation, timing—setup, logon, wait, security,
authenticate, read, write, logoff, terminate, and disconnect. The C12.19 meter may require the invoca-
tion of Standard Procedure 2, “Save Configuration,” prior to logoff to ensure retention of the changes.
No other procedure shall be used for this purpose.
 Chapter 3
Mathematics for Metering
(A Brief Review)
Basic Laws of Equations
AN EQUATION is a statement of equality in mathematical form. In the study of electricity, one of the
most familiar equations is the expression of Ohm’s Law for direct current (DC) circuits:
V 5 IR
Where: V 5 voltage in volts
I 5 current in amperes
R 5 resistance in ohms
In equation form, this law states that the voltage is equal to the current multiplied by the
resistance.
To understand equations and to make them useful, certain rules must be remembered. One
important rule states that when the identical operation is performed on both sides of the equal sign,
the equation remains true.
If both sides of the equation are multiplied by the same quantity or divided by the same quantity,
the equation is still true, as shown in the following examples.
With the equation I 5 — V, multiply both sides by R to give
R
I3R5— V3R
R
which simplifies to IR 5 V, since — R 5 1.
R
With the equation IR 5 V, if the value of R is wanted, divide both sides by I to give
IR 5 —
—— V
I I
which simplifies to
R5— V
I
The same quantity may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an equation without violating
the state of equality.
For example, in a parallel circuit, the total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the
branches. With three resistors connected in parallel, the equation for the total circuit current may be
expressed as follows:
ITotal 5 I1 1 I2 1 I3
To determine the value of I2, subtract I1 and I3 from both sides of the equation:
ITotal 2 I1 2 I3 5 I1 1 I2 1 I3 2 I1 2 I3

37
 38 which simplifies to
ITotal 2 I1 2 I3 5 I2
The preceding example illustrates another general rule which states that any complete term may be
Handbook for Electricity Metering

shifted from one side of an equation to the other by changing its sign. This must be a complete term
or the equation is no longer true. In the example, the 1I1 and 1I3 terms were shifted from the right to
left side, where they then became negative.
To summarize:
If x 5 2y, and C is any constant except zero, then the following equations are also true:
x 1 C 5 2y 1 C
x 2 C 5 2y 2 C
Cx 5 2Cy
—x 5—2y
C C
Parentheses
In an expression such as IR1 1 IR2 1 IR3, the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 after the symbol R indicate that
R does not necessarily have the same value in each term. Since the symbol I does not have subscripts,
it does have the same value in each term. Such a series can be written I(R1 1 R2 1 R3), which means
that the total quantity inside the parentheses is to be multiplied by I.
The equation V 5 IR1 1 IR2 1 IR3 states that the voltage across three resistors in series is equal to
the sum of the products of the current times each of the resistances. If V, R1, R2, and R3 are all known
and the value of I is wanted, the equation may be rearranged as follows:
V 5 IR1 1 IR2 1 IR3
V 5 I(R1 1 R2 1 R3)
Dividing both sides by (R1 1 R2 1 R3) gives

V
———————————— 5 I
(R1 1 R2 1 R3)

When removing parentheses, pay attention to the laws of signs. These laws are summarized as
follows:
a 3 b 5 ab
a 3 (2b) 5 2ab
2a 3 b 5 2ab
2a 3 (2b) 5 ab
No sign before a term implies a 1 sign.
A minus sign before a parenthetical expression is equivalent to multiplication by 21 and means
that all signs within the parentheses must be changed when the parentheses are removed.

The Graph
A graph is a pictorial representation of the relationship between the magnitudes of two quantities. A
graph may represent a mathematical equation, or the relationship between the quantities may be such
that it cannot be expressed by a simple equation.
An example of a graph which may be used in metering is the calibration curve for an indicating
instrument. Figure 3-1 shows a typical graph of voltmeter corrections. When the voltmeter reads 120
volts, reference to the correction curve shows that, at this point (marked X in Figure 3-1), the correc-
tion to be applied is 11 volt and the true voltage is 121 volts. With a scale reading of 100 volts, the
correction is 10.5 volts, shown by , and the true voltage is 100.5. With a scale reading of 70 volts,
the correction is 20.5 volts, shown by , to give 69.5 true volts.
The sine wave has important applications in alternating-current circuit theory. The equation of
a sine wave, y 5 sin x, is shown graphically in Figure 3-2. The x quantity is commonly expressed in
angular degrees or radians and the y values, which are plotted on the graph, are the sine values of
 39

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

Figure 3-1. Graph of Voltmeter Corrections.

the corresponding angles. Thus, for any particular angular value, it is possible to use the graph to
determine its sine. For example, the sine of 30 degrees is equal to 0.5, as shown by the dotted lines on
Figure 3-2.

The Right Triangle

A right triangle is a triangle having one right (90°) angle. The side opposite the right angle is termed
the hypotenuse (c) of the triangle and the two sides forming the right angle are known as the legs
(a and b) of the triangle. In every right triangle a definite relation exists between the sides of the
triangle, so that when the lengths of two of the sides are known, the length of the third can be
calculated using the right triangle formula. Mathematically, this relationship is stated in the formula:
c 2 5 a2 1 b2
The relationship between the sides of the right triangle in Figure 3-3 are:
a2 5 c2 2 b2 or a 5 
c2 2 
b2
b2 5 c2 2 a2 or b 5 
c2 2 
a2
c 5 a 1 b or c 5 a 1 b
2 2 2 2 2

Figure 3-2. Graph of Sine Wave.

 40 Trigonometric Functions
Sine, cosine, and tangent are three of the six relationships existing between the sides of a right tri-
angle. The six possible ratios between the sides of a right triangle are called trigonometric functions. In
Handbook for Electricity Metering

the solution of alternating-current problems requiring the use of trigonometric functions, the follow-
ing tabulation of their definitions and relationships will be useful.
In the right triangle shown in Figure 3-3, side a is opposite angle A; side b is adjacent to angle A;
side a is adjacent to angle B; and side b is opposite angle B. The ratios between the length of the sides
of the triangle determine the trigonometric functions of the angle A.
By definition, the ratios are named:

a    opposite
— 5 —————–——— 5 sine A or sin A
c hypotenuse
b    adjacent
— 5 —————–——— 5 cosine A or cos A
c hypotenuse
a    opposite
— 5 —————–——— 5 tangent A or tan A
b    adjacent
Similarly:
a
b   b 3 a — c sin A
cos A 5 — 5 ————— 5 —— 5 —————
a tan
c   c 3 a — A
b
a
a — c sin A
tan A 5 — 5 —— 5 —————
b — b cos A
c
While —a is the sine of A, it is also the cosine of B, since a is adjacent to angle B. Therefore, it will
c
be seen that:
sin A 5 cos B
cos A 5 sin B
Numerical values for the functions of every angle are computed from the ratios of the sides of a
right triangle containing that angle. In a right triangle, which is a triangle containing one right (90°)
angle, the sum of the other two angles must equal 90°, since the sum of the three angles of any
triangle must be 180°. Also, the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides must equal the square of
the longer side, or hypotenuse (the side opposite the 90° angle). Regardless of the values which may
be assigned to the sides of a right triangle, the ratio of any two sides for any given angle is always the
same.
The functions of 30° and 60° may be derived from Figure 3-4. The triangle ABC of Figure 3-4
is equilateral (all sides equal). Therefore, it is also equiangular (all angles equal), so that each angle
equals 60°.
If a line is drawn from the midpoint of the base to the vertex as shown, then b9 5 ½ and angle
B9 5 30°. In the triangle AB9C9:
1
—
b9 2 1
sin 30° 5 cos 60° 5 —— 5 — 5 — 5 0.500
c 1 2
1
 1 2 —
a9 12 2(—2
) 23 1
cos 30° 5 sin 60° 5 —— 5 ————————— 5 ———— 5 —
3 5 0.866
c 1 1 2
b9
—c— b9 1/2
sin 30° 1
tan 30° 5 —————— 5 —— 5 — 5 ————— 5 ———— 5 0.577
cos 30° a9 a9 — 1 
3  3
—c— 2

 41

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

hypotenuse of triangle

c a
side opposite
angle A

b
side adjacent angle B

Figure 3-3. The Right Triangle. Figure 3-4. Functions of 30° and 60°.

The functions of 45° may be derived from Figure 3-5. In this triangle, a 5 b 5 1, and
c 5 
a2 1
b2 5  2. From geometry, angle A must equal angle B, or half of 90°, which is 45°.
1  2
sin A 5 sin B 5 sin 45° 5 ———— 5 ———— 5 0.707
 2 2
1  2
cos A 5 cos B 5 cos 45° 5———— 5 ———— 5 0.707
 2 2

1
tan A 5 tan B 5 tan 45° 5 —— 5 1 5 1.000
1
To determine the functions of an angle greater than 90° and less than 180°, subtract the given
angle from 180° and refer to a table of functions. For an angle greater than 180° and less than 270°,
subtract 180° from the angle and refer to the table. For an angle greater than 270° and less than
360°, subtract the angle from 360° and refer to the table.
The algebraic sign of the functions of all angles between 0 and 90° is positive (1); beyond 90°
the signs can be determined from Table 3-1.
From the preceding formulas, it is evident that if two sides of a right triangle are known, the third
side as well as the angles can be calculated. Also, if one side and either angle A or B are known, the
other sides and angle can be calculated.

Table 3–1. Signs of the Functions of Angles.

sin cos tan

1st Quadrant (0° to 90°) 1 1 1

2nd Quadrant (90° to 180°) 1 2 2
3rd Quadrant (180° to 270°) 2 2 1
4th Quadrant (270° to 360°) 2 1 2
 42
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 3-5. Functions of 45°. Figure 3-6. Relationship of Right Triangle to

Voltamperes, Watts, and VARs.

Example 1:
To find a, given c and b: a 5 
c2 2
b2
To find a, given c and A: a 5 c 3 sin A
a
To find b, given a and A: b 5 ———
tan A
a or cos21 a/c
To find B, given a and c: B 5 angle whose cosine is —
c
In electric circuits with single non-distorted frequencies, the voltamperes, watts, and voltampere
reactives (VARs) are in proportion to the sides of a right triangle and may be represented as shown in
Figure 3-6. Trigonometry may also be used to calculate these quantities.
watts
Power factor 5 cosine of phase angle θ 5 ——————————
voltamperes

Example 2:
Voltmeter reads 120, ammeter 5, wattmeter 300.
300 5 0.5
pf 5 ———
600
Power factor 5 50%

In the above example, a lagging or leading power factor is not specified because it is unknown
whether the load is inductive or capacitive. If the load is inductive, the power factor is lagging, and if
the load is capacitive, the power factor is leading. This topic is covered in more detail in Chapter 4.
From Figure 3-6:
VARS VARhours
Tangent of phase angle: tan θ 5 ————— 5 —————————
watts watthours
Example 3: 43
If the VARhour meter reads 3733 and the watthour meter reads 9395, what is the average power
factor?

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

3733
———— 5 0.3973 5 tan-1 of phase angle 5 21.7°
9395
Power factor 5 cosine of phase angle θ 5 cos 21.7° 5 0.93 or 93%.
To find watts, given voltamperes and VARs:

watts 5 
(volt amp)2 2 (VARs)2
To find power factor, given VARs and voltamperes:
VARs
Power factor 5 cosine of angle whose sine 5 ——————
voltamp
To find VARs, given power factor and watts:
θ 5 angle whose cosine equals the power factor
VARs 5 watts 3 tan θ
To find voltamperes, given power factor and VARs:
θ 5 angle whose cosine equals the power factor
VARs
voltamperes 5 ————
sin θ

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a form of mathematical shorthand. It is a method of indicating a number that
has a large number of zeroes before or after the decimal point and is based on the theory of expo-
nents. Some powers of ten are shown in Table 3-2.
Any number may be expressed as a power of ten by applying the following rules:
1. To express a decimal fraction as a whole number times a power of ten, move the decimal point
to the right and count the number of places back to the original position of the decimal point.
The number of places moved is the correct negative power of ten.
Example 4:
0.00756 5 7.56 3 103
0.000095 5 9.5 3 105
0.866 5 86.6 3 102
0.0866 5 86.6 3 103

Table 3–2. Powers of Ten.

Number Power of Ten Expressed in English Prefi

0.000001 1026 ten to the negative sixth power micro

0.001 1023 ten to the negative third power milli
1.0 100 ten to the zero power
1000.0 103 ten to the third power kilo
1000000.0 106 ten to the sixth power mega
 44 2. To express a large number as a smaller number times a power of ten, move the decimal point to
the left and count the number of places back to the original position of the decimal point. The
number of places moved is the correct positive power of ten.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Example 5:
746. 5 7.46 3 102
95. 5 9.5 3 101
866. 5 86.6 3 101
8,660. 5 8.66 3 103

Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are a special extension of our real number system. All complex numbers can be
represented as points in the complex plane, as shown in Figure 3-7. The real axis, horizontal from left
to right, can only represent real numbers. The j, or imaginary axis, vertical from bottom to top, can
only represent imaginary numbers. For all other complex numbers having a real part and an imaginary
part, we can plot their coordinates in the complex plane as shown.

COMPLEX NUMBERS IN RECTANGULAR FORM

In general, all complex numbers can be expressed in the form z 5 x 1 jy. This is called rectangular
form. The number x is called the “real part” of the complex number z, and the number y is called the
“imaginary part” of the complex number z. The imaginary operator is defined as j 5   or j2 5 21.
21
It is also a complex number, z 5 0 1 j1 5 j. For the complex number z 5 1 1 j1 in Figure 3-7, the
real numbers x 5 1 and y 5 1 correspond to coordinates (1,1) in the complex plane. The coordinates
(1,1) pinpoint the complex number z in the complex plane just like latitude and longitude is used to
pinpoint a specific location on the earth’s surface. Formally,
x 5 Real part {z} 5 R{z}
y 5 Imaginary part {z}5 {z}

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

To add and subtract complex numbers, the complex numbers should be expressed in rectangular form.
To add two complex numbers, add the real parts and the imaginary parts separately.
Example 6:
If z1 5 2 1 j3 and z2 5 25 2 j4, then find z1 1 z2.
Solution:
z1 1 z2 5 (2 2 5) 1 j(3 2 4) 5 23 1 j(21) 5 23 2 j1.

To subtract the same two complex numbers, subtract the real parts and the imaginary parts
separately.

j or Imaginary axis

jy 5 j1 •
z 5 1 1 j1 5 x 1 jy 5 (1,1)
 or Real axis

Figure 3-7. Complex Number z 5 1 1 j1 Represented by a Single Point in the Complex Plane.
Example 7: 45
If z1 5 2 1 j3 and z2 5 25 2 j4, then find z1 2 z2.
Solution:

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

z1 2 z2 5 (2 2 (25)) 1 j(3 2 (24)) 5 (2 1 5) 1 j(3 1 4) 5 7 1 j7.

MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS IN RECTANGULAR FORM

Following is an illustration of how to multiply two complex numbers expressed in rectangular form:
If z1 5 a 1 jb and z2 5 c 1 jd, then
z1z2 5 (a 1 jb) (c 1 jd)
5 ac 1 jad 1 jbc 1 j2bd
5 ac 1 jad 1 jbc 1 (21)bd
5 (ac 2 bd) 1 j(ad 1 bc)

Example 8:
If z1 5 a 1 jb 5 7 1 j1 and z2 5 c 1 jd 5 23 1 j8, then find z1 z2.
Solution:
z1z2 5 (7 1 j1)(23 1 j8) 5 221 1 j56 2 j3 1 j28
5 221 2 8 1 j56 2 j3
5 229 1 j53
Example 9:
If z 5 0 1 jb, then what is z2?
Solution:
z2 5 z?z 5 (0 1 jb)(0 1 jb) 5 0 1 0 1 0 1 j2b2 5 2b2.

Conjugation and Absolute Value of

Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form
The complex conjugate of z 5 x 1 jy, called z* or —
z, is defined as
z* 5 —z 5 x 2 jy
In other words, z* is z with its imaginary part “changed in sign.”
In Figure 3-8, it is shown that z* is the reflection of z about the x axis or, in other words, z* is the
“mirror image” of z.

j or Imaginary axis

• z 5 1 1 j1 5 x 1 yj 5 (1,1)

Real axis

•
z* 5 1 2 j1 5 x 2 jy 5 (1,21)

Figure 3-8. Complex Conjugate of z is z*.

 46 Example 10:
What is the conjugate of z 5 24 2 j5?
Solution:
Handbook for Electricity Metering

z* 5 24 2 j(25) 5 24 1 j5
Example 11:
What is the conjugate of z 5 12?
Solution:
Since z 5 12 is the same as z 5 12 1 j0, then z* 5 12 2 j0 5 12. Thus, the conjugate of a
complex number with no imaginary part is just that number.
Example 12:
What do we get if we compute the product of z and its conjugate z*?
Solution:
If z 5 x 1 jy and z* 5 x 2 jy, then zz* 5 (x 1 jy)(x 2 jy) 5 x2 2 jxy 1 jyx 2 j2y2
zz* 5 x2 1 y2 since the second and third terms cancel each other and j2 5 21.

Division of Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

It is also possible to divide complex numbers. If z1 5 a 1 jb and z2 5 c 1 jd, then:
z1 a 1 jb
—— 5 —————
z2 c 1 jd
To evaluate this dividend, we must eliminate the j operator from the denominator. We can do this
by multiplying the denominator by its complex conjugate. We must also multiply the numerator by
the same factor.

z1
(
a 1 jb
—— 5 ————–
z2 c 1 jd )(————–
c  jd )
c  jd

ac  jad 1 jbc  j2bd

5 ———————–———–———–
(c 1 jd)(c  jd)
ac  j(bc  ad) bd
5 ———————–———–———–
c2  jcd 1 jcd  j2d2
(ac  bd) j(bc  ad)
5 ———————–———–———–
c 2 1 d2
z1
Example 13: Let z1 5 2 1 j3 and z2 5 24 2 j5. Find ——
z2
z1
(2 1 j3
—— 5 —————–
z2 24 2 j5 )
z1
(2 1 j3
—— 5 —————–
z2 24 2 j5 )(—————–
24 1 j5)
24 1 j5

8  j10  j12  j215

5 ———————————–———–—–
16  j20 1 j20  j225
8  15  j10  j12
5 ———————–—————–———–
16 1 25
23  j2
5 —————–——
41
23 2
5 ———  j——
41 41
5 20.56 2 j0.05
Complex Numbers Written in Polar Form 47
When a complex number, z, is expressed by a vector having a length, |z|, at a given angle, θ, with the
positive real axis, then the complex number z is said to be written in polar form. The length |z| is

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

also known as the absolute value, magnitude, or modulus of the complex number z.
A complex number z written in rectangular and polar form are related in the following way:
z 5 x 1 jy 5 |z| /
_θ_
x 5 |z| cos θ     y 5 |z| sin θ
and
y
|z| 5  x2 1   θ
y2 5 tan21 —
x
y defines the angle whose
where the function tan21 is referred to as inverse tangent, and tan21 —
y. x
tangent is —
x
z 5 x 1 jy 5 |z| /
_θ_
y
|z| 5 
x2 1   θ
y2 5 tan21 —
x
Most engineering calculators have built-in functions for these relationships. Note that the mag-
nitude of the complex number z, |z|, is the distance from the origin to the point z in the complex
plane. Figure 3-9a provides additional examples.

j or Imaginary axis

z 5 1 1 j1 5 |z| /_θ_ 5 
2 /_45
__

jy 5 j1 |z|

θ
Real axis
x51

Figure 3-9a. Complex Number z 5 1 1 j1 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms.

Example 14:
Write the imaginary number z 5 j in polar form.
Solution:
Since z 5 j 5  21 5 0 1 j1, then |z| 5  12) 5 1. What is the angle θ?
(02 1
It is the inverse tangent of the imaginary part divided by the real part of z. That is,
θ 5 tan21 (1/0). What angle does θ make with the positive real axis? What is the angle from the
positive real axis to the positive imaginary axis? We must move through the angle of 90°. Thus,
z 5 j 5  21 5 0 1 j1 5 1 / _90°.
___

j or Imaginary axis

z 5 0 1 j1 5 |z| /_θ_ 5 1 /_90°

__
jy 5 j1

θ
Real axis
x50

Figure 3-9b. A Complex Number z 5 j Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms.

 48 Example 15:
Write the imaginary number z 5 21 in polar form.
Solution:
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Since z 5 21 5 21 1 j0, then |z| 5  [(21)2

02] 5 1. What is the angle θ? It is the inverse
1
tangent of the imaginary part divided by the real part of z. That is, θ 5 tan21 (0/21). What
angle does θ make with the positive real axis? What is the angle from the positive real axis
to the negative real axis? We must move through the angle of 6180°. Thus,
z 5 21 5 21 1 j0 5 1 / ______. There are two ways to get from the positive real axis to the
_6180°
negative real axis. One way is 180° in the counter-clockwise direction. Similarly, and just as
correct, is 180° in the clockwise direction. This is why 6180° is used. (See Figure 3-9c.)

j or Imaginary axis

z 5 21 1 j0 5 |z| /_θ_ 5 1 /_6180°

_____
jy 5 j0
θ 5 1180°

Real axis

x 5 21 θ 5 2180°

Figure 3-9c. Complex Number z 5 21 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms.

Example 16:
Write the imaginary number z 5 1 in polar form.
Solution:
Since z 5 1 5 1 1 j0, then |z| 5  [(1)2
1 0
2
] 5 1. What is the angle θ? It is the inverse
tangent of the imaginary part divided by the real part of z. That is, θ 5 tan21 (0/1). What angle
does θ make with the positive real axis? What is the angle from the positive real axis to the
positive real axis? We must move through the angle of 0°. Thus, z 5 1 5 1 1 j0 5 1 / _0°.
__
(See Figure 3-9d.)

j or Imaginary axis

z 5 1 1 j0 5 |z| /_θ_ 5 1 /_0°

_

jy 5 j0

θ 5 0°
Real axis
x51

Figure 3-9d. Complex Number z 5 1 Represented in Rectangular and Polar Forms.

Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Polar Form 49
Multiplication and division of complex numbers is easier when both are written in polar form. To
multiply two complex numbers, multiply their magnitudes (absolute values) and add their angles. If
there are two complex numbers, z1 5 |z1| /
_θ_1 and z2 5 |z2|/

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

_θ_2, then

z1z2 5 |z1||z2|/
_(θ1 1 θ2)
Example 17:
Let z1 5 2 1 j3 and z2 5 24 2 j5. Find the product z1z2.
Solution:
Convert z1 and z2 to polar form.
|z1| 5  
(22 1
32) 5 
13  3.61
The angle of z1 is θ1 5 tan21 (3/2) 5 56.3°. |z2| 5  2(25
[(24) 
1 )2] 5 41  6.40.
The angle of z2 is θ2 5 tan ( /24) 5 231.3°.
21 25

z1z2 5 |z1||z2| /_θ_1 1 /

_θ_2 5 (3.61)(6.40) /
_56.3° 1 231.30 5 23.10 /
____ _______ 5 7 2 j22
287.6°

When finding the arc-tangent or inverse tangent of an angle (i.e., tan21θ), most calculators will
return a “principal” angle between 290° and 190°. Thus, as long as a complex number is in quad-
rant I or IV, no adjustment is ever necessary. However, if the complex number is in quadrants II or III,
the 180° adjustment may be necessary.
For instance, in the above example, the use of a calculator in determining the angle θ2 will result
in θ2 5 51.3°. However, the complex number z2 is in quadrant III. When x , 0 and y , 0, the num-
ber is in quadrant III and the angle must lie between 180° and 270°. To determine the correct angle
in quadrant III from the angle the calculator returned, add 180°. Thus, 51.3° 1 180° 5 231.3°.

Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Dividing two complex numbers requires dividing the magnitudes (absolute values) and subtracting the
angles. If there are two complex numbers, z1 5 |z1| /
_θ_1 and z2 5 |z2| /
_θ_2, then
z1 |z1|
—— 5 ——— /_(θ1 2 θ2)
z2 |z2|

Example 18:
Let z1 5 2 1 j3 and z2 5 24 2 j5. Find z1/z2.
Solution:
First convert from rectangular to polar:
13
z1 5  32 /
22 1  _ta
__n_2_— 5 3.61 /
_56.
_____
3°
2
1 24
z2 5 
(24)
2
(25
1 )
2
/_t_a_n_2_——
25
5 6.40 /
_23
_____
1.
_3
z1 3.61
—— 5 ———
z2 6.40
/_(56.3° 2 231.3°) 5 0.56 /_2____ 5 20.56 2 j0.05
_175°

Note that this is the same result as obtained in Example 13. The answer for both examples is the
same, but the calculation in polar coordinates is much easier to perform.
 50 Example 19:
Let z1 5 2 2 j6 and z2 5 5 /30°. Find z1z2.
____
Solution:
Handbook for Electricity Metering

When multiplying or dividing two complex numbers, both of them should be in polar form. In
this example, the first number is not in polar form but the second is. First, convert z1 to polar
form.
z1 5 6.32 /_271.5
_____ ° or 6.32 /
___ _288.4°
____
Both are correct. Next, multiply the magnitudes and add the phase angles.
z1z2 5 (6.32)(5) /
_(288.44° 1 30°) 5 31.62 /
_318.4
___
______
3° (or 241.6°) 5 23.66 2j20.98
Example 20:
What is z1/z2?
Solution:
Divide the magnitudes and subtract the phase angles. Then,
z1/z2 5 (6.32)/(5) /_(288.4° 2 30°) 5 1.26 /
_258.4
___
__
____
°
Example 21:
Given three complex numbers, z1 5 6 2 j2, z2 5 7/___ and z3 5 10 /
_15°, _2.2°.
___
(a) Find |z1z2|.
Solution:
|z1z2| 5 |(6 2 j2)(7/___ 5 |(6.32 /
_15°)| ______)(7/
_218.4° _15°)|
___ 5
|(6.32)(7)|/
_(218.4 1 15)5 44.2 /
_23.
___4
__

(b) Find z2*.

Solution:
z2* 5 (7/___ 5 (6.76 1 j1.81)* 5 6.76 2 j1.81 5 7/
_15°)* _215°
_____

To determine whether or not it is by accident that z2 5 7/ ___ and z2* 5 7/

_15° _215°
_____, refer to
­Figure 3-8. If a vector is plotted from the origin to z and another vector from the origin to z*,
the relationship between the angles of z and z* when written in polar form is clear. In polar
form, z 5 |z| / _θ_ and z* 5 |z| / _2θ
___ . The angles differ only in sign.
(c) Evaluate z1/(z2 2 z3).
Solution:
Convert the numerator (i.e., the top) and the denominator (i.e., the bottom) to polar form.
First, convert the numerator from rectangular to polar form. Then, convert the complex numbers
in the denominator to rectangular form. Perform the subtraction in the denominator. Convert
the denominator from rectangular form to polar form. Lastly, perform the division with the
numerator and denominator in polar form.
z1/(z2 2 z3) 5 (6.32 /______°)/[(6.76 1 j1.81) 2 (9.99 1 j0.38)] 5
_218.4
(6.32 / ______°)/(23.23 1 j1.43) 5 (6.32 /
_218.4 ______°)/(3.53 /
_218.4 _156.2
______
°) 5
1.79 /_______° 5 21.78 2 j0.17
_2174.6
Example 22:
What is the conjugate of z 5 8 /
_248°
_____?
Solution:
From (b) above: z* 5 8 /
____
48°.

When adding or subtracting complex numbers, the rectangular form should be used because the
real and imaginary parts can be added and subtracted separately. When multiplying or dividing com-
plex numbers, the polar form should be used because the magnitudes are multiplied or divided and
the angles are added or subtracted.
 To understand and analyze alternating current circuits, it is mandatory to master the mathematics 51
of complex numbers. When analyzing these circuits, the various techniques require changes between
rectangular and polar format. Tables 3-1 and 3-2 provide examples of how the mathematics of this
chapter relate to the representation of electrical components and circuit variables. The analysis of

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

electrical circuits is reviewed in greater detail and is the topic of Chapter 4.

Basic Computations Used in Metering

Before presenting typical metering computations, the following definitions should be reviewed.
• The percent registration of a meter is the ratio, expressed as a percent, of the registration in a
given time to the true kilowatthours.
• The percent error of a meter is the difference between its percent registration and one hundred
percent.
• The correction factor is the number by which the registered kilowatthours must be multiplied to
obtain the true kilowatthours.
Table 3-3 illustrates the numerical relationships of these quantities.

Calculating Percent Registration Using A Rotating Standard

When no correction is to be applied to the rotating standard readings, the percent registration of the
watthour meter under test is calculated as follows:
kh 3 r 3 100
Percent registration 5 ——————————
Kh 3 R
The procedure may be simplified by introducing an additional symbol Ro, where Ro is the number
of revolutions the standard should make when the meter under test is correct. The values of Ro may be
given to metering personnel in tabular form.
The number of revolutions of two watthour meters on a given load vary inversely with their disk
constants.
Ro kh kh 3 r
—— 5 —— Ro 5 ——————
r Kh Kh
Substituting Ro in the equation for percent registration:
Ro
Percent registration 5 ——— 3 100
R
Example 23:
The watthour meter under test and the standard have the following constants:
Meter kh 5 7.2
Standard Kh 5 6 2/3
The number of revolutions of the meter under test, r, equals 10.
Then
7.2 3 10
Ro 5 ——————— 5 10.80 revolutions
62/3
For ten revolutions of the meter under test, the standard should make 10.80 revolutions. If the
standard actually registered 10.87 revolutions, then:

10.80
Percent registration 5 ————— 3 100 5 99.4%
10.87
It is frequently easier to mentally calculate the percent error of the meter and then to add it
algebraically to 100% to determine the percent registration of the meter.

Ro 2 R
Percent error 5 —————— 3 100
R
 52 Using the same values as in the preceding example, then,
10.80210.87
Percent error 5 —————————— 3 100 5 20.6%, and
10.87
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Percent registration 5 100.0 2 0.6 5 99.4%

When a correction is to be applied to the readings of the standard, the percent registration is
calculated as follows:
If A 5 percent registration of the standard, then
kh 3 r 3 A
Percent meter registration 5 —————————
Kh 3 R
Using the same values as in the preceding examples, and assuming the percent registration of the
standard is 99.5%, then
7.2 3 10 3 99.5
Percent meter registration 5 ————————————— 5 98.9%
20/3 3 10.87

The percent error of the rotating standard is calculated and applied to the indicated percent of
meter registration to determine the true percent meter registration.
Percent meter registration 5 indicated percent meter registration 1 percent standard error. The
percent standard error is added to the apparent percent registration of the meter under test if the
percent standard error is positive and subtracted if negative. Then, for this example,
Percent standard error 5 99.5% 2 100% 5 20.5%
Referring to computations made earlier, if a rotating standard with a 20.5% error is used, then
percent registration of the meter is 99.4% 2 0.5% 5 98.9%. Use this method when the percent error
does not exceed 3%.

Calculating Percent Registration Using Indicating Instruments

kh 3 r 3 3,600 3 100
Percent registration 5 —————————————————
P3s
Where P 5 true watts (corrected readings of instruments)
kh 5 watthour constant of self-contained watthour meter
r 5 number of revolutions of meter disk
s 5 time in seconds for r revolutions
Example 24:
Let P 5 7,200
kh 5 7.2
r 5 10
s 5 36.23

Table 3-3. Relationship of Registration, Percent Error, and Correction Factor.

Percent Registration Percent Error Correction Factor

100.4 10.4 0.996

100.2 10.2 0.998
100.0 0.0 1.000
99.8 20.2 1.002
99.6 20.4 1.004
 7.2 3 10 3 3,600 3 100
Percent registration 5 —————————————————— 5 99.4%
53
7,200 3 36.23
The seconds for 100% accuracy (Ss) may be determined from:

MATHEMATICS FOR METERING (A BRIEF REVIEW)

3,600 3 r 3 kh
Ss 5 ————————————
P
For 100% accuracy,
3,600 3 10 3 7.2
Ss 5 ——————————————— 5 36.00 and
7,200
Ss 3 100
Since percent registration 5 ———————
s

36.00 3 100
Percent registration 5 —————————— 5 99.4%
36.23
The correction for instrument error may be applied similarly to the correction for rotating stan-
dards, where P equals the observed reading of the wattmeter.
Assume the observed reading of a wattmeter is 7,200 watts and true watts are 7,236. Then the
wattmeter indicates:
7,200
————— 5 99.5% of true watts.
7,236
This percent indication may be used for A in the formula:
kh 3 r 3 3,600 3 A
Percent registration 5 ————————————————
P3S

7.2 3 10 3 3,600 3 99.5

Percent registration 5 ——————————————————— 5 98.9%
7,200 3 36.23

If the preceding meter had been a direct-current meter, the test could have been made with a
voltmeter and ammeter.
Assume an observed ammeter reading of 30 amperes and true current is 30.2 amperes. Then:
30
Percent indication 5 ———— 3 100 5 99.3%
30.2
Assume an observed voltmeter reading of a 240 volts, and true voltage is 239.5 volts. Then:
240
Percent indication 5 ————— 3 100 5 100.2%
239.5
Indicated watts 5 240 3 30 5 7,200 watts
Actual watts 5 239.5 3 30.2 5 7,233 watts
7,200
Percent indication 5 ————— 3 100 5 99.5%
7,233

Again, the 99.5% calculated could be used for A in the formula, the same as the 99.5% obtained
as the percent indication of the wattmeter.
In either case, the percent registration is the sum of the apparent percent indication and the
percent error. The percent registration 5 99.4% 1 (20.5%) 5 98.9%.
 54 Register Formulas and Their Applications
Rr 5 register ratio
Kh 5 watthour constant
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Rs 5 gear reduction between worm or spur gear on disk shaft and meshing gear wheel
of register
Kr 5 register constant
Rg 5 gear ratio 5 Rr 3 Rs
CTR 5 current transformer ratio
VTR 5 voltage transformer ratio
TR 5 transformer ratio (CTR 3 VTR)
PKh 5 primary watthour constant 5 Kh 3 TR
Example 25:
Self-contained meter, Kh 5 7.2, 100 teeth on first wheel or register, 1 pitch worm on shaft,
register constant 10.
To find the register ratio:
10,000 3 Kr 10,000 3 10
Rr 5 —————————— 5 —————————— 5 1388/9
Kh 3 Rs 3 TR 7.2 3 100 3 1
To check the register constant:

Kh 3 Rr 3 Rs 3 TR 7. 2 3 1388/9 3 10 0 3 1
Kr 5 —————————————— 5 ——————————————————— 5 10
10,000 10,000
To determine the gear reduction:
Rg 5 Rr 3 Rs
100 1,250
Rg 5 1388/9 3 ———— 5 ————— 3 100 5 13,8888/9
1 9
Example 26:
Transformer-rated meter installed with 400/5 (80/1) current transformer ratio (CTR), register
constant (Kr) 100, Kh 5 1.8, 100 teeth on first wheel, 2 pitch worm on shaft.
10,000 3 Kr 10,000 3 Kr 10,000 3 100
Rr 5 ————————— 5 ———————————— 5 —————————————— 5 1388/9
PKh 3 Rs (Kh 3 TR) 3 Rs 100
(1.8 3 80) 3 ———
2
PKh 3 Rr 3 Rs (Kh 3 TR) 3 Rr 3 Rs
Kr 5 ——————————— 5 ————————————————
10,000 10,000
100
(1.8 3 80) 3 1388/9 3 ———
2 5 100
5 —————————————————————
10,000
100 1,250
Rg 5 1388/9 3 ———— 5 ————— 3 50 5 6,9444/9
2 9
Example 27:
Transformer-rated meter installed with 50/5 (10/1) CTR, 14,400/120 (120/1) voltage trans-
former ratio (VTR), register constant (Kr) 1,000, Kh 5 0.6, and 100 teeth on first wheel, with
1 pitch worm on shaft.
10,000 3 1,000
Rr 5 ————————————————— 5 1388/9
0.6 3 10 3 120 3 100
0.6 3 10 3 120 3 1388/9 3 100
Kr 5 ———————————————————————— 5 1,000
10,000
1,250
Rg 5 1388/9 3 100 5 ————— 3 100 5 13,8888/9
9
 Chapter 4

Electrical Circuits

Direct Current
Introduction To Direct current Electric Circuits
DIRECT CURRENT (DC) electric circuits are those where the applied voltage and current do not
change with time; they are constant or fixed values. An example of a DC electric circuit is one which
contains a battery and other passive components. Examples include flashlights and the starting circuits
on cars.
Direct current distribution systems do not exist in the United States. However, high-voltage DC
(HVDC) transmission systems do exist; the Pacific Intertie (i.e., the DC transmission line between the
Pacific Northwest and California) and the multiple connections between Texas and the remainder of
the United States are examples. However, it is important to understand DC electric circuits as direct
current circuit analysis techniques are basic to all types of electric circuit problems. The methods for
DC electric circuits can be directly applied to alternating current (AC) electric circuits.

Physical Basis For Circuit Theory

Electric circuit theory consists of taking real-world electrical systems, modeling them using mathemat-
ics, solving for the unknown variables using existing laws, and then analyzing the results to determine
whether or not they are consistent with the original physical problem. In almost all cases, voltages and
currents are the unknown variables of interest. Once all voltages and currents in an electric circuit
are known, other information can be calculated, such as instantaneous power, energy, active power,
reactive power, apparent power, and complex power.
Current is the movement of charges with respect to time. Current is charges in motion, like water
flowing through a pipe, while voltage is the work done by the electrical system in moving charges from
one point to another in a circuit divided by the amount of charge. It is the force acting on the charges
along a length of a conductor and is sometimes referred to as the electromotive force (emf). This
process is similar to the pressure required to deliver water from a water tower to a home faucet.

RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW AS APPLIED TO DC CIRCUITS

When water flows through a pipe, there is friction, or resistance, to the water flow by the water pipe
surfaces. The same occurs as electrons attempt to flow through a conductor. Ohm’s Law states that the
current flowing in a DC circuit is directly proportional to the total voltage applied to the circuit and
inversely proportional to the total circuit resistance.

55
 56 V Volts
I 5 — 5 ———— 5 Amperes (A)
R Ohms
V Volts
Handbook for Electricity Metering

I 5 — 5 ——————— 5 Ohms ()

I Amperes
V  IR  Amperes  Ohms  Volts (V)
Example 1:
With a voltage (V) of 112 V across a resistance of 8 , what current would flow?
Solution:
The voltage V and resistance R are given. We wish to solve for the current I. Using the first equa-
tion above, substitute the given values for V and R and solve for I.
V —
I— 11
—2—  14 A
R 8
Example 2:
What resistance is necessary to obtain a current of 14 A at an applied voltage of 112 V?
Solution:
The current I and voltage V are given. We wish to solve for the resistance R. Using the second
equation above, substitute the given values for I and V and solve for R.
R— V — 11—2
—8
I 14
Example 3:
What applied voltage is required to produce a flow of 14 A through a resistance of 8 ?
Solution:
The current I and resistance R are given. We wish to solve for the voltage V. Using the third
equation above, substitute the given values for I and R and solve for V.
V  14  8  112 V
The resistance of a piece of conductor is dependent on its diameter, length, and material. Conduc-
tor materials each have a physical property called resistivity. Copper is a better conductor than alu-
minum because it has a lower resistivity. For many types of conductors, the resistivity is substantially
constant with current, so the current increases in direct proportion to the voltage applied across the
conductor.
Example 4:
The resistance of a copper wire one foot long and one circular mil (cmil) in cross-section is
10.371  at 20°C (National Bureau of Standards). The value of 10.4  is used for practical
calculations.
The resistance, R, is equal to the length of the conductor multiplied by 10.4 and divided by the
cross-sectional area
2    10.4
R  ———————————————— 
A
where the term  indicates the length of the circuit in feet and A is the cross-­sectional area with
units of cmil. The number of feet of wire in the circuit is double to account for the return.
What would be the voltage drop in a circuit of #12 conductor carrying 20 A for a distance of 50
feet be, knowing that the cross-sectional area of #12 copper wire is always 6530 circular mils, or
6.53 kcmils? Using Ohm’s Law,
2  50  10.4
V  IR  20  ———————————  3.18 V
6530
or approximately 2.65% on a 120 volt circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law 57
For current to flow, there must be a closed path or circuit. A simple circuit can be used to illustrate
this principle. In the flashlight circuit shown in Figure 4-1, the current passes from the positive

Electrical Circuits
terminal of the battery, moves through the wires to the lamp, and then back to the negative post of
the battery. The current measurement at the positive terminal of the battery is equal to the current
measurement at the negative post. In other words, there is no current lost in the circuit. G. R. Kirch-
hoff (1824–87), a German physicist, discovered this principle in the late 1800s.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) can be stated in three ways:
1. The sum of the currents leaving a junction of conductors is zero at all times.
2. The sum of the currents entering a junction of conductors is zero at all times.
3. The sum of the currents entering a junction of conductors is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the junction of conductors.
If this were not so, current would col-
lect at the junction. In the flashlight circuit
shown in Figure 4-1, it is obvious that the
current flowing into the junction of the
wire and lamp terminal are equal.
This simple circuit is fairly obvious.
However, this principle provides a way to
analyze more complicated circuits. In Fig-
ure 4-2, two more lights have been added
to the circuit that was shown in Figure 4-1.
There are two junctions of conductors or
nodes. If a negative value is arbitrarily
assigned to current flowing into a node
and a positive value to current flowing out Figure 4-1. Flashlight Circuit.
from the node, the following equation can
be written:
2I1  I2  I3  I4  0
This principle can be used to solve complex circuits.

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

As in the analogy of water flowing through a pipe, work is required to move charges around a circuit.
The work is measured as a potential (voltage) difference between Points A and B in a circuit. Kirch-
hoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed loop is equal

NODE 1

NODE 2

Figure 4-2. Multiple Light Circuit.

 58 to zero. If this were not so, a single point
on a circuit could be at two different volt-
ages at the same time relative to the same
fixed reference point.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

The sum of the voltages around a

circuit is equal to the supply voltage. Figure
4-3 shows that when there is only one load
on the circuit, all of the supply voltage is
“dropped” across the light.

VLamp  VSource
Figure 4-3. Flashlight Circuit. Subtracting VLamp from both sides yields:

0  VSource  VLamp
The work generated by the batteries is equal to the light and heat emanated from the light bulb,
and is necessary to sustain the current flow in the circuit. Another way to represent the light bulb is
by showing it as a resistance to the work that the battery wants to do. The circuit can then be redrawn
in figurative terms, as in Figure 4-4.
0  VSource  VLamp
Using Ohm’s Law, the current can be determined in the circuit.
VSource  ILamp  RLamp  VLamp

Substituting: 3V  0.5 A
3 V  I  6  ➞ I  Lamp
—— Lamp 6 

Example 5:
Determine the current and voltages IS, IX, IY, V1, V2, and V3 for the circuit shown in Figure 4-5.
Solution:
Step 1: Arbitrarily assign directions for the currents in the circuit. In this case, IS is coming
into Node 1, while IX and IY are assumed out of Node 1.
Step 2: Assign voltage polarity markings (i.e., , ) to each circuit element which is not a
voltage source. Voltage sources have their own polarity markings. Note that the passive
sign convention states that current always enters the positive terminal of a circuit
element.

RLamp 5 6 

VSource 5 3 V

Figure 4-4. Flashlight Circuit Schematic.

 Step 3: Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, the number of possible closed circuits or loops is 59
found to be three. These are illustrated in Figure 4-5. However, any two of these three
loops are sufficient to solve this circuit. The following equations can be written for
Loop 1 and Loop 2, respectively:

Electrical Circuits
0   VS  V1  V2  V3 and 0   V4  VS
or
VS  V1  V2  V3 and VS  V4

Step 4: Apply Ohm’s Law:

VS  R1IY  R2IY  R3IY and VS  V4  R4  IX

Since each equation has a single unknown, it is possible to solve for the unknown
currents IX and IY.
VS 12
IX  ——  ——  2 A
R4 6
VS  R1IY  R2IY  R3IY  (R1  R2  R3) IY
VS 12 12
IY  ———————————  —–——————  ——  2 A
(R1  R2  R3) 123 6

Step 5: Knowing two of the three currents at Node 1 leaves only one unknown, IS. Kirchhoff’s
Current Law can now be applied:
0  IS  IX  IY or IS  IX  IY
Substituting and solving for IS:
IS  2  2  4 A

Step 6: Solve for the voltage drops V1, V2, and V3 by using Ohm’s Law.
VS  R1  IY  1  2  2 V
V2  R2  IY  2  2  4 V
V3  R3  IY  3  2  6 V
Resistances in a DC circuit can be connected in series, in parallel, in series-parallel, or as a net-
work of series and parallel circuits. In all cases, the equivalent resistance, REQ, seen by the source, is
the total effect of all the resistances in a circuit opposing the source current flow.

R1 5 1 
R2 5 2 
R3 5 3 
R4 5 6 

Vs 5 12 V

Figure 4-5. Schematic.

 60 RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN SERIES
When resistances are connected in series, the following rules apply:
Rule 1. The current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Rule 2. The input or source voltage to a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltage drops
across all resistances in the circuit by KVL.
Rule 3. Since resistances in series are added, in a series circuit the equivalent resistance is equal
to the sum of the individual resistances.
Use Ohm’s Law to identify whether or not two resistors are “in series.” A resistor is a two-terminal
electric circuit component, so its behavior is modeled by and subject to Ohm’s Law. If two resistors are
in series, they will share only one of their terminals, and no other conductors will exist at that junc-
tion (Figure 4-6).
A series circuit consisting of three resistors is shown in Figure 4-7. Per Rule 1, the current I
through the voltage source and three resistors will be the same. Per Rule 2, the total voltage drops
across the 10, 20, and 30  resistors must equal the source voltage. Per Rule 3, the three series resis-
tors can be replaced with one resistor having a value equal to their sum.
Example 5:
Step 1. Find the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit.
REQ  RTOTAL  R1  R2  R3
REQ  10  20  30  60 

Step 2. Use Ohm’s Law to find the current I passing through all circuit elements.
VS 120
I  ———  ———  2 A
REQ 60

 5
R1 R2 REQ 5 R1 1 R2

No other conductor connected here

Figure 4-6. Identifying if Two Resistors Are “In Series.”

Figure 4-7. Resistors Connected in Series.

 Step 3. Use Ohm’s Law to find the voltage drop across each resistor and then verify that the 61
sum of all voltage drops equals the source voltage.
VR  IR1  (2)(10)  20 V

Electrical Circuits
VR  IR2  (2)(20)  40 V
VR  IR3  (2)(30)  60 V
VS  VR  VR  VR  20 V  40 V  60 V  120 V

RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

When resistances are connected in parallel:
1. The voltage drop across all resistors is the same.
2. The total current supplied by the source in a parallel circuit is the sum of the currents through
all of the branches, per KCL.
3. The equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than that of the smallest resistive
branch.
4. The equivalent resistance of resistors connected in parallel equals one divided by the sum of the
conductances connected in parallel.
1 1 1
REQ  ———  —————————————————  ——————————————————
GEQ 1 —
— 1 —1 ••• —
1 G1 G2  G3 ••• GN
R1 R 2 R 3 RN
5. Conductance is a measure of how easily a current will flow through a conductor or component,
and is the reciprocal of resistance. Conductance is one divided by the resistance. If the
resistance is 10 , the conductance is 1/10 mho. (Mho is Ohm spelled backwards; one
Mho  1 21  1 Siemen.)
6. Another method for computing the equivalent resistance of a circuit composed of many parallel
branches is to calculate the current through each branch, add the currents, and determine the
equivalent resistance by using Ohm’s Law.
If two resistors are in parallel, they both will share the same terminals.

R1 R2 5

R1 3 R2
REQ  ————  R1 || R2
R1 1 R2

Above, R1 || R2 is read as “R1 is in parallel with R2”

The lights of a travel trailer electrical circuit are connected in parallel. The current at the circuit
breaker panel is the sum of the currents through the lamps. Each lamp on the circuit has the same
voltage impressed on it, nominally 12 volts. A parallel circuit consisting of three resistors connected in
parallel to model three different lamps is shown in Figure 4-8.
Example 6:
Step 1. Find the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit.
1 1
REQ  ——————————  ——————————— 
1 —
— 1 —1 1—  —
— 1—  —
1—
R1 R2 R3 10 20 60
 62
Handbook for Electricity Metering

R1 5 10 
R2 5 20 
R3 5 60 

Vs 5 120 V

Figure 4-8. Resistors Connected in Parallel.

Find the common denominator for the fractions in REQ. Since 60 is divisible by 20 and 10, the
common denominator is 60. The above equation becomes
1 1 60
REQ  ———————————   ——  ——  6 
1 3 6
——  ——  —— 10
—— 10
60 60 60 60
Step 2. Use Ohm’s Law to find the current I supplying the one equivalent resistor.
VS 12
I  ——— 5 —— 5 2 A
REQ 6

Step 3. Use Ohm’s Law to find the current through each resistor and then verify that the sum
of all currents equals the total in Step 2.
VS 12
IR1  ——— 5 —— 5 1.2 A
R1 10
VS 12
IR2  ——— 5 —— 5 .6 A
R2 20
VS 12
IR  ——— 5 —— 5 .2 A
R3 60
I  IR1  IR2  IR3  1.2 A  .6 A  .2 A  2.0 A

RESISTANCES IN SERIES–PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series–parallel circuit consisting of two parallel branches and two series resistors is shown in
Figure 4-9a.

Figure 4-9a. Circuit Connected in Series Parallel.

Example 7: 63
Step 1. Find the equivalent resistance for the two parallel resistors between B–C and D–E of
the original circuit. For the BC circuit:

Electrical Circuits
1 1 1 5
REQ,BC  ——————  —————  —  — 5 2.5 
2
——  —1—
1 1
—1 —1 2
—
R2 R3 5 5 5
The equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel having the same value will always equal
one-half their original value. For the DE circuit:
1 1 1 1
REQ,DE  ——————  ——————  ——————  —— 5 5 
——  —1—
1 1 1
— 1 —— 5 1
—— 1 —— 6
——
R4 R5 6 30 30 30 30
The original circuit in Figure 4-9a is equivalent to Figure 4-9b, which contains resistances in
series.
Step 2. Find the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit in Figure 4-9b.
REQ  RTOTAL  R1  REQ,BC  REQ,DE  R6
REQ  10   2.5   5   20   37.5 

Step 3. Use Ohm’s Law to find the current I passing through all circuit elements.
VS 120
I  ——— 5 ——— 5 3.2 A
REQ 37.5

Step 4. Use Ohm’s Law to find the voltage drop across each resistor and then verify that the
sum of all voltage drops equals the source voltage.
VR  IR1  (3.2)(10)  32 V
VREQ,BC  IREQ,BC  (3.2)(2.5)  8 V
VREQ,DE  IREQ,DE  (3.2)(5)  16 V
VR  IR6  (3.2)(20)  64 V
VS  VR1  VREQ,BC  VREQ,DE  VR6  32 V  8 V  16 V  64 V  120 V

The equivalent resistance of a series–parallel circuit equals the equivalent resistances of each
group or branch of parallel resistances, added to the resistances connected in series. Determining the
equivalent resistance of a series–parallel circuit can be simplified if, by inspection, it can be determined
which resistances are connected in parallel and which resistances are connected in series.

POWER AND ENERGY IN DC CIRCUITS

Voltage is the total work necessary to move the total charge around a circuit or the work per charge,
and current is electron flow or the time rate of change of charges. Power is work done per unit time,
or the rate of energy exchange in an electric circuit.

Figure 4-9b. Circuit Redrawn as a Series Circuit.

 64 Work Charge Work
Power, P (Watts)  V (Volts)  I (Amperes)  —————  —————  —————
Charge Time Time
For elements in an electric circuit, power can either be used (dissipated, absorbed) or generated
Handbook for Electricity Metering

(produced). If voltage across a circuit component and the current through that element are known,
the power into or out of that component is determined by multiplying voltage and current.
Using Ohm’s Law, substitute for voltage, V  IR, or current, I  V/R, to get the following
formulas:
P  I2  R  ——V2
R
Power is measured in watts or kilowatts (kW); one kilowatt equals 1000 watts. Energy is defined as
work done or power used over time.
Work
Energy, E (Joules)  —————  Time  P  T  Work
Time

This is expressed as watthours (Wh) or kilowatthours (kWh), which is 1000 Wh.

Example 8:
Again referring to Figure 4-5, calculate the power dissipated in each of the loads.
Solution:
Substitute and apply Ohm’s Law:
P1  V1  IY ➞ P1  (R1  IY)  IY  IY  R1
P2  V2  IY ➞ P2  (R2  IY)  IY  IY  R2
P3  V3  IY ➞ P3  (R3  IY)  IY  IY  R3
P4  V4  IX ➞ P4  (R4  IX)  IX  IX  R4
For brevity, only the power dissipated in R1 will be calculated:
P1  IY2  R1  22  1  4 W

THREE-WIRE EDISON DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Thomas Edison discovered that if the positive conductor of one generator and the negative conductor
of another generator having an equal output voltage were combined, one conductor of the four from
the two generators could be eliminated between the station and the customer.
With balanced loads between the outside conductors and the common conductor, no current
flows in the common conductor (neutral), as shown in Figure 4-10a. If the loads are imbalanced, the
neutral will carry the amount of imbalanced current to or away from the generator, depending on
which side of the system is more heavily loaded. This is illustrated in Figures 4-10b and 4-10c.
When the neutral is carrying current due to an imbalanced load condition, the opening of the
neutral conductor results in a lower voltage across the larger load (lower resistive load) and a higher
voltage across the smaller load (higher resistive load). This condition is explained by the use of Ohm’s
Law in Figure 4-10d.
Figure 4-10d is the same as Figure 4-10c except that, in Figure 4-10d, the neutral is open and the
5  and 10  resistances are in series with 240 V across the line conductors.
The total current through 15  is:
V 240
I  ——  ———  16 A
R 15
The voltage from A to B  V1  I  RAB  16  5  80 V
The voltage from B to C  V2  I  RBC  16  10  160 V
 65

Electrical Circuits
Figure 4.10a. Edison System— Figure 4.10b. Edison System—
Currents and Voltages Balanced Current in Neutral Flowing from the
and Balanced Load. Generator with Imbalanced Load.

Figure 4.10c. Edison System— Figure 4.10d. Edison System—

Current in Neutral Flowing Toward Currents and Voltages, Imbalanced
the Generator with Imbalanced Load. System with Open Neutral.

Figure 4-10. Three-Wire Edison DC Distribution System.

SUMMARY OF DC CIRCUIT FORMULAS

The following formulas are useful in DC circuit calculations:
V5—
P 5 
P
Current: I— —
R V R

V V 2
P
Resistance: R— ——
I P I2
Voltage: VIR— P 5 P3  R
I
Power: P  V  I  I 2  R  ——V2
R
E  P  T  V  I  T  I2  R  T  V ——T
2
Energy:
R
where T is time and E is energy with units of joules or watthours.

Alternating Current Single-phase Circuits

INTRODUCTION TO Alternating current CIRCUITS
Although DC is necessary for some industrial purposes such as electrolytic processes, arc furnaces,
and for all digital logic circuits, practically all electric energy today is generated and transmitted as
alternating current (AC). Alternating current permits the use of static transformers by which voltages
can readily be raised or lowered, allowing the transmission of energy at high voltages and the usage of
energy at low voltages. Transformers operate on the principle of induction, transferring energy using
magnetic circuits and electric circuits.
In an AC circuit, voltage and current vary from instant to instant. Instantaneous power is still
calculated by the product of the voltage and current, but the voltage and current must be determined
for each instance in time. Although solid-state watthour meters work on this principle, it is not conve-
nient for circuit analysis. To understand what is occurring in an AC circuit, frequency, time relations,
and wave shapes must be studied.
 66 SINUSOIDAL FUNCTIONS
Sinusoidal functions can be either cosine or sine functions. Electrical engineers have adopted the
cosine function as the standard mathematical function for AC circuit analysis. If a sine wave is given,
Handbook for Electricity Metering

subtract 90° from the angle to convert it to a cosine function. In AC electric circuits, voltages and
currents are no longer fixed, constant values of time v(t)  V and i(t)  I. They instead take on a
specific form where the functions change value as a function of time (t).
v(t)  Vp cos(2ft  v) V
i(t)  Ip cos(2ft  i) A
Sinusoidal time-domain functions are completely described by their peak amplitude, frequency,
and phase angle. The peak value, magnitude, or amplitude of the voltage and current are Vp and Ip,
respectively. If the magnitude of the sinusoidal function is negative, it is made positive by adding or
subtracting 180° from the cosine function’s argument (the argument appears in the parentheses in
the two equations above).
The sinusoids repeat with a period T (in seconds), which determines their fundamental frequency
f. The phase angles v and  i allow the sinusoidal functions to shift left and right along the time axis.
The phase is related to an arbitrary time reference when using a mathematical description, but with
AC circuits, what is of interest are the relative phases of the various sinusoidal voltages and currents,
which is often referenced to a particular voltage.
Example 9:
A sinusoidal function repeats itself every 21.6 milliseconds (ms). Its peak-to-peak value is
20 milliamps (mA). The waveform does not have a shift associated with it. Express this sinusoid
in the standard form.
Solution:
The period, T, is given as 21.6 ms. Since f  1/T, the frequency of the sinusoid is
1
/21.6  103  46.3 hertz (Hz). The peak value of the sinusoidal function is one-half
the given peak-to-peak value, or 20 mA/2  10 mA. The phase angle is given as 0°.
Thus, i(t)  10 cos(246.3t  0°) mA.

FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY
A cycle consists of one complete pattern of change of the AC wave, which is the period from any
point on an AC wave to the next point of the same magnitude and location at which the wave pattern
begins to repeat itself. See Figure 4-11.
If the usual alternating voltage or current is plotted against time, it produces the curve in Fig-
ure 4-11. A single cycle covers a definite period of time and is completed in 360°. This period of time

Figure 4-11. Sine Wave Relationships.

may be expressed in terms of an angle,   2 ft radians. For t  T (one period or 360°), 67
  2 radians. Since 360°  2 radians, 180°  1 radians.
The number of cycles completed per second is the frequency of the waveform expressed in hertz.
Higher frequencies may be expressed in either kiloHertz (kHz) or megaHertz (MHz).

Electrical Circuits
The frequency in Hz is f  1/T. In the previous equations for v(t) and i(t),  can be substituted
for 2f, to obtain the angular frequency having units of radians per second. Since f  1/T, then
  2/T.
v(t)  Vp cos(t  v) V
i(t)  Ip cos(t   i) A
The mathematical argument of the cosine and sine functions should be expressed in radians or
degrees. However, the phase angle, v or  i, is usually expressed in degrees.
A sinusoidal voltage can be assigned a value in three ways:
1. By the maximum (Vmax) or peak value (Vp). This value is used in insulation stress calculations.
2. By the average value (Vavg), which is equal to the average value of v for the positive or negative
half of the cycle. This value is often used in rectification problems. The average value of a cosine
waveform over one period is zero—in one period, there is just as much area above the x-axis as
there is below.
3. By the root-mean-square (Vrms) or the effective value (Veff). The term Vrms is generally used.
In electricity, the effective value of an alternating current is that value of current which gives
the same heating effect in a given resistor as the same value of direct current. Unless another
description is specified, when alternating currents or voltages are mentioned, it is always the
root-mean-square (rms) value that is meant.

PHASORS
If two sine waves of the same frequency do not coincide with respect to time, they are said to be out
of phase with each other. In Figure 4-12, the current waveform, I, is ° out of phase with the voltage
waveform. As shown, it is behind or lagging the voltage waveform by the angle . It reaches its peak
value at ° after the voltage waveform reaches its peak. The trigonometric cosine of this angle between
the voltage and current is the displacement power factor of the circuit.

Displacement Power Factor  DPF  cos(v   i)  cos pf

Here, v and  i are the phase angles of the 60 Hz voltage and current waveforms, respectively. The
displacement power factor (DPF) should be identified as either leading or lagging. Current always lags
the voltage for an inductive load or circuit, while the current will always lead the voltage for a capaci-
tive load or circuit. A common mnemonic trick is the saying, “ELI the ICE man.” It says for an induc-
tor L, the voltage (i.e., E  emf  electromotive force) leads the current. Alternatively, it says that the
current lags behind the voltage. For a capacitor C, the current leads the voltage, which is the same as
saying the voltage lags behind the current. When v and  i are equal, the DPF  1.0, and the voltage
and current are “in phase.”

Table 4-1. Application Frequencies.

Application Frequency

Direct current 0 Hz
Standard AC power (Europe influenced parts of the world) 50 Hz
Standard AC power (USA influenced parts of the world) 60 Hz
Audio sound 16 to 16,000 Hz
AM radio broadcasts 535 to 1,605 kHz
FM radio broadcasts 88 to 108 MHz
Television (Channels 2–13) 55 to 216 MHz
Communication satellites 5 GHz
 68
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 4-12. Current Wave Lagging Voltage Wave.

Example 10:
Calculate the displacement power factor if the voltage v(t) and current i(t) are
v(t)  
2 226 cos(260t  0°) V
i(t)  
2 15.6 cos(260t 2 34.1°) A

Solution:
Take the phase angle of the voltage and subtract the phase angle of the current to obtain the
displacement power factor angle pf, 0° 2 (34.1°)  34.1°. The power factor is lagging.
Example 11:
The angle between the voltage v(t) and current i(t) is 25.5°. The voltage is leading the current.
What is the displacement power factor?
Solution:
The cosine of 25.5° is 0.903. Since the voltage is leading the current, or the current is behind
the voltage, then the displacement power factor is lagging.

The mathematical representation of electrical quantities by sinusoidal functions is unwieldy and

time consuming. The preferred method is to represent currents and voltages by phasor diagrams in

Figure 4-13. Voltage Phasor.

which rotating vectors are substituted for cosine waveforms. These rotating vectors, called phasors, are 69
drawn as vectors in the complex plane and considered to rotate in the counterclockwise direction one
complete revolution (360°), while the cosine wave passes through one cycle (360°). Thus, the phasors
are rotating at an angular frequency,   2f radians per second.

Electrical Circuits
The phasor’s length is defined either as the peak or rms value of the sine wave of the current or
voltage. The phase angle indicates the position of the phasor relative to a previously defined reference
phasor. The reference phasor is usually the phase A line-to-neutral voltage having an angle of 0°.
Since power equipment is normally specified by its rms quantities, all magnitudes are assumed to be
rms in the remainder of this chapter. As such, if v(t) or i(t) are given by their peak or maximum
amplitude, it will be necessary to convert them to their rms values by dividing by  2.
One method of phasor notation is I  Irms /__°, meaning the phasor I is at an angle of ° counter-
clockwise from the positive x-axis (Figure 4-14).
Example 12:
What are the phasors representing 6 cos(t  30°) and 5 sin(t  10°)?
Solution:
The first is 6/_30°
_____
_18__  6/____
__0° _ or 6/_210°
150° ____. The second must first be converted from a sine
function to a cosine function by subtracting 90°. Therefore, 5/_10°
_______ 90°  5/_100°
____ ______.
Example 13:
If the phasor VS  8.00 /_38.7°
______ V, what is vs(t)?
Solution:
The answer is vs(t)  8.00 cos(t  38.7°) V.

Phasors representing currents or voltages can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components
(Figure 4-14). Because phasors are complex numbers written in polar form, the methods presented in
Chapter 3 can be used to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

INDUCTANCE
Any conductor which is carrying current is cut by the flux of its own field when the current changes
in value. A voltage is thereby induced in the conductor, which, by Lenz’s Law, opposes the change in
current in the conductor. If the current is decreasing, the polarity of the induced voltage attempts to
maintain the current; if the current is increasing, the induced voltage tends to keep the current down.
The amount of induced voltage depends upon the change in the number of flux lines cutting the
conductor, which, in turn, depends upon the rate of change of current in the conductor. The propor-
tionality factor between the induced voltage and the rate of change of current is the inductance, L, of
the circuit.

Figure 4-14. Phasor Voltage Resolved into Components.

 70 By equipment design, the inductance of a circuit can generally be considered dependent on the
current magnitude in the circuit and on the physical characteristics of the circuit. A conductor in the
form of a coil cuts more flux lines and has a greater inductance than a straight conductor. Magnetic
material versus air in the flux path further concentrates the flux lines to the conductor, allowing the
Handbook for Electricity Metering

conductor to cut more flux lines, further increasing the inductance.

Inductance is expressed in henries (H). A more common unit is the milliHenry (mH), which is
one-thousandth of a henry.
In DC circuits, inductance has no effect except when current is changing. When, in a pure resis-
tive DC circuit (Figure 4-15), a voltage is impressed, the current instantly assumes its steady-state
value determined by (V/R).
If an inductance is inserted in series with the same resistor, the current does not instantly increase
to its steady-state value when the switch is closed. Instead, there is a time delay before the current
reaches the same steady-state value as before, as shown in Figure 4-16. The induced voltage in the
inductor opposing the rising current causes this effect.
The larger the value of the circuit inductance, the longer the time required for the current to reach
its steady-state value. However, once this value has been reached, the inductance has no further effect
and only the resistance limits the magnitude of circuit current.
With alternating current, the instantaneous current is always changing, so in an inductive circuit
the inductive effect is always present. For every quarter cycle of the line frequency, energy is being
stored to or released from the magnetic field.
Inductance has a very definite current-limiting effect on alternating current as contrasted with
steady-state direct current. This effect is directly proportional to the magnitude of the inductance L.
It is also proportional to the rate of change of current, which is a function of the frequency of the
supply voltage. The total opposing, or limiting effect, of inductance on current may be calculated by
the following equation and is called the inductive reactance:

Figure 4-15. Direct Current in a Resistance Circuit.

Figure 4-16. Direct Current in an Inductive Circuit.

 XL  2fL  L 71
where XL  inductive reactance in , f  frequency in Hz, and L  inductance in H.
In a purely inductive AC circuit, the maximum rate of change of current occurs when the cur-

Electrical Circuits
rent passes through zero. At this instant of zero magnitude but maximum change, there is maximum
induced voltage and the voltage wave is at its peak value. When the current reaches its peak value, the
rate of change of current is zero and the induced voltage is zero. As shown in Figure 4-17, the current
wave lags the voltage wave by 90°.
When two inductors are in series, they may be replaced by a single equivalent inductor so they
become similar to a resistor. When L1 is in series with L2, then LEQ  L1  L2. Similarly, inductors in
parallel add like resistors in parallel,
1 L1L2
LEQ  L1 || L2  —————  —————
1
— — 1 L 1  L2
L1 L2

CAPACITANCE
Electric current flow is generally considered to be a movement of negative charges, or electrons, in a
conductor. In conducting materials, some of the electrons are loosely attached to the atoms so that
when a voltage is applied to a closed circuit, these electrons are separated from the atoms and their
movement constitutes a current flow.
The electrons in an insulator are much more firmly bonded to the atoms than in they would
be in a conductor. When a voltage is applied to an insulator, the electrons seek to leave the atoms
but cannot do so. However, the electrons are displaced by an amount dependent upon the force
applied, which is the voltage difference. When voltage changes, the displacement also changes. When
this electron motion takes place, a displacement current flows through the dielectric and there is a
charging-current flow throughout the entire circuit.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 4-18a, which has a small insulating gap between the ends of
the wires. When the switch is closed, there is no continuous current flow in the circuit. However, for
a short time, a very small current may be measured with an extremely sensitive instrument. Elec-
trons move through the circuit to build up an electrical charge across the gap, which is equal to the
impressed voltage VS. Once the charge has been established there is no further electron movement.
If, instead of a small gap, the area is enlarged by connecting plates to each of the conductors, as
in Figure 4-18b, the current required to raise the charge to a given level is increased because a greater
movement of electrons is required. Such devices, consisting of large conducting areas separated by thin
insulating materials such as air, mica, glass, etc., are called capacitors. Any two conductors separated
by insulation constitute a capacitor, but normally the capacitance effect is negligible unless the com-
ponents and their arrangement have been specifically designed to provide capacitance.
The capacitance, C, is a function of the physical characteristics of the capacitor, such as the plate
area, the distance, and the type of insulation between the plates. Capacitance is expressed in Farads. A
more common, smaller unit is the microFarad (µF), which is one-millionth of a farad (F).

Figure 4-17. Phase Relationships in a Circuit of Pure Inductance.

 72
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 4-18. Capacitive Circuit.

Capacitors may be connected in parallel or in series. The total capacitance of capacitors connected
in parallel is the sum of the individual capacitances.
CEQ  C1  C2  C3
For a series connection, the net capacitance is found by a formula similar to that for parallel
resistances.
1 C1 C 2
CEQ  —————  ——————
1 —
— 1 C1  C2
C1 C2
In a DC circuit, current flows through a capacitor only when the voltage across it changes. In an
AC circuit, the voltage is continually changing and current flows through a capacitor as long as the
alternating voltage is applied. The current magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of voltage.
With a sinusoidal voltage, the maximum rate of change occurs when the voltage crosses zero, which is
the instant when the peak value of current occurs. When the voltage is at its peak, its rate of change
is zero and the current magnitude is zero. Therefore, there is a 90° phase displacement between cur-
rent and voltage in a capacitor. When the rate of change of voltage is positive, the current must be in
the positive direction to supply the increasing positive charge. Therefore, the current leads the voltage
in a capacitor, as shown in Figure 4-19.
The current-limiting effect of a capacitor, its reactance, is dependent on capacitance and fre-
quency. Charging current increases with increasing capacitance, so, with a given voltage, the reactance
must be inversely proportional to capacitance. Rate of change of voltage is proportional to frequency,
hence charging current is also proportional to frequency and reactance is inversely proportional.
Capacitive reactance may be calculated from the following equation:

Figure 4-19. Phase Relationship in a Circuit of Pure Capacitance.

 1 1
XC  ————  ——— 73
2fC C

where XC  capacitive reactance in , f  frequency in Hz, and C  capacitance in F.

Electrical Circuits
Capacitive reactance causes leading current and a leading power factor while inductive reactance
causes lagging current and a lagging power factor. Capacitors are often used to balance some of the
inductive reactance (e.g., motors and transformers) of a circuit and therefore to increase the circuit
power factor. They are also used to balance some of the inductive voltage drop in a circuit and there-
fore increase the available voltage.

RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW AS APPLIED TO AC CIRCUITS

Resistance in an AC circuit has the same effect as it has in a DC circuit. An AC current flowing
through a resistance results in a power loss in the resistor. This real power loss is expressed as I2rmsR.
With AC, a given resistor or coil may have a higher equivalent AC resistance than its DC resis-
tance due to the skin effect. The skin effect is a phenomenon whereby AC current wants to flow on
the surface (i.e., the outside) of the conductor rather than through the total cross-sectional area. As a
result, in general,
RAC  RDC
This is especially true in coils with magnetic cores. Here, there is not only a power loss in the
winding itself, but also a heat loss in the magnetic core caused by eddy currents. The total loss is
represented by I2rmsR, where R is now the equivalent AC resistance of the coil.
Ohm’s Law as applied to AC circuits is
V  ZI
where V and I are phasors, and Z is termed
the impedance as shown in Figure 4-20.

IMPEDANCE
In alternating currents, there are three
quantities that limit or impede the flow of
current: resistance, R; inductive reactance,
XL; and capacitive reactance, XC. Each of
these quantities is a specific part of a more
generic quantity called impedance. Imped-
ance, Z, is the ratio of the phasor voltage
divided by the phasor current through the
circuit of interest.
V Figure 4-20. Example Schematic.
Z—
I
Ohm’s Law restated for AC circuits is V  Z I. Note that Z is not a phasor. Since each variable in
the equation is a complex number, the following equations are true:
Vrms
|Z|  ——— and Z 5 pf 5  V 2  I
Irms
Because the impedance Z in AC circuits is like R in DC circuits, combining impedances in paral-
lel and impedances in series is identical to combining resistors in parallel and resistors in series. For
impedances in series
ZEQ  Z1  Z2  Z3 ••• ZN
and for impedances in parallel
1
ZEQ  ————————————————————
1 1
— — — 1 ••• —
1
Z1 Z 2 Z1 ZN
 74 The impedance associated with R, L, or C can be defined. The impedance of a resistor is:
VR
Z  ——  R  j0  R 
IR
Handbook for Electricity Metering

The impedance of an inductor is:

VL
Z  ——  jXL  XL / ___  jL  L /
_90° ___  j2fL  2fL /
_90° _90°
___ 
IL
_90°
In polar form j is 1 / ___ . The impedance of a capacitor is:
VC 1 1 1 1
ZC  ——  jXC  XC /___  j ——  —— /
_90° ___  j————  ———— /
_90° _90°
___ 
IC C C 2fC 2fC
By definition, XC is negative and 1  1 /_180°
______ in polar form.
Example 14:
Find the impedance of a 10 mH inductor at a frequency of 360 Hz.
Solution:
The impedance as given by one of the above equations is:
ZL  jXL  jL  j2  360  0.01  j22.6 
Example 15:
A simple series AC circuit consists of a 10 µF capacitor and a 500  resistor. What is the equiva-
lent impedance seen by the source in a 60 Hz system?
Solution:
Because the impedances are in series, add them together.
1
ZEQ  R  jXC  500  j————————————  500  j265 
260 (10  1026)
Example 16:
A load has a voltage of 10 cos(120t  12°) V and a current of 2.5 cos(120t  37°) A. What
is the reactance of the load?
Solution:
The reactance is the imaginary part of the impedance Z. Find Z.
V 10/_12°
___
Z  —  ———————  4/_49°
__  2.62  j3.02 
__
I 2.5/_37°
_____

The reactance of the load is the imaginary part of Z, or 3.02 .

In a series RLC circuit, the equivalent impedance, ZEQ, and its magnitude, |ZEQ|, as seen by the
source is:
ZEQ  R  j(XL  XC)
|ZEQ|  
R2 
(X 
L  XC)2
By definition, XC is a negative number.
Impedance may also be represented by impedance triangles (Figure 4–21).
From these triangles, other trigonometric relationships between Z, R, and X can be obtained. See
Table 4-2.
The various components of the impedance Z determine not only the amount of current flowing in
a circuit, but also the phase relationship between the voltage and the current: Z  pf  V  I.
If the circuit has only resistance, R, the current is in phase with the voltage and the circuit is said
to have a unity displacement power factor.
If the inductive reactance, XL, exceeds the capacitive reactance, |XC|, in a series circuit, the current
lags the voltage and the circuit has a lagging displacement power factor.
 75

Electrical Circuits
Figure 4-21. Impedance Triangles for a Series Circuit.

If the capacitive reactance, |XC|, exceeds the inductive reactance, XL, in a series circuit, the current
leads the voltage and the circuit has a leading displacement power factor.
If the inductive reactance, XL, and the capacitive reactance, |XC|, are equal in a series circuit, the
circuit is said to be in resonance, and the current flow is limited only by the resistance and the circuit
power factor is unity.

Table 4-2. Polar and Rectangular Representation of

Impedance of Circuit Elements.
 76 Table 4-3. Polar and Rectangular Representation.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

POWER AND ENERGY IN SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS

In sinusoidal AC circuits, the active, average, or real power is:

P  VrmsIrms cos(V  I)  VrmsIrms cos(Z)  VrmsIrms cos(pf)  VrmsIrms DPF

where cos Z  cos pf  cos(V  I) and is equal to the displacement power factor of the circuit. The
units of P are watts.
In sinusoidal AC circuits, the reactive or imaginary power represents the power that is circulating
every quarter cycle of the line frequency between the magnetic and electrical circuits of the system.
This power is not directly consumed, although it will lead to additional line and equipment losses. It is
calculated as:

Q  VrmsIrms sin(V  I)  VrmsIrms sin(Z)  VrmsIrms sin(pf)

The units of Q are voltamperes reactive (VAR). Note that Q does not exist at a given instance in
time, but represents the average instantaneous real power that is circulating in the system.
In sinusoidal AC circuits, the energy is:
E  PT
where T is time. Ohm’s Law and the power equations are combined to give the various formulas for
single-phase AC series circuits shown in Table 4-4.
In sinusoidal AC circuits, the power triangle is used to relate the active, real, or average power P,
and the reactive or imaginary power Q, to a third important term called the complex power S, having
units of voltamperes (VA). The complex power S is defined as:
S 5 P 1 jQ 5  P 2 1 Q
2
tan21 Q
/_____ —  5 |S| /__
 pf
P
in terms of the powers P and Q,
Vrms
2
and S  VI  I2rms Z  ———
Z
S  |S|/__ pf  |S|/____
V 2 I  |S|/__ Z  VrmsIrms/____
___ V 2 I  VrmsIrms/__ Z  VrmsIrms/__ pf
___
when written in terms of the voltage and current phasor magnitudes and phase angles. The magnitude
of the complex power S, |S|, is known as the apparent power and is VrmsIrms  
P2 
Q.
2
The units
Table 4-4. Polar and Rectangular Representation of 77
Currents in Parallel Circuits.

Electrical Circuits
are also VA. The apparent power is a measure of the operating limits in electrical equipment such as
transformers, motors, and generators.
The relationship between P, Q, and |S| is best shown by the power triangle, Figure 4-22.
Mathematically:
S  P  jQL for an inductive load having a lagging power factor
S  P  jQC for a capacitive load having a leading power factor
For the two cases above,
Vrms
2
QC  I2rms XC  ———
XC
Vrms
2
QL  Irms
2
XL  ———
XL
 78
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 4-22. Single-Phase Power Triangles.

When a circuit is capacitive (i.e., leading power factor), then Q is negative or less than zero since XC
is negative. When a circuit is inductive (i.e., lagging power factor), then Q is positive or greater than
zero. Using trigonometry, many other expressions can be written from Figure 4-22. For example, the
displacement power factor can be written as:

DPF  cos(V  I)  cos(Z)  cos(pf)  cos tan–1 Q P 5

—  5 —— P
————
P |S| VrmsIrms
For metering applications, the complex power S is not a measurable quantity; however, the newer
electronic meters can measure |S| directly. The reactive power, Q, can be approximated for sinusoidal
systems. In practice, measure |S| and P, and then compute Q.
Example 17:
A 230 V rms motor has a mechanical output power of three horsepower (hp). The input current,
voltage, and power are measured as 226 Vrms, 15.6 Arms, and 2920 W, respectively. Calculate
the efficiency, the power factor, and the reactive power.
Solution:
The measured apparent power is
|S|  Vrms Irms  (226)(15.6)  3530 VA

The measured power factor is DPF  P/|S|  2920/3530  0.828. Since the item is a
motor, assume lagging as opposed to leading. A DPF of 0.828 corresponds to a phase angle of
cos1(0.828)  34.1°. The reactive power can be calculated by rearranging the above formula for
the apparent power.
Q  
|S|2
2
P2   0)
(353
2
0
2 (292
)2  1980 VARs
The percent efficiency of a motor is
Poutput Poutput
 5 [ ———— ] 3 100 5 [ ————— ] 3 100
Pinput VrmsIrms

The motor has a mechanical output of 3 hp. Since there are 746 watts per hp, the power output of the
motor is 3  746 or 2,238 watts.
 Therefore, the efficiency, , of the motor is 79
2,238 watts
 ————————
2,920 watts
  100  76.6%

Electrical Circuits
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers operate on the principle of induction in which energy is transferred between electric and
magnetic circuits. Because energy is alternately stored to and delivered from these magnetic circuits,
current alternates and power circulates in the electrical circuits.
It is the influence of the magnetic circuit on the electric circuit with which it is associated that
causes the major differences between the AC circuit and the DC circuit.
Transformers are indispensable in AC power distribution systems. Their applications range from
power conversion to small transducer applications, and they utilize a mixture of magnetic and electri-
cal properties. A transformer requires alternating current to perform its function as a “transforming”
mechanism. It is primarily used to change voltage and current levels to values more usable or measur-
able. It typically consists of two windings or inductors that are magnetically coupled by a core of
magnetic material. The input winding or coil is called the “primary” and the output winding or coil is
called the “secondary.” The secondary usually delivers power to a load or a measurable quantity to a
metering or monitoring device.
The ideal transformer has no electric or magnetic losses of any kind. Figure 4-23 illustrates an
ideal two-winding, shell-type transformer. This device works only when AC voltage and current are
applied to the primary, and appears as a short circuit to DC voltage and current. This property allows
the device to isolate the secondary from the primary and vice-versa for DC voltage and current. With
AC voltage applied to the primary, a magnetic field is generated in the core. This magnetic field or flux
flow in the core is analogous to current flowing in a circuit. As it flows through the core inside the
secondary winding, a voltage is induced into this winding. The magnitude of this induced voltage is
proportional to the turns ratio of the transformer.
V1 N
——  ——1  Turns Ratio  a
V2 N2
As in an electric circuit, work is required to move this flux. This magnetic form of work is called
magneto-motive force (mmf). The mmf is equal to the number of turns in the winding times the
current in the winding. The magnetic circuit of the ideal transformer is lossless, and, therefore, the
mmf or work required to overcome the core circuit is zero. The mmfs of the two windings are equal
and opposite in polarity.
I1 N2 1 1
N1  I1  N2  I2 or ——  ——  ————————  —
I2 N1 Turns Ratio a
In an ideal transformer, the secondary voltage times the turns ratio is directly proportional to the
primary voltage and the secondary current is inversely proportional to the primary current.
VP  V1 VS  V2    IP  I1
IS  I 2
IS
VP  VS  a    and    IP  ——a
An ideal transformer also demonstrates conservation of power. The power into the ideal trans-
former will equal the power out of the ideal transformer.
SP  VP  IP
IS
Substituting from the formulas above SP  (VS  a)——
a
Reducing this equation SP  VS  IS  SS
Polarity defines the convention of current flow in and out of a transformer and is determined
when the transformer is manufactured and is dictated by the placement of the windings on a core. It
is marked on the nameplate and sometimes on the primary and secondary terminals, as is the case of
an instrument transformer used for metering or relaying. In Figure 4-23, the polarity marking is signi-
fied by a dot marked at the top of each winding. The primary current flows into the terminal marked
with the polarity marking and out of the secondary terminal marked with the polarity marking.
 80
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 4-23. Idealized Two-Winding Transformer.

Unfortunately, the transformers built today have a variety of losses that encompass the magnetic
circuit and the electrical circuit. In a transformer designed to deliver power, these losses have been
quantified in two categories; no load and full load. As their names imply, they pertain to losses at each
of these two states of the unit. In transformers that are used to meter voltages and currents, these
losses are quite small and are sometimes compensated by the devices to which they feed.

HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Ideally, alternating voltages and currents are sinusoidal functions having a single frequency f or . This
fundamental frequency, also known as the power frequency, is usually the lowest frequency compo-
nent in the system.
In reality, there are a number of effects within the power system that may cause the cosine wave
to become distorted or “polluted.” The terms distorted or polluted indicate that the voltage and cur-
rent no longer contain just the desired power frequency (50 or 60 Hz).
Any repeating AC waveform, no matter how distorted, may be represented by a combination of
waveforms of the fundamental frequency plus one or more harmonics. A harmonic is a frequency
which is an integer multiple of the power frequency, (h, h  integer). In a 60 Hz system, examples
of harmonics of the power frequency would be 180 Hz, 300 Hz, 420 Hz, 660 Hz, 780 Hz, etc. These
higher frequencies are called the third, fifth, seventh, eleventh, and thirteenth harmonics of 60 Hz,
respectively. The relative magnitude of the fundamental waveform and the number, magnitude, and
phase displacement of the harmonic components determine the resultant waveform’s shape.
Figure 4-24 shows a voltage waveform composed of a 100 V fundamental 60 Hz waveform and a
20 volt third harmonic. This waveform contains 100% or one per-unit 60 Hz and a 20% or .02 per-
unit third-harmonic component. The third harmonic crosses the x-axis at the same instant in time as
the fundamental waveform. Harmonics can be displaced in time from the fundamental, depending on
circuit characteristics. Figure 4-24 shows the third harmonic 180° out of phase with the fundamental.
Electronic loads containing power semiconductor devices, which switch on and off to control the
flow of energy between the source and load, typically cause power system harmonics. This switching
on and off, hundreds to thousands of times every second, directly modulates the current and cor-
rupts the voltage. The current modulation causes voltage drops across the impedance of the lines and
distribution equipment, resulting in the voltage being modulated as well and high-frequency harmonic
components to be injected into the power system. Examples include variable-speed motor drives,
electronic lighting ballasts, and electronic equipment power supplies.
Electronic loads containing power semiconductor devices can cause dangerous resonance condi-
tions between the electronic load’s step-down transformer and the utility’s power factor correction
capacitors. Harmonics will cause additional heating in wiring and other equipment, and will not be
detected by most digital test meters unless they are true rms measuring devices. In addition, electrome-
chanical meters typically underregister the energy being absorbed by these electronic loads. In general,
solid-state meters do a better job of measuring the total energy being consumed by a customer’s
electronic load.
 81

Electrical Circuits
Figure 4-24. Sine Wave with 20% Third Harmonic.

Alternating Current Three-Phase Circuits

BALANCED Three-phase SYSTEMS
A balanced three-phase system consists of three parts: a balanced three-phase source; a balanced three-
phase transmission system; and a balanced three-phase load.

BALANCED Three-phase SOURCES

A balanced three-phase source consists of three single-phase sources, A, B, and C, whose rms magni-
tudes are identical and whose phase angles are mutually displaced 120°.
The three-phase source may be wye (Y) or delta (L) connected. A wye connection has a set of
line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltages. A delta connection only has a set of line-to-line voltages. The
line-to-neutral voltages are related to the line-to-line voltages. If a set of line-to-neutral voltages are
represented by:
Van  Van /_0°
__
Vbn  Vbn /_120°
______
Vcn  Vcn /_240°
______
then the line-to-line voltages are
Vab  Van  Vbn  Vab /_30°
____
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  Vbc /_90°
___
___
Vca  Vcn  Van  Vca /_210°
______

Note that Van  Vbn  Vcn  Vln and Vab  Vbc  Vca  Vll   3 Vln. Also, the line-to-line voltages
lead the line-to-neutral voltages by 30°. Assuming that the line-to-neutral phasors are rotating in the
counterclockwise direction, there is a positive or abc sequence.
If, however, the line-to-neutral voltages are rotating in the clockwise direction, there is a negative
or acb sequence. In this case, the following results:
Van  Van /___
0°
Vbn  Vbn /_240°
______
Vcn  Vcn /_120°
______
 82 and
Vab  Van  Vbn  Vab /_30°
___
___
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  Vbc /_150°
______
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Vca  Vcn  Van  Vca /_270°

______

Note again that Van  Vbn  Vcn  Vln and Vab  Vbc  Vca  Vll  3 Vln. In this case, the line-
to-line voltages lag the line-to-neutral voltages by 30°.
The current flowing through a phase of a wye connected three-phase source will be identical to the
current flowing through that phase’s line impedance. That is, the current flowing through each phase
voltage is:
IaA  Ina  Ina /____
0°_
____

IbB  Inb  Inb /_120°
_______
____

IcC  Inc Inc /_240°
________
___


The source currents are referenced to the phase A line-to-neutral source voltage. The angle  corre-
sponds to the current angle as shown in Figure 4-26.
The currents flowing through a delta- (-) connected three-phase source will be related to the line
currents by  3 and 30° for abc or positive sequence and 3 and 30° for acb or negative sequence.
The positive-sequence current flowing through the -connected source phase voltages is:
1
Iba 5 ———— /____
30° (Ian /____
0° ____
1 )
3
1
Icb 5 ———— /____
30° (Ibn /____
120°
__1
____
)
3
1
Iac 5 ———— /____
30° (Icn /_240°
_____1
____
)
3
Knowing the line currents, it is possible to get the -connected source phase currents by shrinking
the magnitude by  3 and shifting 30°.
The negative-sequence current flowing through the -connected source phase voltages is:
1
Iba 5 ———— /____
30° (Ian /_0°
_______
1 )
3

Figure 4-25. Balanced Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Network Schematic.

 83

Electrical Circuits
Figure 4-26. Balanced Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Network Phasor Diagram.

1
Icb 5 ———— /____
30° (Ibn /____
240°
__1
____
)
3
1
Iac 5 ———— /____
30° (Icn /_120°
_____1
____
)
3
Knowing the line currents, it is possible to get the -connected source phase currents by shrinking
the magnitude by 3 and shifting 230°.

Balanced Three-Phase Lines

Transmission and distribution lines transmit electric power between the source and load. Each phase
of a three-phase line will have a line impedance, ZTL. A three-phase line will be balanced if and only if
the impedance in each phase is the same.
ZTL  Z aTL  Z bTL  Z cTL
The line impedance normally consists of a resistive and inductive reactance component in series.
ZTL  RTL  jXTL

Balanced Three-Phase Loads

Each phase of a three-phase load will have an impedance, ZL. A three-phase load will be balanced if
and only if the load impedance in each phase is the same.
ZL  Z aL’  Z bL’  Z cL’
The load impedance normally consists of a resistive and inductive reactance component in series.
ZL  RL  jXL
In resistance models, the active power, P is absorbed by the load, and in reactance models the
reactive power, Q is absorbed or produced by the load. If Q is being absorbed, Xl will be positive (i.e.,
an inductor). If Q is being produced, Xl will be negative (i.e., a capacitor).
 84 The three-phase load may be wye (Y) or delta () connected. A wye connection has a set of
line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltages. A delta connection only has a set of line-to-line voltages. The
line-to-neutral voltages are related to the line-to-line voltages. If a set of line-to-neutral voltages are
Handbook for Electricity Metering

VAN  VAN /___

0°
VBN  VBN /_120°
______
VCN  VCN /_______
240°
then the line-to-line voltages are
VAB  VAN  VBN  VAB /____
30°
___
VBC  VBN  VCN  VBC /_90°
___
___
VCA  VCN  VAN  VCA /_210°
______
Note that VAN  VBN  VCN  VLN and VAB  VBC  VCA  VLL  3 VLN and that the line-to-line
voltages lead the line-to-neutral voltages by 30°. It is assumed that the line-to-neutral phasors are
rotating in the counterclockwise direction, resulting in a positive or abc sequence.
If, however, the line-to-neutral voltages are rotating in the clockwise direction, there is a negative
or acb sequence and the following results:
VAN  VAN /___
0°
VBN  VBN /_240°
______
VCN  VCN /_______
120°
and
VAB  VAN  VBN  VAB /____
___
30°
VBC  VBN  VCN  VBC /_270°
______
VCA  VCN  VAN  VCA /_150°
______

Again, note that VAN VBN  VCN  VLN and VAB  VBC  VCA VLL  3 VLN. However, in this
case, the line-to-line voltages lag the line-to-neutral voltages by 30°.
The current flowing through a phase of a wye-connected three-phase load will be identical to
the current flowing through that phase’s line impedance. The current flowing through each phase
voltage is
IAN  IAN /___
0°_
___
IBN  IBN /________
120° ____

ICN  ICN /_240°
_______
____

The load currents are still referenced to the phase A line-to-neutral load voltage. The currents
flowing through a -connected three-phase load will be related to the line currents by  3 and 30°
for abc or positive sequence and  3 and 30° for acb or negative sequence. The positive-sequence
current flowing through the -connected load phase voltages is
1
IAB 5 ———— /____
30° (IAN/_0°
_______
1 )
3
1
IBC 5 ———— /____
30° (IBN/_2120°
__________
1 )
3
1
ICA 5 ———— /____
30° (ICN/_2240°
__________
1 )
3
If the line currents are known, it is possible to find the -connected load phase currents by
shrinking the magnitude by  3 and shifting 30°.
The negative-sequence current flowing through the -connected load phase voltages is
 1
IAB 5 ———— /______ (IAN /____
230° 0° ____
1 ) 85
3
1
IBC 5 ———— /_230°
_____ (IBN /_2240°

Electrical Circuits
__________
1 )
3
1
ICA 5 ———— /_230°
_____ (ICN /_2120°
__________
1 )
3
If the line currents are known, it is possible to find the L-connected load phase currents by shrink-
ing the magnitude by  3 and shifting 30°.

PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

If a three-phase system is balanced, the three-phase circuit can be simplified to an equivalent single-
phase circuit and all the formulas developed for single-phase AC circuits can be used.

Power And Energy In Three-Phase Ac Circuits

In AC circuits, the three-phase active, average, or real power is
P3  3P  3VrmsIrms cos(V  I)  3VrmsIrms cos(Z)  3VrmsIrms cos(pf)  3VrmsIrmsDPF
where cos Z  cos pf  cos(V  I) and is equal to the displacement power factor of the circuit.
Here, Vrms is equal to the rms value of the line-to-neutral voltage and Irms is the rms value of the line
current. The units of P3 are watts.
In AC circuits, the three-phase reactive or imaginary power is
Q3  3Q  3VrmsIrms sin(V  I)  3VrmsIrms sin(Z)  3VrmsIrms sin(pf)
The units of Q3 are voltamperes reactive.
Ohm’s Law and the power equations are combined to give the various formulas for single-phase
AC series circuits shown in Table 4-5.
When a three-phase system is imbalanced, it is necessary to calculate the powers using conven-
tional circuit analysis techniques and add them to find the total powers.

Table 4-5. Formulas for Single-Phase AC Series Circuits.

 86 P3  PA  PB  PC
Q3  QA  QB  QC
S3  P3  jQ3  SA  SB  SC
Handbook for Electricity Metering

|S3|  
P3
2
Q
2
3

Power Triangle
In sinusoidal AC circuits, the power triangle is used to relate the three-phase active, real, or average
power P3 and the three-phase reactive or imaginary power Q3 to the three-phase complex power S3
having units of voltamperes. The complex power S3 is

S3  P3  jQ3  

in terms of the powers P3 and Q3 and
P3
2
Q
2
/ Q3
tan1 ———
3 __________
_____
 
P3  |S3|/_
__pf

3V rms
2
S3  3S  3VlnIline  3Irms
2
Z  ————
Z
S3  3S  |S3| /_ __pf  |S3| /___
V  I  |S3| / Z
___
 3VrmsIrms /___ __
V__ I  3VrmsIrms /___
Z  3VrmsIrms /_
__pf
 
3 VllIrms /___ I  
__
V__ Z  
3 VllIrms /___ 3 VllIrms /___pf
when written in terms of the voltage and current phasor magnitudes and phase angles. The magnitude
of the three-phase complex power S3, |S3|, is known as the three-phase apparent power and is the
product 3Vrms Irms  
P3
2
Q
3 . It also has units of volt­
2
amperes. The three-phase apparent power is a
measure of the operating limits in electrical equipment such as transformers, motors, and generators.
The relationship between P3, Q3, and |S3| is best shown by the power triangle, Figure 4-27.
Mathematically,
S3  P3  jQ3,L for an inductive load having a lagging power factor and
S3  P3  jQ3,C for an capacitive load having a leading power factor.

Figure 4-27. Power Triangles (Three-Phase).

For these two cases, 87
3V 2
rms
Q3,C  3Irms
2
XC  ————
XC

Electrical Circuits
3V rms
2
Q3,L  3Irms
2
XL  ————
XL
When a circuit is capacitive (i.e., leading power factor), then Q3,C is negative or less than zero
since XC is negative. When a circuit is inductive (i.e., lagging power factor), then Q3,L is positive or
greater than zero. Using trigonometry, many other expressions can be written from Figure 4-27. For
example, the displacement power factor can be written as
Q3 P3 P3
DPF  cos(V  I)  cos(Z)  cos(pf)  cos tan–1 ——— 5 ——— 5 —————
P3 |S3| 3VrmsIrms
For metering applications, the complex power S3 is not a measurable quantity. However, the
newer electronic meters can measure |S3| directly. The reactive power Q3 can be measured with care,
and then only for sinusoidal systems. In practice, measure |S3| and P3, and then compute Q3.

Figure 4-28. Three-Phase Wye–Wye Transformer Configuration

Figure 4-29. Three-Phase Wye–Delta Transformer Configuration

 88 Distribution Circuits
WYE–WYE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
A typical distribution transformer connection is wye–wye. This transformer connection provides no
Handbook for Electricity Metering

phase shift and is transparent to all electrical quantities. The following formulas apply for the voltage
magnitudes:
1 N N
|V2|   3  |V1|   |V1|  ———  ——1  |V4|   |V2|  ——1  |V4|
 3 N2 N2

WYE–Delta Transformer Connections

A typical distribution transformer connection is wye–delta. This transformer connection provides a
leading 30° (30°) phase shift from the primary to the secondary winding for positive (negative)
sequence and is transparent to some electrical quantities. The following formulas apply:
N
V2  3  V1    3  V1 5 ——1  V3
N2

Figure 4-30. Three-Phase Delta–Wye Transformer Configuration

Figure 4-31. Three-Phase Delta–Delta Transformer Configuration

DELTA–WYE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 89
A typical distribution transformer connection is delta–wye. This transformer connection provides a
leading 30° (30°) phase shift from the primary to the secondary winding for positive (negative)

Electrical Circuits
sequence and is transparent to some electrical quantities. The following formulas apply:

V2   3  V3   ———
V2
 
5 V3   V1  ——1 V2
N
N2
 3

DELTA–DELTA TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

A typical distribution transformer connection is delta–delta. This transformer connection provides no
phase shift and is transparent to some electrical quantities. The following formula applies:
N
V1 5 ——1  V2
N2

Figure 4-32. Common Distribution Circuits.

 Chapter 5

Solid-State Electronics

This chapter deals with basic solid-state electronics as applied to modern metering devices. The
information contained here is intended as a review for metering personnel with a background in
electronics and as an introduction for those unfamiliar with the subject, with the intention of stimu-
lating further study.
In the study of solid-state electronics, it is necessary to understand the effects of combining
semiconductors of differing atomic structures. Therefore, the chapter begins with a discussion of the
atom to introduce the concept of current flow across the semiconductor junction. This chapter also
introduces digital electronics, including the microprocessor.

The Atom
Atomic structure is best demonstrated by the hydrogen atom, which is composed of a nucleus or
center core containing one proton and a single orbiting electron. As the electron revolves around the
nucleus, it is held in orbit by two counteracting forces. One of these forces is centrifugal force, which
tends to cause the electron to fly outward as it orbits. The second force is centripetal force, which
tends to pull the electron toward the nucleus and is caused by the mutual attraction between the posi-
tive nucleus and negative electron. At some given radius the two forces will exactly balance each other,
providing a stable path for the electron. By virtue of its motion, the electron in the hydrogen atom has
kinetic energy. Due to its position, it also has potential energy.
The total energy of the electron (kinetic plus potential) is the factor which determines the radius
of the electron orbit around the nucleus. The orbit shown in Figure 5-1 is the smallest possible orbit
that the hydrogen electron can have. For the electron to remain in this orbit, it must neither gain nor
lose energy.
The electron will remain in its lowest orbit until a sufficient amount of energy is available, at which
time the electron will accept the energy and jump to one of a series of permissible orbits. An electron
cannot exist in the space between permissible orbits or energy levels. Therefore, the electron will not
accept energy unless it is great enough to elevate the electron to one of the allowable energy levels.
Light and heat energy, as well as collisions with other particles, can cause the electron to jump orbit.
Once the electron has been elevated to an energy level higher than the lowest possible energy level,
the atom is said to be in an excited state. The electron will not remain in this excited condition for
more than a fraction of a second before it will radiate the excess energy and return to a lower energy
orbit.
An alternative would be for the electron to return to the lower level in two jumps; from the third
to the second, and then from the second to the first, emitting energy twice, once from each jump.
Each emission would have less energy than the original amount that had excited the electron to
begin with.

91
 92 Although hydrogen has the simplest of all
atoms, the principles just developed also apply
to the atoms of more complex elements. In
an atom containing two or more electrons,
Handbook for Electricity Metering

the electrons interact with each other and

the exact path of any one electron is difficult
to predict. However, each electron will lie in
a specific energy band and their orbits will
be considered as an average of the electrons’
positions. Also, the various electron orbits
found in large atoms are grouped into shells
corresponding to fixed energy levels.
The number of electrons in the outermost
orbit group or shell determines the valence of
Figure 5-1. Hydrogen Atom.
the atom and, therefore, is called the valence
shell. The valence of an atom determines
the atom’s ability to gain or lose an electron
which, in turn, determines the chemical and electrical properties of the atom. An atom that is lack-
ing only one or two electrons from its outer shell will easily gain electrons to complete its shell, but
a large amount of energy is required to free any other electrons. An atom having a relatively small
number of electrons in its outer shell in comparison to the number of electrons required to fill the
shell will easily lose its valence electrons. Gaining or losing electrons in valence shells is called ioniza-
tion. Atoms gaining electrons are negative ions and atoms losing electrons are positive ions.

Semiconductor Electronics
Any element can be categorized as a conductor, semiconductor, or insulator. Conductors are elements,
such as copper or silver, which will readily conduct electricity. Insulators (non-conductors) do not
conduct electricity to any great degree and are therefore used to prevent a flow of electricity. Rubber
and glass are good insulators. Material such as germanium and silicon are not good conductors, but
cannot be used as insulators, either, since their electrical characteristics fall between those of conduc-
tors and insulators. These are called semiconductors.
The electrical conductivity of matter is ultimately dependent upon the energy levels of the atoms
of which the material is constructed. In any solid material such as copper, the atoms which make
up the molecular structure are bound together in a crystal lattice which is a rigid structure of copper
atoms. Since the atoms of copper are firmly fixed in position within the lattice structure, they are
not free to migrate through the material and therefore cannot carry electricity through the conductor
without the application of external force. However, by ionization, electrons could be removed from
the influence of the parent atom and made to move through the copper lattice under the influence of
external forces. It is by virtue of the movement of these free electrons that electrical energy is trans-
ported within the copper material. Since copper is a good conductor, it must contain a vast number of
free electrons.

Hole Current And Electron Current

The degree of difficulty in freeing valence electrons from the nucleus of an atom determines whether
the element is a conductor, semiconductor, or insulator. When an electron is freed in a block of pure
semiconductor material, it creates a hole which acts as a positively charged current carrier. Thus, an
electron liberation creates two currents, known as electron current and hole current.
When an electric field is applied, holes and electrons are accelerated in opposite directions. The life
spans (time until recombination) of the hole and the free electron in a given semiconductor sample
are not necessarily the same. Hole conduction may be thought of as the unfilled tracks of a moving
electron. Since the hole is a region of net positive charge, the apparent motion is like the flow of
particles having a positive charge.
If suitable impurity is added to the semiconductor, the resulting mixture can be made to have
either an excess of electrons, causing more electron current, or an excess of holes, causing more hole
current.
 Depending upon the kind of impurity added to a semiconductor, it will have either more or fewer 93
free electrons than holes. Both electron current and hole current will be present, but a majority carrier
will dominate. The holes are called positive carriers and the electrons, negative carriers. The one pres-
ent in the greater quantity is called the majority carrier, while the other is called the minority carrier.

Solid-State Electronics
The quality and quantity of the impurity are carefully controlled by the doping process.

N- And P-Type Materials

When an impurity such as arsenic is added to germanium, it will change the germanium crystal
lattice in such a way as to leave one electron relatively free in the crystal structure. Because this type
of material conducts by electron movement, it is called a negative carrier (N-type) semiconductor.
Pure germanium may be converted into an N-type semiconductor by doping it with a donor impurity
consisting of any element containing five electrons in its outer shell. The amount of the impurity
added is very small.
An impurity element can also be added to pure germanium to dope the material, leaving one elec-
tron lacking in the crystal lattice and thereby creating a hole in the lattice. Since this semiconductor
material conducts by the movement of holes which are positive charges, it is called a positive carrier
(P-type) semiconductor. When an electron fills a hole, the hole appears to move to the spot previously
occupied by the electron.
Holes and electrons are both involved in conduction. In N-type material, the electrons are the
majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. In P-type material, the holes are the majority
carriers and the electrons are the minority carriers.
Current flow through an N-type material is illustrated in Figure 5-2. Conduction in this type of
semiconductor is similar to conduction in a copper conductor. That is, an application of voltage across
the material will cause the loosely bound electron to be released from the impurity atom and move
toward the positive potential point.
Current flow through a P-type material is illustrated in Figure 5-3. Conduction in this material
is by positive carrier (holes) from the positive to the negative terminal. Electrons from the negative
terminal cancel holes in the vicinity of the terminal, while, at the positive terminal, electrons are
being removed from the crystal lattice, thus creating new holes. The new holes then move toward the
negative terminal (the electrons shifting to the positive terminal) and are canceled by more electrons
emitted into the material from the negative terminal. This process continues as a steady stream of
holes (hole current) move toward the negative terminal.

P–N Junction
Both N- and P-type semiconductor materials are electrically neutral. However, a block of semicon-
ductor material may be doped with impurities so as to make half the crystals N-type material and
the other half P-type material. A force will then exist across the thin junction of the N- and P-type

Figure 5-2. Electron Flow in N-type Material.

 94
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 5-3. Electron Flow in P-type Material.

material. The force is an electro-chemical attraction by the P-type material for electrons in the N-type
material. Due to this force, electrons will leave the N-type material and enter the P-type material,
making the N-type material near to the junction positive with respect to the remainder of the N-type
material. Also, the P-type material near to the junction will be negative with respect to the remaining
P-type material.
After the initial movement of charges, further migration of electrons ceases due to the equalization
of electron concentration in the immediate vicinity of the junction. The charged areas on either side
of the junction constitute a potential barrier, or junction barrier, which prevents further current flow.
This area is also called a depletion region. The device thus formed is called a semiconductor diode.

Semiconductor Diode
The schematic symbol for the semiconductor diode is illustrated in Figure 5-4. The N-type material
section of the device is called the cathode and the P-type material section the anode. The device
permits electron current flow from anode to cathode and restricts electron current flow from cathode
to anode.
Figure 5-5 depicts a potential placed externally across the diode, positive on the anode with respect
to the cathode 5. This polarity of voltage (anode positive with respect to the cathode) is called forward
bias since it decreases the junction barrier and causes the device to conduct appreciable current.
However Figure 5-6 illustrates a reverse bias condition when
an anode is made negative with respect to the cathode.
Theoretically, no current flow should be possible with
reverse bias applied across the junction due to the increase
in the junction barrier.
However, since the block of semiconductor material
is not a perfect insulator, a very small reverse or leakage
current will flow. At normal operating temperatures, this
current may be neglected. Leakage current increases with
an increase in temperature. The characteristic curve of the
typical diode is shown in Figure 5-7. Excessive forward bias
results in a rapid increase of forward current and could
destroy the diode, while excess reverse bias could cause a
breakdown in the junction due to the stress of the electric
field. The reverse bias point at which breakdown occurs is
called the breakdown or avalanche voltage.
Some semiconductor diodes are made to operate in
the breakdown or avalanche region, the most common of
Figure 5-4. Semiconductor Diode Symbol.
which is the zener diode.
 95

Solid-State Electronics
Figure 5-5. Semiconductor Diode with Forward Bias.

Figure 5-6. Semiconductor Diode with Reverse Bias.

Transistors
By connecting two P–N junctions, either at their N sides or their P sides, and appropriately applying
forward bias to one junction while reverse biasing the other junction, an interesting phenomenon
occurs. The thin connecting section of material is the base, and the sections on either end of the junc-
tion are the emitter and collector, respectively. This device is shown in Figure 5-8. Reverse bias applied
to the base-collector junction causes a small reverse current, as shown in Figure 5-7 for a typical P–N
junction. By forward biasing the emitter-base junction, the base-collector junction is driven further
into the breakdown or avalanche region, resulting in a much larger collector current. If a small,
varying signal is applied between the emitter and base, the bias across the base-emitter junction can be
used to control the large current flow in the collector circuit, and, if the bias is reversed, current flow
ceases. This is the means for controlling a large current by varying a smaller one, which is the basis
for amplification.
 96 Digital Electronics
While analog circuits operate on a continu-
ous range of signals, digital electronic circuits
Handbook for Electricity Metering

have only two states: on and off. Digital

circuits use electronic components which
can be controlled to operate in either of
two electrical conditions, e.g., conducting
and non-conducting. These two conditions
represent the on and off states. A block
diagram of major components is illustrated in
Figure 5-17 and each component is described
in detail in the following pages.

Binary Digital Logic Circuits

Figure 5-9 shows a schematic diagram of
Figure 5-7. Semiconductor Diode Characteristic Curve. a circuit with a battery, a light bulb, and a
switch. When the switch is closed, the light
bulb is on. When the switch is open, the
light bulb is off. In the truth table, the binary
numbers 1 and 0 are used to represent on and off, or that the switch is open and closed. The NOT
function is illustrated in Figure 5-10. The light is on when the switch is not closed, and off when the
switch is not open. The NOT function is an inverting function, and the circuit element is called an
inverter. If the input is A, the output is A, which is read “A bar” or “Not A.”
Certain digital circuits are called logic circuits because they perform like the logic functions AND,
OR, NAND, and NOR. Figure 5-11 shows the AND function: the light is on only when both switches
are closed. Figure 5-12 shows the OR function: the light is on when either one switch or the other is
closed. Figure 5-13 shows the NAND function: the light is not on only when both switches are closed.
Figure 5-14 shows the NOR function: the light is not on when either switch is closed. Figure 5-15
shows common logic symbols that are used in logic circuit diagrams.

Memory Circuits
In digital electronics, logic elements are used to make decisions. The decisions are then stored in
memory elements whose basic building block is the flip-flop. A flip-flop is a one-bit circuit which
remembers 1’s and 0’s.
The logic diagram for a J–K flip-flop is shown in Figure 5-16. The truth table lists possible values
for the inputs J and K as well as for the output Q, which will appear after the next clock pulse. The
value of Q only changes each time a clock pulse appears. The new value of Q depends on the inputs

Figure 5-8. Basic PNP Transistor Circuit.

 97

Solid-State Electronics
Figure 5-9. Logic Circuit and Truth Table.

Figure 5-10. NOT Function.

Figure 5-11. AND Function.

Figure 5-12. OR Function.

 98
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 5-13. NAND Function.

Figure 5-14. NOR Function.

Figure 5-15. Logic Symbols.

 99

Solid-State Electronics
Figure 5-16. J–K Flip-Flop.

J and K. If J and K are both 0, the output Q keeps the same value (0 or 1) that it had before the new
clock pulse. If J and K are both 1’s, the output Q changes to the opposite of the value it had before
the clock pulse. If J and K are 0 and 1, the output Q is set to 0, and if J and K are 1 and 0, the output
Q is set to 1. The other output Q is always the inverse of Q.
With AND, OR, NAND, and NOR circuits, the outputs change immediately when inputs change.
Flip-flop outputs change only when a clock pulse arrives, so a flip-flop is a memory circuit that
remembers the input status from the last clock pulse.
Most digital systems and all computers need to remember thousands of bits of information. Large
memories are made by integrating thousands of flip-flops onto a piece of silicon, forming a single
integrated circuit. Since most computers operate with 8-bit bytes, integrated circuits are designed to
store bytes by the millions.
Several construction techniques exist for memory circuits to satisfy different needs. The most
popular electronic memory types are Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM),
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM), and flash. All forms of memory can be read over and
over again without changing the contents.
RAM is used for the temporary storage of data and for applications where information is stored
and retrieved quickly and frequently. A disadvantage of RAM is that all data is lost when power is
removed from the circuit. This memory is also called volatile memory and can be supported with
batteries (called battery back-up).
ROM is made at an integrated circuit factory to a set of specifications called a mask. This memory
can be programmed to perform like many individual gates or to store data which can be accessed as
needed. When making a masked ROM, permanent changes are made to the silicon inside the inte-
grated circuit (IC) package. Once a ROM is programmed at the factory, the contents of its memory
can never be rewritten. This memory is permanent and remains intact even when power is removed. It
is called non-volatile memory.
PROM stores information which cannot be rewritten. Therefore, PROMs can be programmed by
the user at the laboratory or manufacturing facility and installed in the electronics. Another form
of PROM can be erased by exposing the silicon through a glass window in the package to intense
ultra-violet light. It can then be reprogrammed again. This is called Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EPROM). Electrically ­Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is erased and
written electrically. Another form of PROM is flash memory, which is faster and permits more erase/
write cycles than EEPROM. Flash memory is generally used when there is a requirement for a large
amount of non-volatile memory. PROM and flash are useful for applications where the data stored
might be changed periodically. The software programs stored in PROMs are sometimes called firmware.

MICROPROCESSORS
Microprocessors are small computers that get instructions and data from memory, perform arithmetic
and logical functions on the data, and store the results. The instructions are in a specific sequence,
specifically written for each application. ­Microprocessors typically operate on data organized in groups
 100 of 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bits. Usually the data path used by the microprocessor defines the data path of
the memory in the circuit. For example, 8-bit microprocessors use memory circuits with 8-bit data
paths. A microprocessor also has an input-output system to control communications or discrete status
signals between itself and external devices. The input-output system supports both asynchronous and
Handbook for Electricity Metering

synchronous serial communications. Microprocessors are packaged as integrated circuits.

In the electricity meter, the microprocessor is used to process the meter data and manage the
communication link. Due to the increased applications in the smart meter, the microprocessor used
in the meter is more sophisticated than it was previously. Some microprocessors have the capability to
conserve power by operating in low power mode during periods of low activity.
There are two basic forms of RAM, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM) In SRAM, a
bit of data is stored using the state of a flip-flop. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but
is generally faster and requires less power than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as
cache memory for the central processing unit (CPU). DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and
capacitor pair, which together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1
or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read
the capacitor’s state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than
static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers.
Both static and dynamic RAM are considered volatile, as their state is lost or reset when power is
removed from the system. By contrast, ROM stores data by permanently enabling or disabling selected
transistors so that the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as EEPROM and
flash memory) share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to persist without power and to
be updated without requiring special equipment.
Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM) is RAM that retains its information when power is
turned off (non-volatile). This is in contrast to DRAM and SRAM, which both maintain data only for
as long as power is applied.
The best known form of NVRAM memory today is flash memory. Drawbacks to flash memory
include the requirement to write it in larger blocks than many computers can automatically address
and its relatively limited longevity due to its finite number of write-erase cycles (most consumer flash
products at the time of writing can withstand only around 100,000 rewrites before memory begins
to deteriorate). Another drawback is the performance limitations preventing flash from matching the
response times and, in some cases, the random addressability offered by traditional forms of RAM.
Several newer technologies are attempting to replace flash in certain roles, and some even claim to be
a truly universal memory, offering the performance of the best SRAM devices with the non-volatility
of flash. To date, these alternatives have not yet become mainstream.
ROM is a class of storage medium used by microprocessors. Typically, data stored in ROM cannot
be modified, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific
hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates). Despite the simplicity, speed, and economies of
scale of mask ROM, field-programmability often makes reprogrammable memories more flexible and
inexpensive. ROM circuitry is mainly used for applications such as microcodes and similar structures
on various kinds of processors.
Analog to Digital Conversion Circuits
These circuits convert an analog signal to a digital representation. The digital output is represented as
a word ranging from 8-bits to 20-bits. These words can be in a signed or unsigned format. Successive
approximation and sigma delta are examples of different techniques used to perform this conversion.
Digital Signal Processor
Digital signal processors (DSP) are used to execute repetitive math-intensive algorithms. Multiply and
accumulate is a fundamental math function in a DSP that is used in higher-level calculations such as
watt hours and VARhours. A DSP coupled with an analog to digital conversion circuit can be used in a
digital meter for calculation of energy and power.
Microcontrollers
A microcontroller (MCU) is an integrated circuit (chip) that is used to carry out a specific control
and data processing tasks. A MCU contains all the components of a small computer, which typically
includes a CPU, RAM, some form of non-volatile memory to store the executable program, input/
output ports, timers, and other peripheral functions. Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also
includes these components, a micro­controller is designed to control a particular system. As a result,
the parts can be simplified and reduced, which cuts down on production costs.
 It is not uncommon for a solid state electric meter to incorporate three or four microcontrollers 101
to distribute the processing load and provide a level of modularity in the design, allowing third par-
ties to add components to the meter for communications purposes. The sections that incorporate a
microcontroller are the metrology, the register, the display, and the communications module, which is

Solid-State Electronics
sometimes referred to as a network interface card (NIC).
Chip Sets and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
Chip sets are a collection of functions integrated onto one or more integrated circuits to scale down
the size and the cost of an electronic circuit card. It is common for a manufacturer to have a custom,
proprietary component fabricated to reach a higher level of integration and a lower cost point. These
components are referred to as ASICs. Each is custom-designed to perform a collection of tasks in a
small space and at the lowest possible production costs.
Many chip sets are incorporated in today’s solid-state electric meters. Examples are: metrology,
register, and display integrated on a single substrate. These are often referred to as “meter on a chip”
technology.
Register
The register is used to process values from the metrology, as well as enable additional functionality.
It performs the primary functions of the meter including energy, demand, time-of-use, and load
profile, and is comprised of a microprocessor connected to a non-volatile memory. The microprocessor
includes on-chip flash memory where the firmware resides. This memory is non-volatile, but is rewrit-
able to allow firmware upgrades in the shop or field. The microprocessor performs all the control,
calculation, communication, and data storage functions associated with the register function.
The microprocessor is connected to an off-chip non-volatile memory. This device stores all the
measurement data, including load profile and event/history logs.
In time-of-use (TOU)/load profile versions of the meter, the power to the register microproces-
sor is battery backed. This allows the microprocessor to directly perform the real-time clock function
(keeping accurate time and date through outages). The battery does not back the power to any other
component on the board. For demand-only functionality, the battery is not needed.
Metrology
The metrology is the core metering component of the device, used to measure and calculate energy
usage. It performs the direct sampling of the voltage and current waveforms and the raw processing of
these samples to compute all the energy quantities. It is comprised of a dedicated microprocessor and
several analog-to-digital (A/D) converters. Low-level signals proportional to the service voltages and
currents are connected to the analog inputs of the A/D converters. These converters, which are con-
tained in one package, simultaneously sample the signals and send the digital result to the micropro-
cessor multiple times per second. The microprocessor takes these samples, applies precision calibration
corrections, and computes all the fundamental quantities required for the specific meter configuration.
Periodically, metrology data is sent to the register processor. The metrology processor does not store
any data at power-down.
Figure 5-17 shows a block diagram of the major components of the metrology and communica-
tions systems.
Display
The display circuitry is contained on the main board of the meter and is mounted in the upper hous-
ing so that the liquid-crystal display (LCD) is exposed through a window in the housing. The LCD is
driven by an application-specific driver that keeps the information on the display clearly visible across
the widest possible temperature range. Sometimes the LCD driver is built into the microprocessor.
Transceiver Integrated Circuit (IC)
The transceivers (transmitter/receiver) in the meter facilitate radio frequency (RF) communications
between the meter and other devices such as in-home display, another meter, or a data aggregation
point. The transceiver resides within an integrated circuit (IC). The transceiver IC consists of an
analog circuit, a digital circuit, a microcontroller (microprocessor), and on-chip memories, and an
input-output system that supports both asynchronous and synchronous serial communications.
In the receiver path, the analog circuit filters pass only the signal that is intended for the meter,
converts the signal from radio frequency to the baseband frequency, and digitizes the signal from
analog to digital. The digital circuit performs many functions previously performed with analog
 102

3 Current
Handbook for Electricity Metering

AC Sensors Load
Line

Voltage Comm Options incl. AMI

Option Connector
Comm Port
Sensors A/D Converter
DAP

Polyphase 32 kHz Inputs/Outputs, e.g., KYZ

I/O Port
Power Supply Time-
keeping
Options

DC to
Power Circuits Microprocessor
Supply LCD Controller

ANSI C12.18 Optical Port - PSBM

ANSI C12.19 Std. Tables
Flash Memory EEPROM
TOU Log, Load Data &
Battery Profile, & Self Program
Read Data Parameters

Figure 5-17. Block Diagram of Meter Components.

c­ omponents, such as filters, mixers, detectors, and demodulator. In the transmit path, the digital
circuit assembles the data to be transmitted into a packet then encodes the packet.
The analog circuit aggregates the digital data into analog signal, and then modulates the analog
signal from baseband into radio frequency for transmission. Since the modulation and demodulation
is done in the digital portion of the processor, which is controlled by the firmware, the same hardware
can be programmed to operate with different radio protocols. The media access control (MAC) func-
tions that are time critical and require extensive computation, such as cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
calculation, are also implemented using the digital circuits. The microcontroller manages the opera-
tion of the transceiver IC. The on-chip memories such as RAM and flash memory are used as either
temporary or permanent storage for data and software program (operation software, communication
software, and application software).
Communications Components
The main board supports communication to the register processor through two ports:
• Optical—an optical transmitter/receiver pair that are mounted on the main board so that they
are communicable through the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) optical port
on the front of the meter. Through this port, the meter can be configured, firmware can be
upgraded, and all of the meter’s data can be read.
• Auxiliary—a Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART) is made available on the
option board connector. This port can be used by a third party communication module or other
option boards when installed “under the cover.”

Backhaul Wide Area Network (WAN) Components

Five network topologies are predominant in today’s utility communications systems. They are: point-
to-(multi) point, RF mesh, power line carrier (PLC), cellular direct connect (private or public) net-
works, and modbus/distributed network protocol (DNP).
 1. Point-to-(multi) point is an NIC module that operates using high power primary use licensed 103
spectrum that must be installed in the electric meter which establishes connection between the
meter and network communication devices typically installed on utility poles and tower struc-
tures. The NIC card is a transceiver IC.

Solid-State Electronics
2. RF mesh is an NIC module that must be installed in the electric meter, which establishes
connection between the meter, neighboring meters, and other network communication devices
typically installed on utility poles. The NIC card is a transceiver IC.
3. A PLC communications board is a transceiver IC that injects a signal over the power line
typically back to a communications device installed at a distribution transformer or in a
sub-station.
4. A cellular communications module can be installed in the electric meter, which establishes a
connection between the meter and the cellular system. The cellular communications board is a
transceiver IC.
5. Modbus/DNP is communications protocol that is typically used in a sub-station environment
utilizing an RS-232 or RS-485 connection from the meter to a remote terminal unit (RTU).
A Home Area Network (HAN) radio is a transceiver IC that is installed in the meter and enables two-
way low power short distance communication to devices inside the home.
 Chapter 6

Service Switch

Remote Service Switch—Introduction and Overview

The task of disconnecting and reconnecting electrical service to customers is a normal part of the
day-to-day operations for electric utilities. New customers, or move-ins, must be connected, while
move-outs are disconnected. Historically, the standard procedure was to dispatch a field employee
to remove or sleeve the meter. However, this task was fraught with disadvantages: it was costly, not
timely, and potentially hazardous to the field personnel performing the work (e.g., dog bites, vehicular
accidents, etc.).
To mitigate these disadvantages, utilities have, for decades, sought a way to incorporate a remote
service switch in the electrical service, or, better still, in the meter itself. Utilities envisioned that this
functionality could yield such benefits as real-time connects and disconnects, reduction of the labor
associated with customer site visits, and avoidance of hazards to field personnel.
Early attempts at implementing this functionality were problematic. The early devices were costly
and the apparatus was bulky and packaged separately from the meter. Additionally, communication for
command and control offered many chal-
lenges. Pager technology only provided one-way
communication which did not allow a feedback
loop to confirm success of a command. Public
radio frequency (RF) and cellular networks
could not always provide adequate geographical
coverage for all meter locations. Due to the
cost and technology considerations, use of the Cellular Tower
remote service switch was typically limited to
premises subject to frequent disconnects and
reconnects (e.g., those associated with late-pay
customers, frequent customer turn-over, pre- Meter with Utility
pay tariffs, etc.). Paging Adapter
It was not until the early 21st century that
a remote under-glass service switch option Figure 6-1. Paging Network.
became technologically and economically
feasible.
Realization of the integrated remote service switch was made possible with advances in telecom-
munication technology coupled with the ability to leverage economies of scale associated with mass
deployment of Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) meters.
The utilities, along with their respective public service commissions, are now beginning to require
advanced meters used in AMI deployments to be equipped with a remote service switch.

105
 106 Service Switch
Network Operation
Features and Functionality Center
As deregulated markets and electric
Handbook for Electricity Metering

utilities began adopting AMI networks,

the remote service switch became a
fundamental requirement for smart grid
technology. All the major meter manu-
facturers now offer advanced meters with
an integral remote service switch, while
the specific features and functionality
varies by vendor. Some of the more
notable features to be considered are
provided below.
• Service Switch Availability vs. Figure 6-2. AMI Mesh Network.
Meter Type
Integrated remote service switches
are available for Class 100 and
Class 200 single-phase, self-contained meter forms. The integrated service switch is not an
available option for Class 320 meters or for any three-phase meters.
• Two-way Communications
The advanced two-way communication technology employed in AMI systems allows for verifica-
tion of commands sent to the meter.
• Safety Considerations
° For safety concerns, it may not be advisable to use remote service switches on certain
types of customer premises, e.g., those requiring life-support systems, railroad crossing
signals, street lights, traffic signals, health care facilities, etc.
° Advanced meters with integrated remote service switches are equipped with a protection
scheme to prevent the service switch from closing when an unsafe voltage is measured on
the meter’s load side terminals. This feature is designed to prevent the switch from closing
when a generator or other voltage source has been connected to the meter’s load side
terminals.
• Available Options for Executing the Reconnect Operation
° Single-step process—Utility executes the reconnect operation by sending a single
command.
° Two-step process—Utility initiates the reconnect operation by sending an “arming” com-
mand to the meter. Execution of the reconnect operation is completed when the customer
presses a button on the meter faceplate.
° Pre-pay options—Customer initiates reconnect by swiping pre-loaded card on an in-home
device.

The methods and procedures for disconnection and reconnection will vary according to the operating
practices established by each utility to best suit their individual circumstances.

Remote Service Switch Benefits

Universal deployment of meters containing remote service switches provides utilities other benefits
such as pre-payment, load limiting, and load management options.

Pre-Payment
Pre-payment gives the customer the option to pay as you go for their electricity usage and allows the
utility to turn power on and off in response to this prepayment activity. Many customers may have
difficulty paying the higher monthly electric bills or may have a previous poor payment record, limit-
ing their ability to obtain electric service. The pre-pay option allows customers to pay at more frequent
intervals, providing these customers with another way to better manage their electric usage. There are
many methods for pre-payment services, including the use of home area networks (HAN) interfac- 107
ing with AMI networks, internet services, and advanced meters to monitor customer usage data and
automatically control the service switch.

Service Switch
Load Limiting
For some customers, it becomes necessary for the utility to limit the maximum amount of load cur-
rent well below the meter socket’s maximum limit. By configuring programmable limit values in the
meter software, the utility can set the meter to automatically disconnect service at specific amperage
and reconnect service after a set amount of elapsed time. This limit allows the customer to still oper-
ate a small number of necessary household appliances and heating and air conditioning without using
a large amount of power. The load limiting option provides utilities another option of service offering
for those customers who may not normally be able to regain service due to past payment history.
Utilities may also benefit from the practice of load limiting. During extreme periods of cold or hot
weather conditions, transformers may be stressed to overloaded capacities. Using the AMI and meter
data management systems, the utilities can identify the overloaded transformers which are likely to
fail. Targeting operation of the service switches specifically served by these transformers allows the
utilities a method to limit loads for certain customers during these emergencies.

Load Management
In cases where demand can overwhelm the generating capability of the system, e.g., due to severe
weather or generation failures, the ability to selectively disconnect power to a large number of custom-
ers may be necessary. In the past, this practice, known as a rolling brown-out or load shedding, would
be controlled at the feeder level, effectively shutting off entire sections of the distribution network
without regard to customer load priority. This created safety issues due to the indiscriminate discon-
nection of street lights, railroad crossings, customers on life-support systems, etc. Instead of discon-
necting power at the feeder level, the remote service switch enables electric utilities to disconnect
the customer load at the meter base. This allows the utility to precisely target and control the type of
load that remains on the grid, so that high priority customers such as hospitals, critical care centers,
certain water treatment facilities, gas distributions facilities, emergency broadcast facilities, and others
will be able to continue full operation. By shedding non-critical loads such as residential and small
commercial customers, the utility can ensure system frequency and service to life and safety critical
loads.

Other Benefits
Utilities may also receive other benefits from the universal deployment of AMI systems and meters
with remote service switch capabilities. Remote switch operation no longer requires the meter to be
removed from service when customers relocate and disconnect service. In addition, maintaining meter
inventories to accommodate the removal and installation of meters for customer relocations is no
longer needed.
Customer service is improved when service switch activation occurs almost as soon as the cus-
tomer’s request. Customers no longer need to wait for long periods of time to obtain electrical service
from the utility. Remote service switches also offer the ability for the customer to stop receiving
electrical service at a specific time of the day or week, allowing for more flexibility for the customer.
Remote service switch technology allows the utility to target disconnects early in the morning
before normal business hours. This alerts the customer before leaving their residence to the power
disconnect and gives the customer the option to restore power immediately, thereby not being without
power for the entire day.
Utilities see many benefits from not having to dispatch a field employee to a residence to take
action. Customer privacy is maintained and utility employees are not exposed to liabilities such as pets
at the premise, navigating around locked gates, traveling on busy roads, or dealing with disgruntled
customers.
 108 Design Criteria for Internal Service Switches
Internal service switches contained in smart meters have several important requirements that affect
how service switches are designed and constructed.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

• The switch must efficiently conduct the rated current of the meter.
• The construction of the switch must fit within the confines of the American National Standards
Institute’s (ANSI) standard spacing and accommodate the current sensing method of the meter.
• The switch must maintain its performance over the rated life.
• The switch must safely withstand fault conditions to which the meter may be exposed.
Internal service switches have found widespread application in North American markets where the
majority of meters have a Class Load rating of 200A. Although feasible to construct, service switches
for 320A application are not yet in widespread use. Internal service switches do not have an applica-
tion in transformer-rated meter installations since they cannot interrupt the power delivered to the
consumer.
It is a design goal to minimize the power dissipated in an electricity meter. Wasted power con-
tributes to utility losses. Power is also lost in the form of heat inside the meter enclosure that must
be conducted or radiated to the external environment. Because meter enclosures are designed to be
weather-proof and protect against the possibility of exposure to electrically live parts, the enclosures
are typically sealed and made of non-conductive materials. This means that it is difficult to effectively
remove waste heat from a meter. Excessive temperatures can adversely affect the reliability and per-
formance of the meter. Therefore, maintaining a low electrical resistance in the current conductor
construction is essential.
Current is routed from the line-to-
load terminals of a meter by means of
an electrical conductor. In a traditional
watthour meter this has typically been
done by using a rigid conductor of appro-
priate gauge made of highly conductive
copper or aluminum or some combination
thereof. The problem is somewhat more
difficult in a meter with an internal service
switch. Since there must be some means
of interrupting the current, the efficiency
of the switching element itself must be
considered. While there are many means
of controlling current flow using semi-
conductor devices, as of the time of this
writing none of the available technologies
can meet the efficiency requirements of
a metering application in a cost effective
Figure 6-3. Electromechanical Relay. manner. Although research continues in
the area of alternative technologies, all
commercially available internal service
switches are presently based on electromechanical relay technology. An electromechanical relay funda-
mentally involves a moving conducting element, an electrical contact surface, and an actuator.

Moving Condcutors
A relay mechanism must include at least one moving conductor to open and close the switching
contact surfaces. The moving conductor may be constructed of either a rigid moving element with
contact surfaces mounted at both ends or of a flexible moving element with one fixed end and one
free moving end on which the contact surface is mounted. There are economic and performance
trade-offs associated with either approach. Typical copper or aluminum conductors used in bus-bars
and single strand wire are very highly conductive but they are not flexible. Wires or braids made of
highly stranded fine-gauge wire are both flexible and conductive but they are also relatively expensive.
Alternatively, conductors that are solid yet flexible must be alloyed with other materials in order to
obtain their springy mechanical properties and this generally results in a conductivity that may be only
80% to 90% that of electrical grade copper. The majority of service switch designs in use today employ 109
some type of flexible copper alloy conductor with a fixed end and a movable contact end. This conduc-
tor is sized to minimize the resistive losses. The fixed end is typically bonded to a rigid electrical grade
copper conductor to complete the current circuit through the meter.

Service Switch
In a switching application, the current must pass through one or more pairs of conductive contact
surfaces which are moved apart to interrupt the current flow or forced together to allow current to
flow. There are many considerations in contact design but the factors of efficiency, reliability, and cost
are predominant.

Electrical Contact Surfaces

A basic understanding of contact performance is helpful in order to continue. When electrical
contacts are forced together, the conductive interface does not cover the entire mating surface of the
contacts. On a microscopic level, surfaces are never truly flat. The surfaces that are actually in contact
are limited to a number of very small contact areas called asperities. When current flows through
the mating contact interface, the electric current is constricted to flow through these asperities. The
effect of constricting the current flow is an increase in the apparent resistance of the contact, as well
as an effect of magnetic repulsion between the contact faces. If current flowing through the contact
interface is interrupted by separating the contacts, an electrical arc will result until the separation is
sufficient to extinguish the arc. This electrical arc may briefly have a temperature of several thousand
degrees. This is a temperature high enough to melt or vaporize small amounts of the contact mate-
rial, resulting in gradual erosion and a continuously changing surface of the electrical contact. In the
case of contacts that are rapidly brought together, the contact faces may have enough kinetic energy
and elasticity to bounce. In this case, the contacts may reclose into a pool of molten metal and weld
together.
In order to minimize resistance, a contact material of high conductivity is utilized. This is typi-
cally silver; however, a pure silver contact has a tendency to form a strong weld, rendering the switch
inoperable. To reduce the possibility of welding, practical contact materials are formed from a mixture
of a conductive material such as silver and a brittle low-conductivity material such as an oxide of
cadmium or tin. Although silver cadmium oxide (AgCdO) contacts have excellent performance, there
has been a trend to reduce cadmium usage for environmental reasons. Silver tin oxide (AgSnO2)
contacts have relatively good performance without the potential toxicity of cadmium and have found
general acceptance in many applications. Although these materials will still form a weld when closing
into a bouncing contact under load, the weld will be brittle and weak and the switch mechanism can
be designed to break any welds that may form.
Many other contact types exist that may vary the ratio or composition of the materials to achieve
different characteristics. It is useful to understand that the contact interface changes during each
actuation of the switch under load. Thus, the resistance of a contact set will typically undergo a small
variation about a stable long-term average value over the lifetime of the contacts. End-of-life occurs
when the contact material is completely eroded away. Since silver is a precious metal, the size and
thickness of the contact surfaces is optimized for the intended life of the switch. All of these phenom-
ena must be considered in designing the contact interface.

actuators
In order to open or close the service switch, there must be an actuating device. Since the switch may
remain in a given state for an extended period of time, it is desirable that the actuator not require any
energy to maintain its state. Energy must be applied to change the state of the switch, but when it is
in one state or the other it does not require additional energy. Such a mechanism is called bi-stable.
There are many ways to construct a bi-stable actuator. Common methods in use today include the
use of permanent magnets to latch the armature of a solenoid or rocking H-shaped mechanism, or by
the use of a machine such as an electric motor drive and cam. Some of the factors that influence the
design are the energy source available to drive the actuator and the ability to resist mechanical shock
or other outside influences.
In the field it is possible that the switch may be exposed to high-current electrical faults in the
metered premises. As mentioned earlier, a repulsive effect is generated between contact faces by the
current constriction in the contact asperities. Normally these magnetic forces are insignificant and
are overcome by the normal mechanical forces of the mechanism. At high fault currents (several
thousand amperes), these repulsive forces become significant and, if not accounted for in the design,
 110 may force the switch contacts open. A very high energy level could be dissipated in an arc between the
contact faces if this happens, resulting in potential destruction of the contact and associated electri-
cal conductors. To prevent this, the internal service switch is carefully designed to balance the high
current magnetic forces to keep the contacts closed.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Testing
Utility Acceptance Testing
Remote service switches are built as an integral part of a solid state watthour meter and are subject
to the individual utility’s receiving inspection testing process that watthour meters without a service
switch would go through. Depending on the inspection process, the service switch may or may not be
subject to a functional test.
For First Article Testing (FAT) processes, utilities should test and verify that all communication
methods for operating the service switch mechanism are working properly. Communication methods
may include the AMI communication network, communication through the meter’s optical port, or
any other optional method that the meter utilizes for operation of the switch.
The FAT process of the service switch should also include operation of the switch under the meter
test amp (TA) load condition.
The switch should also be tested to verify that closure operation is not allowed when the meter’s
programmed load side voltage threshold is exceeded.

ANSI Standard Testing

Type Testing
Type testing is done to verify that a design is suitable for its intended use based on a set of test
requirements. The documents that describe the performance type tests for meters are ANSI C12.1 and
ANSI C12.20. The mechanical requirements for meters are described in ANSI C12.10. Not only are
meters with a service switch subject to the same requirements as meters without a service switch, but
there are also additional tests unique to meters with a service switch.
There is a separate document, C12.30, that describes a set of type tests for meters with a service
switch. This document makes many references to tests specified in C12.1 and C12.20 and, in the
future, may be incorporated into one of these C12 standards. In general, C12.30 explains any test
modifications or additions required to run a test required in C12.1 or C12.20 on a meter with a
service switch. C12.30 has also added some additional tests specific to the service switch. The type
tests are required on new or significantly changed meter designs. The tests are performed by the utility,
the meter manufacturer, or by an independent lab.
The specifics of the type tests are not repeated in this Handbook. The reader is directed toward the
C12.30 document for specifics on the type tests for meters with a service switch. C12.30, like all docu-
ments, is subject to revision, so the latest edition of C12.30 should be used for a test document and
not this Handbook. The reader would also be directed toward C12.1 and C12.20 for a complete list of
type tests and test methodology required for watthour meters. The following paragraphs describe why
the tests in C12.30 were put into the document and what aspect of performance the test will verify.
Tests on Meters With and Without Service Switches
ANSI C12.30 details additional test conditions on meters with a service switch. A simple requirement
is that the service switch be operational after most of the metering tests. This is to verify that the
switch and switch controls are functional after explicit external influences are applied to the meter.
External influences would include such tests as high voltage line surges, temperature changes, electro-
static discharge, mechanical vibration, and others. For these such tests that already exist in C12.20,
C12.30 describes in which state (or states) the switch should be during the test and any additional
pass/fail criteria, e.g., the switch shall not change states.
There are two tests from C12.1 that deserve highlighting: these are the temporary overload tests
(test 20 in C12.1-2008). These tests apply to meters with or without a service switch. The first overcur-
rent test specifies that after a high current is placed through the meter, and thus the service switch, the
meter shall still maintain accurate registration. This test verifies that the meter can take a substantial
overload and still perform all of its functions. The C12.30 document specifies the same test current
and the same accuracy limits as in C12.1 and also requires that the service switch functions properly
after the test. The second temporary overload test is entitled effect of mechanical structure and insula-
tion and is referred to as the Through Fault test in C12.30. This is not a meter performance test, but 111
a safety test. It is intended to represent a short circuit condition on the load side of the main circuit
breaker. The meter is not required to work after this severe test; it is only required to be safe. The test
places a very high current through the meter and the meter is required to be intact and be able to pass

Service Switch
the meter insulation test.
Tests Unique to Meters with Service Switches
In addition to the tests already specified in C12.1, C12.30 lists other tests specific to the service switch
such as cycling, continuous load current, close on fault, and load side voltage sensing.
The first such test is for cycling (an open and close of the switch contacts) of the switch. The test
specifies a number of cycles without any electrical load and a smaller number of cycles with a load.
The unloaded test is to prove the mechanical aspects of the switch, both the moving parts and the
electrical drive mechanism. The test with an electrical load is to prove the robustness of the electri-
cal contacts. Electrical contacts wear as a circuit is opened and closed. If the contacts wear out, the
electrical resistance increases and can cause excessive heat in the meter. To verify that the contacts are
still in good condition after the cycling test, a heat rise test is performed. The number of cycles speci-
fied in C12.30 is many more than the number of cycles expected in the meter’s service life.
The purpose of the Continuous Class Amp Test is to validate the continuous class amp rating of
the service switch in a given metering device. This test operates a metering device at room temperature
at maximum rated class amp continuously for a specified duration. The meter must still be accurate
and fully functional after this test.
Another test unique to service switch meters is the close on fault test. This test is similar to the
Through Fault test, but at the start of this test the switch is open and then the switch is closed into
the high current overload. As in the Through Fault test, after the test the meter is not required to be
functional; it is required to be safe.
The last unique test for meters with a service switch is to verify that an open switch will not
close when there is voltage on the load side. If the electrical service has been turned off with the
service switch in the meter, it would be possible for the customer to hook up an auxiliary source of
power. This could be from a neighbor’s electrical service, or, more probably, from an auxiliary genera-
tor. Because an auxiliary generator will not be phase locked to the utility voltage source, closing the
meter’s service switch may damage the generator and electrical loads. Meters are required to sense
the load side voltage and not close if a significant voltage is present. The meter’s switch will function
properly when the load side voltage is removed.
 Chapter 7

Communications

Introduction—Communication Systems
The evolution of communication technologies and system advances have enabled advanced
metering services for the electric utility industry. The most basic of these advanced metering services
is the ability to read the meter remotely. Systems that perform this fundamental task are generally
referred to as Automated Meter Reading (AMR) systems. AMR systems have one-way communications
for meter reading with little or no other advanced functionality.
Further evolution has yielded meters and systems with even more advanced functionality,
including meters with the capability of recording interval data, recording power quality informa-
tion, recording bi-directional energy flow, integrating with an outage management system, providing
end-use customers access to meter data via Home Area Networks (HAN), and being connected and
disconnected by a remote service switch. Metering systems with this level of functionality are typically
referred to as Advanced Meter Infrastructure (AMI) systems.

One-Way Communications Systems

Automated Meter Reading
AMR technology was introduced to enable meter readers to collect metering information without the
need to visit every meter. It is an overall efficiency improvement over the manual process. In addition,
AMR resolves meter access problems and reduces data entry errors. Beyond the meter reading process,
electric utilities have also captured benefits outside of the metering-to-billing functions, including
improved demand forecasting accuracy, increased energy distribution system efficiency, enabling the
provisions of new rates and meter data services, and management of customer choice and retail
competition within the utilities’ service territory.
There are many different drivers for the implementation of AMR with utilities deploying AMR
solutions that are specific to their own unique operations and service territory. Many utilities are
deploying integrated AMR solutions that combine different collection technologies to deliver the
desired level of data collection functionality. Each of these technologies—handheld computers, mobile
vehicle-based systems, wireless networks, telephone-based systems and power line carriers—has its own
set of strengths depending on the strategic objectives of that utility.

Radio-Based Automated Meter Reading

With a radio-based system, each meter is adapted with a compact, low-powered transmitter/receiver
which broadcasts meter data and tamper data via radio signal. The original radio-based AMR units
contained a radio receiver that transmitted to the collector when a licensed “wake-up” tone signal was
“heard” by the meter. Current radio-based AMR units have eliminated the receiver module within the
unit and send readings on a predefined and repeated basis.

113
 114 The meters are polled by a handheld terminal or a vehicle-based collection unit, often referred to
as a “walk-by” or “drive-by” AMR solution, respectively. Both solutions allow for the mass collection
of meter readings from many meters simultaneously, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the
manual meter reading process.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Daily, the readings are brought back to a central office and loaded into the utility’s billing system.
Depending on meter density, memory capacity, and the type of readings collected, handheld collection
units (walk-by) are typically capable of reading several hundred meters in a day. Mobile-based (drive-
by) units, on the other hand, improve meter reading efficiency to the thousands of meters read within
a single day. While the human meter reading process is limited to being performed during daylight
hours, mobile-based meter reading is not. Thus, some utilities utilizing the “drive-by” solution have
introduced a second and even a third shift for their meter reading functions.

Network Meter Reading

Network meter reading systems use a fixed communication infrastructure. Radio-based communication
networks are the most commonly used technology. Other types, including power line communications
(PLC) and telephone-based systems, are also network meter reading systems in that the communica-
tion medium—the utility’s wires in the case of a PLC system or the telephone cellular or land lines in
the case of a telephone-based system—are key components of the fixed infrastructure.
Most network meter reading systems are comprised of communication-equipped meters with
either pole-mounted or substation-based data collection devices for transmitting metering information
to a head-end system at the utility’s home office.
Companies can then apply a variety of communications technologies to retrieve the data from the
collectors. These methods may use a private, dedicated wireless network, a public network, or some
combination of the two. Although the cost of a network system is different than the handheld “walk-
by” or mobile “drive-by” automatic meter reading system, these networks provide electric utilities with
additional functionality by replacing manual reading with a fixed communication infrastructure.
In most cases, the volume of data brought back from the meter is more than what could be
efficiently handled through the manual reading process. Some of the functional benefits of network
meter reading may include the collection of consumption reads, on-request reads, tamper reporting,
time-of-use, demand metering, load profile/interval reading, meter and network diagnostics, virtual
connect/disconnect capabilities, outage detection, and restoration reporting.

Figure 7-1a. AMR Modules Installed “Under Glass” in Electromechanical Meters.

 115

Communications
Figure 7-1b. AMR Modules are “Built In” to Figure 7-1c. Example of a Handheld Reader.
Electronic Meters.

Telephone-Based Automated Meter Reading

There are two methodologies for implementing a telecommunications network used with AMR. The
more common approach is the use of a voice grade circuit, commonly known as circuit switched,
where a telephone number is used to contact an end point device telephone. When a call is made
from one telephone to another, switches within the telephone exchanges create a continuous wire
circuit between the two telephones for the duration of the call. Another method for telecommunica-
tions referred to as packet switching is the use of a digital networking communication infrastructure
that incorporates packet switching technology. In using this approach, the data is divided into blocks
of data (called packets) and may be transferred through the network independently. Packet data
switching has become the standard communication for the Internet and is typically referred to as
Internet Protocol or IP.
Telephone Dial-Out System
With a telephone dial-out system, the utility initiates “outbound” calls to meters equipped with
modems, providing the utility with the flexibility to poll meters at any time. As with network meter
reading, this allows for capturing of initial, final, or any type of on-demand readings. It also provides
the option of collecting special conditions identified by the meter, such as a loss of a phase voltage or
a failure within the meter’s metrology processor.
In most cases, a dedicated telephone line is provided to the meter by either the customer or the
utility. The dedicated line prevents the customer’s own phone from ringing when called. Many utilities
have moved away from this alternative by utilizing wireless cellular modems within the meter. The
cellular modem still allows for outbound “dialing” to the meter through the cell phone number or IP
number assigned to the meter.
To place outbound calls to telephone-based meters, the utility’s host computer must maintain a
directory of the appropriate contact information, such as the telephone or IP numbers, assigned as
part of the installation record for the customer’s meter. Typically, companies using this technology
place their outbound calls on a nightly schedule and contact each meter once a day.
Telephone Dial-In System
With a telephone dial-in system, each meter calls into the utility at specified times, reporting its
metering information at that time. During this call, the host computer may reprogram the meter’s
calling schedule and other parameters, including the meter’s clock, program, etc. Dial-in systems
 116 typically share the customer’s telephone line and can be installed without much involvement from the
local telephone company.
In an effort to eliminate any inconvenience to the customer, calls initiated by the meter are
typically processed at night when the shared phone line is least likely to be used. The utility’s call-in
Handbook for Electricity Metering

number is typically a toll-free number so there is no per-call or long distance cost for the customer.
Also, if the phone line is busy or the customer picks up the line during the middle of the meter’s
communication period, the meter hangs up immediately, releasing the phone line for the customer’s
use. The meter tries to call again at a later time.
The investment costs for a dial-in can be low and effective in remote and low density locations.
Dial-in systems generally rely on the customer’s telephone lines, which are vulnerable to interrup-
tion resulting from the customer either changing or even eliminating their phone number or service,
usually done without notifying the utility. Another consideration when utilizing in-bound telephone
technology is that customers are trending towards eliminating land lines, instead relying on their cell
phones for daily use.
Cellular Systems
Originally, cellular systems were implemented in the same manner as wired telephone systems, only
without a physical telephone connection to the meter. As the communication technology evolved from
an analog environment to a fully digital environment, cellular systems also evolved, utilizing more
standard digital computer protocols and methodologies.
Today, most utilities using a cellular system have established a Virtual Private Network (VPN) with
the cellular provider of choice. The VPN connection establishes a secure connection from the utility
through the cellular provider’s network to each meter within the system. With the VPN connection,
the utility’s information technology (IT) department can manage access to specific computers within
the company. In some cases, the collection of the data is performed by the provider and the VPN
connection is then used as the secure path to deliver the data. In either case, the meter itself contains
a cellular modem which allows it to connect to the service provider’s system. However, in lieu of a
telephone number, each cellular modem is assigned an IP address that connects with each meter.
An agreement between the cellular provider and the utility is required to establish a VPN con-
nection. Some utilities have agreements with multiple cellular providers, depending on their cellular
coverage. Each meter department must ensure that the cellular modems are compatible with the
cellular providers’ system where the meters are deployed.
Satellite Reading Systems
In some very remote locations, satellite communications are a more viable option for meter reading as
the area may not be practical for telephone or cellular service, meters may be spread too far apart for
radio frequency (RF) communication, or it may be a long distance to the nearest meter reader’s office.
This may lead to the choice of satellite communications for reading such meters. A ground based radio
is attached to the meter’s communications port. Throughout the day and night telecom satellites pass
over the meter’s location. When a connection is established, the data packets are sent as a high speed
burst into space and retransmitted by Low Earth Orbiting Satellites (LEOS) back to a Satellite Network
Operations Center (NOC). From the NOC, the data is transported to the utility, usually via a secure
File Transfer Process (FTP). Once received by the utility, the data is routed to load research or billing
systems as needed. It should be noted that due to the communication system, the utility meter reading
and programming system is not connected to the meter, so reprogramming or other “on-demand”
data that can typically be requested from a “network system” are not possible and require a field trip
to the meter site. This technology tends to be much more expensive than the host of other alternatives
and therefore is rarely used by utilities.

Power Line Communications

Since power lines are connected to every electric meter within the distribution system, they can also
be used for the transmission of metering data. This method of communications is referred to as
power line communications. Information collected via PLC is encoded within the meter and then sent
through the power lines to special receivers, which are typically located at area substations. There are
many different types of PLC technology, all of which utilize the power line itself as the network path.
Two-Way Communications Systems via Advanced Metering Infrastructure 117
The passage of the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007) increased the interest in AMI
development and deployment. Many utilities conducted pilot programs to test the various technolo-

Communications
gies to determine the best fit for their requirements. With the passage of the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in 2009, federal funding was provided to accelerate AMI deployment. This
resulted in significant growth of AMI implementation and many utilities with mature AMR systems
began transitioning to AMI.
The major differences between AMI and AMR systems focuses on the following three areas:
a. The communications capabilities between each meter/device and the back office.
b. The amount and type of information provided by the system.
c. Advanced functionality available as a result of the additional communications and information
capabilities.
AMI requires full two-way connection between each metering point and the back office system,
utilizing a fixed communication network. In an AMI system, meter data can be obtained upon a
calendar schedule or requested on demand. Furthermore, the AMI meter is capable of providing more
information than is typically available in an AMR system. In addition to basic billing information,
AMI also provides power quality information, alarm and event data, and power outage and voltage
information, all of which may be provided back to the utility in either a near or real-time manner.
The head-end system collects the data and transfers the appropriate consumption data to the utility’s
billing system. Where AMR can be adapted to a simple electromechanical meter to primarily retrieve
register reads, AMI requires an electronic meter platform that can be programmed with the advanced
functionality to act as both a billing and monitoring end-point.
Early communication devices required control circuit board components which were used for
switching, filtering, surge protection, etc., to be combined into a separate circuit board, often referred
to as a communications module. Power requirements for the communication module were extensive
and required a separate power supply from the meter. This arrangement is known as a modular meter
design. As technology advanced, the power requirements for the communication modules dropped so
that the metrology power supply would be sufficient to power the meter as well as communications.
This allowed for the integration of communications and metrology into one circuit board, resulting in
a common device, an integrated meter, with a reduced cost. Many manufacturers incorporate the AMI
communication device on the metrology board.
In addition to the communication module necessary to connect the meter to the utility, AMI
meters may also contain an additional communication device to communicate to a HAN.
All advanced metering systems rely on a fixed two-way communications network to relay the cus-
tomers’ meter information to the utility and commands from the utility to the meter. From telephone
modems and switched public networks to power line communications or carrier systems, RF transmis-
sion or cellular telephone service, a communication infrastructure must be developed and supported.
Additionally, these systems must have sufficient bandwidth capacity to allow the data to flow in either
direction. The time it takes for a message to travel from a host to a client, referred to as latency, is
a factor when considering uses of the communication infrastructure with critical alerts or messages.
Another network characteristic is throughput, which is the ability of a communication network to
handle the volume of data when there is a major outage or a load control event.
Some additional factors that need to be considered when designing an AMI system:
• Topography, i.e., whether the area is flat versus mountainous.
• Customer density, as urban areas have greater density but can also cause throughput concerns,
while rural areas can extend great distances for a minimal number of customers.
AMI systems generally employ PLC and RF technologies. There are two types of RF systems, mesh
systems and point-to-point systems.

Power Line Communication (PLC) Systems

PLC is a method of imposing a data signal on the existing distribution wiring system for bidirectional
communications with each meter. Equipment is typically installed at the substation for sending the
PLC signal out to the meter as well as for detecting signals returning back from the meter. The electric
distribution system is a unique medium and PLC systems must contend with the overall impedance
 118 of each circuit as well as attenuation and noise from equipment distribution equipment such as
transformers.
The PLC communication system used for AMR is essentially the same technology and architecture
as that which is used for AMI. However, AMI systems require a greater bandwidth and utilize more
Handbook for Electricity Metering

enhanced communication protocols to achieve the full two-way communications required to provide
interval data and other value-added services.
A common feature of PLC systems is that they all must operate within the harsh constraints of
the power line as its communication medium.

Typical Types of PLC Systems

Carrier Injected Modulation
PLC using an injected carrier frequency typically uses frequencies in the range of 24 to 500 kilohertz
(kHz). The carrier signal can be amplitude modulated or digitally ­modulated on the power line
medium. Carrier frequencies in this range have the ability to pass through utility transformers.
However, this system requires a high signal strength and repeaters to achieve greater distances. These
carrier modulation techniques have a few notable variants:
• One PLC carrier technology uses an ultra narrow band technology that relies on current rather
than voltage, so data transmission is not affected by line length or distribution line devices such
as transformers and capacitors.
• Another PLC technology uses a variant of a high frequency carrier system design, requiring
extensive line conditioning to allow signals to pass through distribution line equipment.
Sine Wave Aberration Technique Proprietary to
Aclara Two-Way Automatic Communications System (TWACS)
This method relies not on an injected carrier frequency, but on creating aberrations to the voltage and
current waveform near each zero crossing. The patterns of the waveform aberrations create data bits
that form a communication protocol for two-way communications between the head-end and each
meter that is unaffected by line length or distribution devices.
Broadband Over Power Lines (BPL)
Broadband Over Power Line (BPL) is a high-speed digital data transmission at RF frequencies over
the public electric power distribution system. BPL signals typically cannot pass through distribution
transformers and require coupling equipment to bypass transformers. Two major advantages of BPL
over PLC systems are the volume of data and the speed at which it can be transmitted and received.
Radio Frequency Systems—Mesh
Radio frequency mesh technology uses the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific & Medical (ISM) band
(902–928 megahertz, or MHz) for communication between meters, routers, and centrally-located data
collectors. Collectors send data from multiple meters to a head-end system by common carrier, fiber
optic, or a combination of both. To increase data communication reliability, the meters can relay their
data to neighboring meters on the network, providing multiple communication paths to the data col-
lector. This is known as a mesh network and has the advantage of routing around a damaged section
of the network (i.e., self-healing). There are typically limits to the number of mesh connections that
meters can make and a limit to the number of meters that can talk to any router or collector.
Variations amongst the schemes are aimed to improve throughput and reliability. Some of these
variations include:
• A controlled mesh where the communication neighbor in the mesh is predefined versus
random;
• Utilizing more frequencies within the bandwidth to increase communication speed and allowing
the meters to transmit and receive simultaneously; and
• Providing full duplex capability.
Radio Frequency Systems—Point-to-(Multi) Point
A point-to-(multi) point method of RF-AMI uses the high power primary use licensed spectrum to
communicate directly to numerous radio endpoints via a network of data collectors. The high power
point-to-(multi) point solution provides overlapping umbrellas of network or cells of coverage. This
topology is customizable in the amount of data collector overlap and the radius of data collector
coverage. The scalability of the high power point-to-(multi) point solution is managed by either adding 119
additional data collectors or bandwidth to the existing network. The collectors then forward the
multiple meter data to a head-end server via any public or private broadband carrier, such as RF, PLC,
cellular, satellite, or fiber optic, with options for both primary and secondary communication connec-

Communications
tions. The head-end system then forwards the multi-meter data to a meter data management system
(MDMS) and other utility application programs.
A point-to-(multi) point system is self-healing, like a mesh network, to ensure that each meter
has multiple paths to a data collector. Typically, within a point-to-(multi) point system, there is a
limit to the number of meters that can talk to a data collector.
Hybrid Solutions
It should be noted that even though radio frequency (or wireless) systems are generally classified as
either a mesh or a point-to-(multi) point system, some system providers have introduced features
that use both technologies, creating a hybrid model. For example, in a point-to-(multi) point system,
there are usually specific metering locations which are not able to connect directly with any routers/
collectors within the system. In lieu of installing a dedicated data collector for that one location, a
mechanism can be introduced where a limited number of meter-to-meter, mesh-like, communications
can be put in place, thereby allowing the communications to work itself around the blockage. On the
other hand, most mesh networks are generally designed with a single data collection point for each
mesh node as its communications path to the home office, in much the same way as the point-to-
(multi) point system.

Metering Substation Communications

Substation meters are multi-function intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) that are often employed for
applications beyond revenue metering. As such, the communications requirements for these devices
can be among the most complex of any device in the substation. Where a protection relay may com-
municate with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and possibly a maintenance soft-
ware, substation meters may communicate with SCADA, maintenance software, power quality analysis
software, multiple revenue billing data collection engines, and other engineering systems. Inherent in
this complex ecosystem is the ability of the device to simultaneously support multiple communication
tasks over various media, utilizing different protocols, with varying security access levels based on the
application.
Supporting multiple communication needs, both upstream and downstream from the device,
requires more processing power than a standard revenue meter provides. Added processing impacts
meter design in areas such as temperature (internal heating), cabling, configuration, and more. For
this reason, substation meters may be more complex to configure, install, and maintain.

Communications Media
Given that the lifecycle of a substation is over 50 years and the monitoring and control equipment
is somewhat less, various generations of technologies must co-exist at times. Communications avail-
ability can range from none to full gigabyte (GB) Ethernet over fiber optic cable. Substation metering
must be capable of bridging the gap between communications upgrades. A few examples of media
requirements are:
• Optical ports for local connection
• On-board Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN, a.k.a. POTS) modems
• Serial ports for local and remote communications
• On-board Ethernet network interface card supporting 10 megabyte (MB), 100MB, and even
1GB speeds for both RJ-45 (copper) and fiber optic connections
The physical requirements of this variety of connections and cables may cause substation meters to
be larger in size and more difficult to install and wire. Also, the complexity of configuring the meter’s
communication and managing security access increases.

Protocols
Data from substation meters can be used for many different applications, each requiring a different
set of data to be presented in a different level of detail. These differences gave rise to various protocols
 120
Modem Ethernet PQ Monitoring
Billing System and Analysis
TCP/IP
Handbook for Electricity Metering

RS-485
Customer Service
Direct IRIG-B
Time Synch
RS-232
SCADA System

I/R Port I/O Digital

Substation Maintenance and Analog

Figure 7-2. Multiple Communications Ports from a Single Substation Meter.

with which to communicate the data. Historically, each manufacturer created its own protocol to
transfer data between devices and between devices and remote systems. Over time, industry groups
have tried to create standard protocols for manufacturers to implement in order to reduce the con-
figuration and maintenance complexity for the end-user. Various interest groups within the industry
tackled different topics and data sets, leading to a variety of protocols that are application-specific and
even, in some cases, geographically specific. Early control applications used the Modbus protocol for
machine-to-machine communications. In fact, this practice is still ­prevalent today. The North Ameri-
can groups for SCADA communication created distributed network protocol (DNP), while the same
groups in Europe created International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61870-5-101.
Neither of these protocols addressed the need for transmitting waveform data, thereby precipitat-
ing yet additional protocols targeting this specific requirement. For example, Common Format for
Transient Data Exchange (COMTRADE) was developed to transfer waveform and power quality data,
though some utilities preferred to use Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF). Revenue
metering data was addressed by neither COMTRADE nor PQDIF standards, but was addressed by
separate groups. In the IEC community, the Device Language Message Specification/Companion
Specification for Energy Metering (DLMS/COSEM) protocol was created, while the North American
groups worked to develop American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C12.19 and C12.22. In the
interim, some software companies created applications to use vendor-specific protocols to transfer
revenue data, thereby giving the end-user a multi-vendor tool for revenue data collection. As a result,
many substation meters must be capable of simultaneously supporting any or all of these protocols.

Access control
Allowing remote users to connect to a device improves operational efficiency but raises issues regarding
control of the integrity of the data and the device configuration. Substation meters must allow for the
control of the access rights for various users based on the application. In addition, substation revenue
metering configuration may be required to have an electronic sealing function such that no one can
change parameters that would impact revenue billing without regulatory approval. Other systems may
require read-only access to a restricted set of data. Substation meters must control both local and
remote communications access rights in a manageable way.

Communications to a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

Typical of substation communications, meters may communicate to the RTU over a serial RS-232 or
RS-485 connection. The information from that meter such as real time, historical data logs, event
logs, power quality (PQ) data, etc., is then sent via the RTU to a SCADA master station. Additionally,
the substation can be configured for multipoint communications using RS-485 or RS-422 so that
multiple meters can communicate over a pair of wires to the RTU.
 121
Ethergate Modemgate
Telephone Line

Communications
Ethernet Serial Serial

Figure 7-3. Ethernet or Modem Gateways.

Communications to a Gateway
Meters can have linked communications to allow a group of meters to communicate over the same
network bus to a gateway and permitting communications to all the devices, which would allow a
system (e.g., SCADA, DCS, BAS, etc.) to communicate to all the devices on the bus as required. The
bus, typically RS-485, is able to allow 32 devices to communicate up to 4,000 feet. A gateway can
be created using an Ethernet connection (Ethergate) or a modem connection (modemgate) to the
485 loop.

Host/Client Communications in the Substation

A host/client communication scheme can be created to allow one meter to control other meters or
devices such as relays. This is typically used for the summation of energy and demand values from
multiple meters to create a single point for billing. This is ­commonly done by hard wiring between
meters to summing pulses. The ability to accomplish the same method using communications
provides such benefits as communicating the actual values, controlling meters using the summation
and alarming on either the individual or summed values, and displaying the individual and summed
values on the meter display. Note, however, that not all substation meters are capable of this level of
functionality.

Master

RS-485 or Ethernet

Slave Slave Slave

Figure 7-4. Host/Client Communications.

 122 Home Area Network
A home Area network or hAn is a communication network within the home or small commercial
location that allows for the transfer of information between electronic devices, including, but not
Handbook for ElEctricity MEtEring

limited to, in-home displays, computers, energy management devices, security, entertainment devices,
load control devices, remote home management, distributed energy resources, thermostats, and smart
meters. home area networks can be wired or wireless.
There can be a variety of topologies for a hAn. one such configuration, called a utility Managed
network, is shown below in figure 7-5. The hAn may be as simple as the meter and an in-home
display. The customer may or may not have any input into the hAn.
A more complex configuration for a hAn is shown in figure 7-6, which can be called a Consumer
Managed network. All equipment below the consumer boundary is typically owned and controlled by
the home owner or end user. While the electric utility has input into the network, any decisions on
control of end devices are made by the customer (or even a third party if the appropriate permission is
granted by the consumer) either manually or by the programming of the home controller. The home
controller can be either built within a hAn device, such as a thermostat, or via software loaded onto
the consumer’s equipment.

CommuniCAtions methods used By A home AreA network

There are three possible physical layer communication methods for a hAn: dedicated wiring (wired),
radio (wireless), and power line communications (or carrier).
Wired
The most common wired networking method uses the ethernet (ieee 802.3) network architecture.
This high speed technology is mature, reliable, widely accepted by a large number of devices, and avail-
able with strong security methods. its maximum speed has been increased as technology has improved
and is now available in excess of 1Gbit/s, but 100Mbit/s and 10Mbit/s are more common. Since

Utility

Utility
Communications

Meter
Consumer Boundary

Consumer

Home Area Network (HAN)

Figure 7-5. Utility Managed Network.

 123

Communications
Figure 7-6. Consumer Managed Network.

Ethernet requires dedicated wiring, (a dedicated wire to each device) it can be expensive, especially
when retrofitting existing locations. Also, not all energy-related devices are made with an Ethernet
interface and many energy-related HAN devices do not need as high a data rate as available through
an Ethernet connection. While wired networks are common in commercial settings, they are much
less common in residential applications.
There are other wired communications methods, such as RS-232 and RS-485 type connections
which, like Ethernet, utilize serial communications standards. RS-232 and RS-485 define only the
physical layer of the communications interface; they do not address any aspect of a protocol. Even
though RS-232 has been used for many years, its use is diminishing since it is used for primarily
point-to-point communications, while RS-485 can be used in multipoint applications. RS-485 is also
more common in industrial locations and can be configured in 4-wire (full duplex) or 2-wire (half
duplex) arrangements.
One example of a common application within the metering arena of an RS-485 connection is the
sharing of one telephone modem with many meters, each meter being equipped with an RS-485 wired
connection module.
Wireless
RF devices are much more common in residential applications because they have low installation costs
and are typically offered at a good price for the performance characteristics provided. A mature and
widely accepted standard for RF communications is Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11). This standard, first published
in 1997, has been amended many times to add new capabilities. While there are inexpensive chip sets
available for integration into equipment, the power requirements of this communications technology
limits battery operation. Security within the communications was first implemented as IEEE 802.11i
and has been evolving over the years. The Wi-Fi Alliance industry group specifies their specific security
and operational characteristics to ensure interoperable implementations.
 124 The most common wireless HAN protocol used in smart meters is ZigBee. Designed specifically
with low power consumption requirements and low data rate operation in mind, some product designs
can have battery life lasting several years. ZigBee is controlled by an industry alliance that defines
specifications and certifies product interoperability. It has developed a large base of manufacturers
Handbook for Electricity Metering

and a broad array of products. The packet-based protocol uses the IEEE 802.15.3 standard and allows
devices to communicate in a variety of network topologies. As with Wi-Fi, ZigBee also uses the indus-
trial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands. The maximum data rates depend on the specific
frequency band used and can be up to 250kbits/s. The advertised indoor range is up to 200 feet.
ZigBee allows for several levels of security, varying from none to full encryption and authentication.
There are a few other wireless communications that are much less common. Bluetooth is widely
used in short range communications, e.g., for a cell phone to headset wireless connection. However, it
has not gained a general acceptance in HAN applications because it has limited networking and range
capabilities. Bluetooth is based on the IEEE 802.15 standard.
Another low-power RF communications HAN technology is Z-wave. It is designed for low data
rate (up to 100kbits/s in the ISM band), secure communications, and status and monitoring. Many
products are available with this technology in the areas of security, remote home management, energy
conservation, home entertainment, and home comfort.
Power Line Communications (PLC)
Some home networks have been developed to use the existing home wiring as the communications
connection. A major advantage of PLC is that there is no need for ­additional wiring within the home
or facility to talk with alternating current devices. While power lines were not developed as a com-
munication path and are subject to a variety of noise sources, modern electronics can be made to use
this noisy path to make reliable communications through the selection of a less noisy frequency range,
spread spectrum techniques, and forward error correction coding.
One example of a PLC network is HomePlug, which is able to provide reliable communications
over existing house wiring. HomePlug is designed for high data rates to support video, but HomePlug
Green PHY (GP) was developed specifically for use in smart grid areas. It has a lower data rate (up
to 10Mbit/s), lower power, and lower cost, but is still compatible with other HomePlug networks. GP
uses AES-128 encryption to provide secure communications.
Another networking system (ANSI/CEA-790.1) that can use PLC as its communication network is
LonWorks. While LonWorks is more common as a HAN in Europe, it is also used in industrial control
in other locations, including the U.S. Using PLC, it has a low data rate (less than 10kbits/sec) but
uses the bandwidth efficiently.

Applications for a Home Area Network

A HAN can range from very simple to complex networks. Different communications are dependent
on the type of AMI utilized. While a complex HAN network may contain appliance control, light
control, entertainment control, security, or home automation, HAN also has various energy-related
applications.
The simplest HAN (Figure 7-5) consists of the meter communicating with an in-home display
that could display various types of information such as real time energy consumption, time-of-use rate
information, current or future pricing data, monthly or daily billing information, or even messages
from the utility. Slightly more complex networks would include the control of large energy loads, e.g.,
water heaters, pool pump, electric vehicle (EV) charging, or the thermostat setting that the customer
has allowed the utility to control.

Smart Energy Profile

The Smart Energy Profile (SEP) is a communications framework for transmitting meter data, commod-
ity pricing information, and load control directives to in-home HAN devices such as smart appliances,
programmable thermostats, and display devices. It also defines the responses that may possibly come
back from these in-home devices, allowing utilities to review and improve the effectiveness of their
energy management programs.
ZigBee Smart Energy 1.x (ZSE) focuses on providing one of the most frequently used solutions for
embedded devices, emphasizing terse, binary-encoded payloads with a low overall per unit cost and
low-power operation.
 Smart Energy Profile 2.0 (SEP2) focuses more on Web-like technologies, using Extensible Markup Lan- 125
guage (XML)-encoded payloads on top of protocols such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and Trans-
mission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). ZSE 1.x devices all use ZigBee PRO wireless technol-
ogy; SEP2 is intended to provide interoperability among devices using ZigBee IP, HomePlug, Wi-Fi, or other

Communications
IP-based networks. SEP2 will not replace ZSE, as both profiles continue to evolve for their particular niches.
Smart Energy was developed by an industry confederation, with domain experts from utilities,
service providers, meter vendors, appliance makers, consumer electronics manufacturers, and security
firms. In addition to the profile itself, this confederation also produced the test plan and certification
process that ensures interoperability among all devices that carry the Smart Energy label. While mil-
lions of SEP 1.x devices have been deployed already, SEP2 is in the later stage of development. ZigBee
and HomePlug both offer products with SEP certification.

Head End System

The Head End System (HES) is typically the software platform utilized as the main user interface and
is necessary to operate and manage any type of AMI network. It consists of a scalable application soft-
ware package and communication and database servers used to establish a connection between each
AMI endpoint and the office via the AMI network. A back haul wide area network is used to create a
single aggregation point to receive data from the various endpoint devices. Most HESs offer the ability
to connect with the endpoints through public and/or private wide area networks such as Ethernet,
satellite, cellular, or dial-up.
The HES is required to support all of the advanced smart grid AMI and distribution automation
requirements for the implementation of the modern smart grid. Typical features supported by the HES
include:
• Data acquisition and management of two-way electric, water, and gas meters
• Distribution automation grid monitoring and control
• Distributed automation devices
• Management of secure two-way communications between office and endpoints
• Scalable to increase communication throughput (add network components to increase
bandwidth)
• Remote configuration and upgrade of software/firmware of all network nodes, including each
endpoint
• Network and device management capability
• Scalability to millions of end devices
• Support for home area network devices
• Support for demand response devices
• Collect data through scheduled and on-demand reads
• Operate remote service switch
• Collect power quality data and other endpoint information
• Report events and errors
• Scalable to increase communication throughput (add network components to increase
bandwidth)
• Report power outage/restoration
The HES typically integrates seamlessly with Meter Data Management Systems (MDMS) and other
utility enterprise systems such as customer information, planning, distribution management, outage
management, and demand response data.
The HES utilizes authentication, encryption, and various industry standards to ensure proper
security is maintained for each communication. Security is critical to ensure that customer informa-
tion is protected from hackers and that proper utility administration access is maintained.
Scalability of the HES is very important to utilities to ensure that their AMI system meets the
changing needs of their customers and service territory. There are a number of methods that can be
utilized to enhance the scalability of the HES, such as deploying additional network components or
 126 increasing the communication bandwidth to the existing network. Scalability is crucial to ensure the
long-term benefits viability of the AMI network and that it continues to meet the needs of the utility
and its customers.
AMI systems need the capability for routing configuration and process firmware upgrades to
Handbook for Electricity Metering

all remote endpoints. This includes software and firmware upgrades to meters/endpoints and other
network components as well as the capability to operate service switches and collect data through
scheduled and on-demand reads.
Typical HESs employ an easy to navigate user interface referred to as an AMI dashboard to assist
the user in the operation of the AMI system functionality. Most user interfaces are equipped to
provide real-time network diagnostics and status information for quick analysis of particular devices.
A standard user interface provides quick access to key performance indicators, exceptions, and system
reports.
The conventional HES has the capability to track the installation of endpoint devices and sync
installation data with other systems (i.e., customer information system, meter asset systems), which
is particularly helpful during the initial deployment. The HES facilitates the deployment of network
devices and hardware in a seamless fashion. The AMI system should continuously monitor all end-
points and send alerts to the HES as diagnostic activities dictate.
One of the key features of the HES is the capability to provide current and exception reporting
of the key information at specific customer installation sites, including such information as power
quality, voltage, outage, high usage, and demand.
The HES also has the ability to securely provision the customer’s HAN devices through the AMI
network. The HES should support industry standards such as Web services application programming
interface (API) and IEC 61968 (Common Interface Model) standards to enable third party applica-
tions to interface with the AMI system.
A very necessary feature of the HES is the ability to process and log large numbers of meter outage
and restoration events and have the ability to report these occurrences to the utility outage manage-
ment system, distribution management system, and other applications.

Common Feature Sets and Issues

Meters, when used in AMI communication networks, present many challenges, one of which is the
sheer volume of data that could be transmitted and the frequency that it is done.
Simple meters are not stressors on a network. They typically only have energy (active energy
delivered and received) and data is transmitted daily or maybe less frequently. Meters that provide data
on demand are also not network stressors. With the next level, time-of-use (TOU)/load profile meters,
the volume of data can drastically increase based on the load profile interval length and the frequency
of transmission. Most systems today do not transmit all data, but only the most recent. Frequency
may be daily or possibly as often as six times a day. Rarely is transmission done closer to real time.
Also, in meters with load profile, there are many events that are tracked, such as possible tamper
conditions, demand resets, and changes in time, that are transmitted via the communication network
to the host system. While many of these types of meters are used only with active energy, they can
also be used with reactive energy, increasing the data volume.
One of the primary areas of concern in any AMI network is security. It is common to have all
transmissions encrypted as well as authenticated. Most meters today are isolated from the network,
meaning that the meter itself does not initiate a communication session. The communication module
asks the metrology for data and then passes it on via the network to the host system. This is done so
that access via the optical post, common on most meters, cannot be used as a means of access into
the communication network. On some meters, it is possible to actually shut down the optical port via
a network command as an additional level of security.
 Chapter 8

The Smart Grid

Introduction
The smart grid is an environment of components, applications, and users networked together to
provide intelligence pertaining to the operation of the electric grid. Every user will have their own
definition of what the smart grid means to them and utilities will have a specific set of targeted
objectives as business reasons for deploying smart grid technologies. However, advanced metering is
a significant component of the smart grid, providing information for enhanced network operation,
distribution asset management, revenue billing, outage and restoration management, and a myriad of
other applications, some of which are still yet to be identified and applied.

Smart Grid History

19Th Century
In Edison’s 1882 Pearl Street system in lower Manhattan, the pull of an electromagnet against a
carefully-adjusted spring closed or opened contacts which illuminated either a red lamp (if the line
voltage rose) or a blue lamp (if the line voltage dropped). This indicated to an attendant to turn a
hand wheel to control the strength of the electromagnetic field in the generators to match the output
of the generators to the load.
To measure the electricity consumed, Edison devised a meter consisting of two electrodes in an
electrolyte. As current passed through the meter, the current caused the metal of the electrodes to
transfer from one to the other. The customer’s consumption was calculated by weighing the two
electrodes.

20th Century
For all practical purposes, commercialization of electric power began early in the 20th century. With
the light bulb revolution and the promise of the electric motor, demand for electric power exploded,
sparking the rapid development of an effective distribution system. At first, small utility companies
provided power to local industrial plants and private communities. Some larger businesses even
generated their own power. Seeking greater efficiency and distribution, utility companies pooled their
resources, sharing transmission lines and quickly forming electrical networks called grids.
Technological improvements of the power system largely arose in the post–World War II era of the
1950s and 1960s. Nuclear power, computer controls, and other developments helped fine tune the
grid’s effectiveness and operability. However, even though today’s consumer electronics technology has
rapidly advanced, the national power grid has evolved little over the past 50 years.
Over this period, power grids grew and were eventually interconnected for economic and reliability
reasons. By the late 1960s, the electric grids of developed countries had become mature and highly

127
 128 interconnected, with thousands of central generation power stations delivering power to major load
centers via high capacity power transmission and distribution lines. The topology of the 1960s grid
evolved from the economies of scale of existing generation technology consisting primarily of large
coal-, gas-, and oil-fired power stations in the 1 GW (1000 MW) to 3 GW scale. Even today, this
Handbook for Electricity Metering

topology is still cost-effective, due to efficiency improvements that can be cost-effectively added.
Power stations were located strategically to be close to either fossil fuel reserves (either the mines
or wells themselves) or, alternatively, to transportation centers such as rail, road, or port supply lines.
Siting of hydro-electric dams in mountain areas also strongly influenced the structure of the emerging
grid. Nuclear power plants were cited for availability of cooling water. Finally, fossil fuel–fired power
stations at the turn of the 20th century were polluting and were therefore located as far as economi-
cally possible from population centers. By the late 1960s, the electricity grid reached the overwhelm-
ing majority of the population of developed countries, with only outlying regional areas remaining
off-grid.
Through the 1970s to the 1990s, growing demand for electricity led to increasing numbers of
power stations. In some areas, the supply of electricity, especially at peak times, could not keep up
with the ever-increasing demand, resulting in poor power quality including blackouts, power cuts,
and brownouts. Increasingly, electricity was depended on as a major economic driver for industry,
heating, communication, lighting, and entertainment, and consumers demanded ever higher levels of
reliability. The goal of matching consumption to generation required meters which could measure the
time of day of the consumption in addition to the cumulative consumption. Automatic meter reading
devices and time-of-use (TOU) metering introduced in the 1970s were the beginning of a means of
matching the time differentiated cost of generation to a consumer’s consumption pattern, focusing on
the highest cost period of time.
Toward the end of the 20th century, electricity demand patterns were established with domestic
heating and air-conditioning leading to daily peaks which were met by an array of peaking power
generators that would only be turned on for short periods each day. The relatively low utilization of
these peaking generators (commonly, gas turbines were used due to their relatively lower capital cost
and faster start-up times), together with the necessary redundancy in the electricity grid, resulted in
high costs to the electricity companies, which were passed on in the form of increased tariffs.

21st Century
Since the early 21st century, opportunities to take advantage of improvements in electronic commu-
nication technology have moved the informational feedback mechanism of the electric grid to include
more proactive measures. Technological advancements within the metering arena, including the
introduction of advanced metering infrastructure, no longer force peak power prices to be averaged out
and passed on to all consumers equally. With the advent of real-time pricing structures, customers can
take advantage of monitoring their consumption in a more real-time manner and match their indi-
vidual lifestyles to the associated pricing considerations for the generation and delivery of electricity.
In parallel, growing concerns over environmental damage from fossil-fired power stations has led
to a desire to use large amounts of renewable energy. Dominant forms, such as wind power and solar
power, are highly variable, and so the need for more sophisticated control systems became apparent to
facilitate the connection of sources to the otherwise highly controllable grid. Power from photovoltaic
cells (and, to a lesser extent, wind turbines) has also significantly called into question the imperative
for large, centralized power stations. The rapidly falling costs point to a major change from the cen-
tralized grid topology to one that is highly distributed, with power being both generated and consumed
right at the limits of the grid. Finally, growing concern over terrorist attacks in some countries has led
to calls for a more robust energy grid that is less dependent on centralized power stations that were
perceived to be potential attack targets.
All the technologies developed over the last century were necessary foundations for building the
safer, more efficient, and more reliable electrical distribution network that will eventually become the
smart grid. With today’s technology, the power grid can become smarter by allowing two-way commu-
nication between the utility and individual customers. The constant sensing and real-time load moni-
toring along the transmission and distribution lines is what makes the grid smart. Like the Internet,
the smart grid will consist of load and event monitoring, computers, and automation controls working
together to respond digitally and efficiently to our quickly changing demand for electricity.
Definitions 129
What Makes a Grid “Smart?”
In short, the advanced technology that allows for two-way communication between utility grid com-

The Smart Grid

ponents, their integrated systems, and applications that provide information and control to all their
users and customers is what makes the entire grid smart.

Advanced Meters
Advanced Meters and Advanced Metering Infrastructure
Since the inception of electricity deregulation and market-driven pricing, utilities have been look-
ing for a means to match consumer consumption with generation. Traditional electric meters only
measure total consumption and provide no information of when the energy was consumed at each
metered site. Advanced meters provide a way of measuring this site-specific information, allowing
price-setting agencies to introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and
season.
Advanced metering is defined as a metering system that records customer consumption (and
possibly other parameters) hourly or more frequently and provides for daily or more frequent trans-
mittal of measurements over a communication network to a central collection point. The terms
advanced metering and advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) are used interchangeably (Federal
Energy ­Regulatory Commission [FERC] 2006; http://www.ferc.gov/legal/staff-reports/12-08-demand
-response.pdf).

Smart Meters
The term smart meter is also used interchangeably with AMI and advanced meters. For example, in
2013, the Department of Energy (DOE) defines AMI and smart meters the same, as “Electricity meters
that use two-way communication to collect electricity usage and related information from customers
and to deliver information to customers” (DOE; http://www.smartgrid.gov/glossary).

Figure 8-1. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Smart Grid Framework.
 130 Furthermore, the DOE breaks down the definition of smart meters between residential and com-
mercial/industrial as follows:
• Residential—A meter that records a customer’s electricity usage for time intervals of one hour
Handbook for Electricity Metering

or less, and can transmit that information to the utility without the need for a human meter
reader. Depending on the feature set, the meter may also notify the utility of a power outage,
provide pricing or other information to the customer, or allow the utility to remotely switch
electricity service on or off. (DOE; http://www.smartgrid.gov/glossary)
• Commercial/Industrial—A meter that records a commercial customer’s electricity usage for
time intervals of one hour or less, and can transmit that information to the utility without
the need for a human meter reader. Depending on the feature set, the meter may also notify
the utility of a power outage and provide pricing or other information to the customer. (DOE;
http://www.smartgrid.gov/glossary)

Smart Grid Applications

The installation of a dynamic multifunctional AMI system establishes the framework on which a num-
ber of applications can be layered as the smart grid continues to evolve. This section will address some
of the key applications which exist today, as well as some that are currently evolving and could emerge
in the near future. It is anticipated, however, that the list and types of applications will continue to
grow as the technology advances, utility systems become more integrated, and customer/utility values
become more apparent.
The most obvious and likely the biggest business case driver behind the deployment of an AMI
system is for reducing the cost to manually read meters. Installing an AMI system provides a cost-
effective means to read meters in an automated fashion more frequently, more accurately, and at an
overall lower cost. AMI systems also provide the means of capturing interval data which can be used
for applications such as load research and time of use rates. Interval data from AMI meters can also
be utilized as the basis for other creative rate structures, such as real time pricing, without having to
incur additional field costs to upgrade the metering devices.
The use of a remote service switch on advanced meters has resulted in reducing the operational
costs associated with simply turning on or off a service by significantly reducing truck rolls. This
feature also helps improve customer satisfaction by offering this service in a more timely manner. The
remote service switch could also be used for future applications such as managing cold load pickup or
localized load control in areas experiencing system constraints.
With AMI, utilities now have the ability to provide customers with access to their interval usage
information on a more frequent basis with the goal of educating consumers on their energy use and
promoting conservation, leading to a more responsible use of our natural resources for the generation
of electrical power. Many advanced meters also provide a near real time interface which can be used
to provide consumption information to home automation solutions, again with the goal of allowing
utility customers to better manage their use of energy, reduce peak demands, and lower overall energy
costs. Some utility jurisdictions have also seen AMI technology expand into unexpected service options
such as prepayment metering.
Utilities are leveraging advanced meters and the AMI networks to improve operational efficiency
in many areas such as power restoration, street light monitoring, simple service calls, and proactive
meter maintenance. As one example, utilizing last gasp power alarms, power restoration messages, and
the ability to ping a meter to determine if power has been restored is saving utilities both time and
costs by more efficiently managing outage restoration crews prior to being released, thereby reducing
unnecessary truck rolls. As a second example, having the ability to get meter health messages remotely
on a daily basis as well as being able to download firmware and program changes over the air allows
for a more cost-effective use of utility personnel by allowing them more time to focus on maintaining
the integrity of meter installations.
Most AMI networks being deployed today can also be leveraged for some distribution automation
(DA) applications, such as automated capacitor bank control, voltage monitoring, and other types of
line monitoring. This trend will likely grow as strategic partnerships are formed between other AMI
and DA companies.
 AMI networks are also expected to play a vital role in linking distribution field assets to corporate 131
systems and optimizing the grid as new technologies emerge such as electric vehicles, photovoltaic
systems, and energy storage.
Finally, as more and more AMI devices are deployed, technologies become more sophisticated

The Smart Grid

and interconnected and as even more information becomes available, advances in data analysis tools,
commonly referred to as data analytics, are expected to provide increasing benefits to utilities and their
customers. Application examples include the ability to more proactively address potential problems
with in-service field equipment, improvements in installation verifications, and improvements in theft
detection through meter and service health information now available. Revenue tampering detection,
as a whole, will certainly be improved with the use of more distinct tamper messaging with linkages
into service order work, system outage events, and applicable algorithms evaluating usage patterns.
Ultimately, improved asset management such as transformer loading, feeder balance, and system losses
will be easier to monitor with appropriate aggregation of loads. This information will be of great value
to distribution planners to help better gauge when assets need upgrading as well as to design a more
efficient distribution network.

Additional Information
For more information, please reference the following websites:
• http://energy.gov/oe/technologydevelopment/smartgrid — Department of Energy Smart Grid
• http://www.nist.gov/smartgrid/ — NIST Smart Grid
• http://smmaa.org/ — Smart Meter Manufacturers’ Association of America (SMMAA)
• http://smartgridcc.org/ — Smart Grid Consumer Collaborative
• http://www.smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx — EPRI Smart Grid Use Case
Repository
• http://www.sgiclearinghouse.org/ — Smart Grid Clearinghouse
 Chapter 9

Instruments

ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS are necessary because the nature of most electrical
phenomena is beyond the reach of our physical senses. Measurement of electrical quantities makes
possible the design, manufacture, and maintenance of the innumerable electrical devices now in use.
The main purpose of any electrical instrument is to measure and indicate the value of an electrical
quantity. The measurement may be indicated by a digital numeric value or by a pointer positioned on
a scale. Some instruments provide additional functionality by recording measured values over time.
This recording may be in the form of a physical indication on a moving chart, as maximum and
minimum values during a time frame, or as periodic data stored in electronic memory. Today almost
all instrumentation used in the metering industry is digital. There are a variety of general-purpose
instruments such as multimeters, as well as many specialized instruments like transformer testers,
communications testers, meter testers, and site analyzers.

Electronic Digital Instruments

A digital instrument is an electronic device that measures voltage, current, and/or resistance by
converting the measured analog input signal into a digital representation that is then displayed via a
display or readout.
The same technologies that have driven the advances in cell phone technology have led to digital
instruments that are capable of high degrees of accuracy in the measurement of voltages, currents, and
resistances over a wide range of values. New instruments not only measure these basic quantities but
provide complete testing of meters for accuracy and even total analysis of metering sites.
Today’s digital instruments are often equipped with liquid crystal displays (LCD) offering high-
resolution color presentation of complex information. Instruments may have large internal data
storage and communications capabilities such as USB and Ethernet.
The heart of every modern instrument is the digital processor—quite literally the same technology
that has transformed the phone into a modern communications/computational marvel. The big differ-
ence between a cell phone and a modern instrument is the “front end” which converts the signals of
interest into digital form that the processor can interpret. Every digital instrument has essentially the
structure shown in Figure 9-1.
The essential sections of a digital instrument are:
• Transducer to convert the parameter being measured (current, voltage, resistance, temperature)
to a voltage.
• Signal conditioning, usually consisting of one or more amplifiers, to get the signal to an optimal
level for the analog-to-digital converter.
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to convert the analog signal to a digital value.

133
 134
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-1. The Basic Structure of All Digital Instruments.

• Signal processor—a computer chip which takes the raw data coming from the ADCs and com-
putes the parameters needed (voltage, amperage, power, VA, etc.).
• Display—a way to present the results to the user.
• Memory—a place to store data and, in more complex instruments, specific test processes.
• Comm—communications ports such as USB, serial, and Ethernet for communicating to other
devices, such as laptop computers.
The transducer, signal conditioning, and sometimes the ADC are often referred to as the “front end”
of the instrument. These are the analog sections of the device that are subject to temperature effects,
non-linearity, and other often difficult to characterize effects. Similarly, we refer to the signal proces-
sor and all of its associated peripherals as the “back end.” The back end is the digital section of the
instrument. The digital section is characterized by a different set of errors and behaviors. Here the
issues are related to computational concerns such as resolution, rounding, and algorithms.

TRANSDUCERS
Common transducers for current are shunts and current transformers (CT’s). These may be part of
the instrument or external to the instrument, like a clamp-on current probe. A shunt is a resistor spe-
cially constructed to allow the voltage across it to be accurately measured when current flows through
it according to Ohm’s Law (V  IR). A shunt does not provide isolation of the current circuit. A
current transformer changes the level of the current precisely and provides isolation of the circuit. A
shunt resistor is still required to convert the secondary current of the CT to a voltage.

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal conditioning circuits generally provide gain and or filtering of the signal. They may be com-
posed of discrete operational amplifiers (generally in high accuracy instruments) or be integrated into
a single large scale integrated circuit (IC) that has all of the analog and digital processing (like a hand
held multimeter).

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER
An analog-to-digital converter converts an analog signal level into a numeric value. For alternating
current (AC) measurements, this process occurs many times during each cycle.
When the sampling frequency of the ADC is high compared to the frequency of the signal, the
signal can be measured accurately. Figure 9-2 shows a signal sampled at 16 times the fundamental fre-
quency. Provided the mathematics of the calculations are done with attention to detail—like frequency
determination and the effects of cycle by cycle computations—there is little difference in the accuracy
if the sampling frequency is at least 16 times the highest frequency in the AC signal. If the sampling
frequency is too low, then accurately computing the amplitude of the waveform becomes impossible.
 135

INSTRUMENTS
Figure 9-2. Illustration of a Signal Sampled at 16 Times the Fundamental Frequency.

Figure 9-3. Illustration of a Signal Sampled at 3 Times the Fundamental Frequency.

Figure 9-3 shows a signal sampled at about three times the fundamental frequency. While this does
satisfy Nyquist’s Theorem, it does not allow accurate computation of the signal amplitude in the time
domain.
The sampling frequency is not the only parameter of the ADC that effects accuracy. Other critical
parameters are listed below.
Resolution
Computer data is stored in binary format where each bit of the number can be either zero or one.
A 12 bit digital number can represent values from 0 to 4095, or a bipolar number from 2,048 to
2,047. A 20 bit digital number can represent values from 524,288 to 524,287. Table 9-1 shows
the approximate errors in calculating the RMS value of a sine wave as a function of ADC resolution
and percentage of full scale.
Precision
When making current measurements related to metering, an instrument may have to cover a range of
0.020 to 20 amps for a transformer-rated meter, or 0.2 to 320 amps for a self-contained meter. The
low end of these ranges are approximately 0.1% of full scale. For the ADC to have enough precision
 136 Table 9-1. Approximate Errors in Calculating the RMS Value of a Sine Wave.

% Full Scale 12 bit 16 bit 20 bit 24 bit

HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

95 0.04% 0.003% 0.001% 0.001%

25 0.15% 0.007% 0.001% 0.001%
5 0.65% 0.04% 0.003% 0.001%
1 3.30% 0.20% 0.012% 0.001%
0.1 40.0% 2.00% 0.13% 0.01%

to cover the entire range, very high resolution is required. Most instruments approach this issue by
having multiple ranges (gains in the signal conditioning section). These ranges may be obvious (they
are selected on a dial on some multimeters) or set automatically by the instrument. A device might
have six ranges of 20 amps, 5 amps, 2 amps, 0.5 amps, 0.2 amps, and 0.5 amps paired with a 16 bit
ADC to achieve 0.01% precision throughout the full measurement range. Some modern devices use
as many as 16 ranges and some operate with only one using 24 bit converters.
Accuracy
So far we have only discussed precision of measurement, not accuracy. Your measurement cannot be
more accurate than its precision. The accuracy can be and often is much worse. For a measurement
to be accurate, it must be traceable to a national standard with a known uncertainty. When we say an
instrument is accurate to 0.01%, we generally mean that 95 percent of measurements made will fall
within 0.01% of the true value. The accuracy of an instrument is actually a statement of confidence
in the measurement taken with this instrument.
Building an accurate instrument is much harder than building high precision instruments.
Issues Affecting Accuracy
Linearity: Any of the sections of the front end may exhibit non-linearity. A CT usually has some
linearity effects at very low currents (lack of excitation) and at high currents (saturation). Amplifiers
may also exhibit some non-linearities. ADCs have two forms of non-linearity: (1) differential non-
linearity is when each bit of the ADC does not have the same value, and (2) integral non-linearity is
the overall deviation of the measured value from a straight line.
Gain: All of the front end components can exhibit gain errors. This means that every measurement
will be either slightly lower or slightly higher than is correct. The amount of error will be proportional
to the measured value as a percentage of full scale.
Offset: Amplifiers and ADCs can exhibit offset errors. In an offset error, zero is not zero. The amount
of the offset error is constant in absolute terms for all values.
Historically, gain and offset errors were minimized by adjustments in the signal conditioning
section of the instrument. These were manual adjustments that were difficult and time-consuming
to perform precisely. In modern digital instruments these errors are usually corrected in the signal
processing section through a calibration process which can also allow correction of non-linearity and
other more complex errors.
Temperature: A device may be accurate at one temperature, for example 23°C in a lab, but inaccu-
rate outside at 45°C on a hot, sunny day. The temperature performance of a device is usually specified
as a range of temperatures over which the instrument performs to a specification combined with a
temperature coefficient for calculating the performance outside of the range.
A typical specification might be:
0.05% accuracy from 0°C to 40°C
Temperature Coefficient of 0.008%/°C for T 0°C
Temperature Coefficient of 0.005%/°C for T 40°C
Based on this specification the maximum error at 20°C would be 0.05  20  0.008  0.21%. 137
Based on this specification the maximum error at 62°C would be 0.05  22  0.005  0.16%.
Other: There are other things which can affect measurement accuracy, such as magnetic fields, but

INSTRUMENTS
they are not usually important except in very high accuracy measurements.
Digital Signal Processing
In the last two decades tremendous advances in digital processing have been made. Today a processor
that can perform millions of calculations per second with high precision costs only a few dollars.
These advances have enabled the high accuracy instrumentation available today.
Just as there are issues of precision in the ADC, there are similar issues in the digital processor.
Digital processors also represent values as binary numbers. Common representation formats are
shown in Table 9-2. To get from the raw data collected from the ADC to an answer such as 120.23
volts RMS, there are thousands of calculations involved. Consider the simple process of calculating the
sum of squares that is part of the RMS process. If the ADC has 16 bit resolution, then the product of
two values may be up to 32 bits in size. When summing many of these values the sum can exceed the
range of a 32 bit value.
If a full scale sine wave is digitized by a 16 bit ADC with 64 samples per cycle, then the sum of
the squared values is 34,356,460,758, which exceeds the maximum value of a 32 bit integer by a fac-
tor of 34. In the past, people invented various mathematical tricks to make these calculations possible,
but one of the effects was always a loss of precision.
This problem is the reason the high-precision digital instruments were so difficult to create for so
long. It is only in the last decade that cheap processors that can do these calculations are available.
Processors like the ARM family that power smart phones and make video games possible now allow
straightforward calculations with full precision. Even advanced analyses using fast Fourier transform
algorithms (FFTs) can now be done on multiple signals simultaneously.

Table 9-2. Common Representation Formats.

Format Numeric Range

16 bit, 2’s Complement 65,536 to 65,535

32 bit, 2’s Complement 1,073,741,824 to 1,073,741,823
64 bit, 2’s Complement  9.22E18
32 bit, Floating Point  2.00E40

Safety
The last decade has seen dramatic recognition for the need for safety standards for instrumentation.
The introduction of the IEC 61010 Safety Standard in 1990 represented a major milestone in instru-
mentation safety. In the current version of 61010-031, there are four safety categories defined for
instruments. Two of these categories are of special interest to the metering community.
CAT I Objects not connected to power mains.
CAT II Objects connected to mains but not part of the mains themselves, i.e., an electrical appliance.
CAT III The main system of a building. This area starts at the secondary side of the meter.
CAT IV The primary side of the meter and all parts of the utility distribution system.
Since the differentiating factor for CAT III versus CAT IV is the current-supplying capability of the
circuit, conservative practice would suggest that CAT IV might be more appropriate for someone work-
ing directly at the secondary side of a self-contained meter.
 138
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-4. An Analog, Handheld Multimeter. Figure 9-5. An Early Digital, Handheld Multimeter.

Common Instruments for Metering

THE MULTIMETER
The digital multimeter is one of the most useful instruments in the meterman’s tool box. It is an
instrument that has been around for decades, but over the last several decades the digital revolution
has had tremendous impact even in this simplest of modern instruments.
Not that long ago, handheld multimeters were all analog like the multimeter shown in Figure 9-4.
They generally measured direct current (DC) volts, DC current, ohms, and if they did measure AC
quantities, the ranges were limited. Perhaps more importantly, none of these meters measured RMS
AC voltages. Accuracies were generally no better than a few percent.
A couple of decades ago, digital multimeters began to appear like the one shown in Figure 9-5.
Their basic functions were similar to the earlier analog multimeters and their accuracies were only
slightly better. They still did not have true RMS measurement. Often they had many more ranges
allowing measurement over a much wider range of values. This was particularly true in the area of
AC measurement. These instruments also began to offer measurement of other parameters, such as
temperature and decibels (dB) because they embodied some level of
digital processing for calibration and data interpretation.
The modern digital multimeter like that shown in Figure 9-6 is an
amazing instrument. The dozens of ranges have disappeared. Now the
user just selects what they want to measure and the microprocessor in
the instrument takes care of everything else. Both resolution and accu-
racy have dramatically improved. DC accuracies of better than 0.1%
and AC accuracies of better than 1.0% are available. From a safety
point of view, progress has been equally dramatic. Multimeters with
both CAT III 1000 V and CAT IV 600 V safety ratings are available.
Cat IV class devices provide additional protection in cases where direct
contact with distribution level current flows are possible. Before CAT
IV, test devices could explode when they failed under these conditions.
The multimeter provides a quick way to check voltages at a meter
installation. This is often the first step in determining whether a meter
socket is wired correctly, and can provide assurances that there isn’t
any backfeed from the customer’s facilities. With the addition of a
current clamp, the multimeter can also be used to determine the cur-
Figure 9-6. A Modern Digital, rent flowing in one leg of a power circuit and, by measuring the RMS
Handheld Multimeter. voltage and current, a rough VA calculation can be made.
 Overall, use of the multimeter provides a safe starting point 139
when attempting to understand and troubleshoot potential errors
with the metering site. However, because a multimeter can only
measure one parameter at a time, there are things it cannot do.

INSTRUMENTS
The multimeter cannot measure power or ratios.
When voltages are measured one probe is placed on the point
to be measured and the second probe is placed on the reference
point. The reference point is generally neutral, but may be an
energized conductor in some circumstances. The currents found in
metering circuits are generally too large to be measured by placing
the meter in series with the circuit. So for current measurements
with a multimeter, a clamp-on current probe is generally used (see
Figure 9-7). This clamps around a conductor and measures the
current flowing in the conductor. Figure 9-7. A Clamp-on Current
One issue sometimes encountered in the use of digital multi- Probe for Use With a Multimeter.
meters (DMM) is the issue of “phantom voltages.” A typical DMM
voltage input has an impedance of 20 megaohms or more. With
this high impedance, a meter may measure voltages that are really
not there in the high electric fields surrounding a meter. This issue can be solved by either using a
meter with low impedance or using a lead set with a resistor built in between the two inputs. Phantom
voltages disappear when even a modest load is placed on the circuit.

Transformer Testers
Some meter installations utilize instrument transformers to step-down the service potential and cur-
rents to a level which can be safely measured by the watthour meter. To ensure accuracy of the entire
system, some utilities may choose to test the CTs and potential transformers (PTs) for accuracy and
proper functionality. Instrument transformer testing devices include ratio testers, burden testers, and
admittance testers.

RATIO TESTER
A CT ratio tester measures both the current in the primary conductor and the current in the second-
ary loop, allowing the user to calculate the actual ratio and compare it against the specified ratio of
the CT. As stated earlier in this chapter, amp-meters must be placed in series with the current being
measured. Due to the complexities, difficulty, and safety concerns with opening the primary current
conductor, an inductive-type current clamp is typically used to measure the primary current (see
Figure 9-7 and associated text above). Also, due to safety concerns and convenience, the ratio tester’s
secondary inputs are typically connected in series with the secondary current loop via the safety test
switch. Some modern testers are designed to measure both currents as close to simultaneously as
possible, to minimize the effects of changing customer loads during the test. Modern testers also
automatically calculate the ratios.
Refer to Figure 9-8. In this example, the measured primary current is 160 A, and the measured
secondary current is 4 A.
160 A : 4 A  40:1 ratio
The nameplate ratio of current transformers is generally specified as a ratio to 5 amps, the typical
test amps used for transformer rated meters. Hence a transformer with a 40:1 ratio will be labeled as a
200:5 transformer.

BURDEN TESTER
A burden tester is used to check for various defects and issues in the CT and/or secondary loop. See
Figure 9-9 for an example of a Traditional Analog Burden tester typically used in the field and Figure
9-10 for a digital version of a burden tester also commonly used in the field. Current transformers
are rated to function properly within a specified secondary burden range, and a burden tester may be
employed to verify this functionality. A burden tester is essentially a multi-range ammeter and set of
multi-range burden resistors, typically 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8Ω, which are placed sequentially in
series with the meter.
 140 Example:
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-8. Use of a Ratio Tester.

Figure 9-9. TESCO 1044A 20A Analog Burden Tester. Figure 9-10. UTEC 585 Digital Burden Tester.
 Figure 9-11 shows a typical burden tester applica- 141
tion. The burden tester responds to these common
defects:
Meter

INSTRUMENTS
1. When a current transformer is free of internal
defects, the sudden imposition of a second-
ary burden within the accuracy limits of the
transformer should not cause any great change OPEN
in ratio. Therefore, the current as indicated
on the ammeter should decrease only a few Test
percent when the switch is depressed and Switch
the burden is added. In a good transformer,
the main effect of the added burden should
be only a rise in the primary and secondary
voltage. However, when one or more turns
within the transformer are shorted, then an
appreciable part of the total available ampere-
turns are diverted into the short, and the
Burden
current to the watthour meter is less than the
Tester
total secondary current of the transformer.
If now the burden of the Field Test Set is
added in series with the watthour meter by
depressing the push button, the additional high
impedance in the meter circuit will divert still
more current into the shunt path provided by
Current
shorted turn or turns, and the meter current
Transformer (CT)
should decrease by a large amount. This would
immediately show on the burden tester amme-
Figure 9-11. A Typical Burden Tester Application.
ter as a sudden and large decrease in the meter
reading every time the switch is depressed.
2. A high resistance at any point in the second-
ary circuit is the equivalent of an added high burden. Aside from the heating effect at the point
of high resistance, this instrument will reveal the presence of such a defect because the current
transformer is now operating at a much higher flux density due to the increased voltage neces-
sary to force current through the hot spot in the wiring.
At high flux densities, the ratio of current transformer drops off, and the addition of the
extra burden in the burden tester will cause a greater change in the current than when the
current transformer is operating normally at low flux density.

ADMITTANCE TESTER*
Admittance testing checks for abnormal admittance by injecting an audio frequency into the second-
ary of an in-service transformer, and detecting the circuit admittance. Admittance (Y) is the inverse of
impedance (Z) and is typically shown as mS (millisiemens). (See Figure 9-12.)
Relaying or metering current transformers have very low error when operated within the specified
current and burden ratings. The circuit admittance of any particular current transformer installation
is nearly constant throughout the normal operating range, unless a fault condition develops. If the
admittance measurement shows a deviation from normal while in service, it is likely that the current
transformer will have: (1) an internal short (usually a shorted turn, whereas the Z in Figure 9-12 will
change); (2) an abnormal internal or external resistance (such as a high-resistance connection that
is loose or corroded, whereas the R in Figure 9-12 will increase); or (3) the current transformer is
operating under abnormal conditions (such as DC in the primary).
Serious faults are immediately obvious due to an abnormally high admittance reading, normally at
least 1.5 times the normal reading. Transformers with a wrong ratio, exampled as a connection to the

*Portions of this section were reproduced from “Application Note 1109A: Admittance Testing Verifies CT Installa-
tion Integrity.” Radian Research. http://radianresearch.com/app_notes/admittance_application_note.pdf 11-09.
 142
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-12. Admittance Connections.

wrong tap, will have readings substantially different than normal readings. The best way to establish
the “normal” reading is to record measurements during installation and at subsequent test intervals.
Admittance values depend on the transformer’s XL as seen in Figure 9-12. The XL value will encompass
the transformer core design, burden rating, ratio, etc., but additions due to non-fault conditions (such
as temperature, primary load, etc.) are small in comparison to the change caused by fault conditions.
In-service current transformers are usually tested in groups, a high admittance reading obtained on
one CT in the group strongly implies that a fault condition does exist. Admittance testing provides a
quick, noninvasive way to evaluate the CT installation integrity, with or without load, at the customer
site. Shorted turns, circuit shunts, minor deterioration in CT performance, defective watthour meter
current coils, defective test switches, shunting of primary, partial by-pass of primary current, and high
resistance connections are all easily detected from the admittance value.
The testing devices shown in Figures 9-13 and 9-14 are available as discrete units. However, they
are commonly integrated together in a multi-functional unit.

Figure 9-13. Radian Research UTEC 505

Transformer Analyzer. Figure 9-14. Spinlab 5000 Bird Dog Plus.
Meter Accuracy Tester 143
Today’s advanced and ultra-sophisticated watthour meters have integrated communications, diagnostic
functions, and increased measurement parameters. However, first and foremost, a watthour meter

INSTRUMENTS
must meet its specified accuracy class. To ensure this, the meter must be tested and its percent regis-
tration calculated. A meter accuracy tester is employed in this task.
To execute a meter accuracy test (as detailed in Chapter 12, “Electricity Meter Testing and Mainte-
nance”), the meter accuracy tester must include five basic components.
1. Energy Reference Standard. An extremely accurate and stable instrument used to measure
and calculate various electrical parameters, such as volts, amperes, watthours, VARhours, and
Q-hours. A reference standard will also be traceable to NIST (see Chapter 20, “The Standards
Laboratory”).
2. Current Source. While some test methods utilize the actual customer load to apply current to
the meter and standard during the test, a current source can also be employed to apply specific
current levels appropriate for the test. Typical current sources have a maximum current output
of either 30 or 50 amps, and are powered from the potential source.
3. Potential Source. Like the test current, the potential applied to the meter and standard during
the test can also be the actual service potential. Alternatively, this voltage may be obtained via a
potential source.
4. Meter Calibrated Pulse Output Pickup, Meter Disk Rotation Sensor, or Timing “Snap”
Switch. Depending on the type of meter under test (electro-mechanical or solid state) and
the test method (older, manual, “snap-switch” style testing or sensor pick-up method), one of
many pulse pickups, sensors, or timing “snap” switches are employed to acquire the calibrated
pulses from the meter and control the timing of the test. Various types of sensors used are as
follows:

a. Electro-mechanical meter disk rotation sensor (Figure 9-15)

b. Solid state meter infrared pulse pickup (Figure 9-16)
c. KYZ pulse pickup (Figure 9-17)
d. Timing “snap” switch (Figure 9-18)

Figure 9-15. Radian Research RR-DS/sm Meter Figure 9-16. TESCO 1037-STND Optical Pickup.
Disk Sensor.
 144
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-17. Radian Research RR-KYZ Pulse Figure 9-18. TESCO 995A Click Switch.
Input Adaptor.

5. Meter Interface. This is any device that allows the test current and potential to be applied to
the meter under test. Examples include:
a. Safety test switch (Figure 9-19)
b. Test adaptor (Figure 9-20)
c. Field interface kit and socket (Figure 9-21)

Figure 9-19. TESCO Safety Test Switch. Figure 9-20. Brooks Meter Test Jack.
 145

INSTRUMENTS
Figure 9-21. TESCO 2200 Field Interface Kit and Socket.

ANSI C12.29 Field Testing Standard allows for field testing using three different methods: (1) the
test potential and current are both generated by the test equipment; (2) the service potential is used
for the test voltage, while the test current is generated by the test equipment; and (3) both service
voltage and service current are used for the test voltage and current. Examples of each of these three
types of field test equipment are shown in Figures 9-22 through 9-26 below
These components may be standalone or integrated into a single instrument. Additional features
may include enhanced safety features, auto-ranging potential inputs, voltage and current displays,
power factor selection switches, and reverse current controls.

Figure 9-22. Radian Research RB-10 Bantam Lite. Figure 9-23. TESCO 630 Field Test Kit.
 146
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-24. Spinlab 6000 Bird Dog Plus. Figure 9-25. Probewell MT-1/NT3.

Figure 9-26. Powermetrix 4300 Field Tester.

Communication Testing of Electric Meters

Communication devices under the cover of the meter and incorporated with the meter have been
common in the industry since the early 1990s. The functionality of these communication devices is as
important as the functionality of the meter as an interruption in communication with the meter from
the head end system will require a site visit by a meter technician.
Testing of these meter communication devices is typically a pass/fail type test. Each manufacturer
of communication devices that are designed to be integrated under the cover of a meter has a propri-
etary software and communication process. The manufacturer will make available to the utility and
their test lab custom equipment (e.g., a Field Service Unit [FSU]) to assist with the verification of the
operational status of any individual communications card.
Typical communication devices currently in use include mesh network and power line carrier com-
munication devices for residential style meters and modems and radios for more complex metering.
Common test methods include sending a signal to the communication device and looking for
the meter to change states for one-way communication devices, or for a correct response for two-way
communication devices. One typical test method for meters with disconnect switches under the cover
is to use the device under test to send a disconnect and reconnect signal to the meter. This allows the 147
utility to quickly test the functionality of both the communication device and the disconnect device,
and verify the position of the disconnect device prior to releasing the device to the field.
Each utility typically develops their own communication testing protocol based on the type of

INSTRUMENTS
communication devices the utility has selected for their service territory.
Common features of communication testing protocol include, but are not limited to:
• Utilizes existing meter test boards, qualification boards, or warm-up sockets
• Will incorporate the use of barcode scanners to read the meter number, the communication
device number, and initiate the test—where possible
• Saves the test data for inclusion in the utility’s metering system of record
• Allows for a hard copy of the test

METER SITE VERIFICATION*

A metering site is a complex system with three critical active components tied together by a
complex set of wiring (Figure 9-27). There are two groups of problems associated with wiring:
(1) incorrect wiring, and (2) poor connections.

Figure 9-27. A Typical Metering Installation (Only One Phase Shown).

There are many different meter forms and applications. Confusion or simple human error can lead
to connections being made incorrectly. When this occurs in a polyphase circuit, the signals presented
to the meter are wrong. This always leads to a significant reduction in the power being metered. Take,
for example, the case of a 4-wire wye application with a 9S meter. On a 208 V service with 120 V
phase to neutral and 100 amps per phase at unity power factor we should measure 36 kW.
A simple error is to switch the B and C currents. With the same conditions the power measured is
zero. All revenue from this customer is lost.
Vector diagrams like those in Figure 9-28 are the best tool for understanding wiring errors. The
vector diagram shows the phase relationship between the voltages and currents as they are seen by the
meter. In the 9S case above, seeing the problem is easy. In all cases the meterman must know what
service he is dealing with. The Power Measurement Handbook† provides PF1 diagrams for most ser-
vices in chapter 4 for reference. Many modern test instruments also provide reference vector diagrams.

*This section is reproduced from the Power Measurement Handbook by permission of the author, William Hardy.
†William H. Hardy, Power Measurements Handbook, Power Measurements, Chapter 4, pp. 31–51.
 148
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 9-28. Sample Vector Diagram.

A number of studies have shown that problems with CTs and their associated wiring make up
roughly 60% of problems associated with metering sites. When testing a CT in the field there is sel-
dom the opportunity to control the primary current and measure the secondary output as there would
be in the laboratory. Nonetheless, there are several very useful tests to perform. These are three widely
used approaches for field testing CTs: (1) ratio testing with applied burden, (2) output monitoring
with applied burden, and (3) admittance testing.

THE METER SITE ANALYZER

The meter site analyzer is a fairly recent invention that was made possible by the advent of high speed
ADCs and powerful microprocessors (Figure 9-29). The first site analyzer appeared in 1998. It was an
attempt to create a single tool that could measure anything that a meter technician might need to
measure in the field. Today meter site analyzers are ubiquitous worldwide. The basic analyzer typically
provides the following functions:

Figure 9-29. Powermetrix PowerMaster 7302 Meter Site Analyzer.

1) Voltage Measurement 149
a) Up to six signals simultaneously
i) Primary and secondary

INSTRUMENTS
b) True RMS measurement
c) Harmonic analysis
2) Current Measurement (high accuracy direct connection)
a) Up to three signals simultaneously
b) True RMS measurement
c) Harmonic analysis
3) Current Measurement (high current using clamp-on probes)
a) Up to three phases simultaneously
i) As seen at meter
b) True RMS measurement
c) Harmonic analysis
4) Phase
a) Measurement of phase angles between all voltages and currents
b) Measurement of power factor
5) CT Testing
a) Measurement of ratio and phase shifts
b) Measurement under applied burden
c) Measurement of CT burden
6) Meter Testing
a) Accuracy testing using test pulse from meter
i) Active power
ii) Reactive power
iii) Apparent power
b) Multiple test modes
i) Customer load test
ii) Current load box, customer voltage
iii) Equipment supplied voltage and
current

What sets the site analyzer apart from all of

its predecessors is the ability to measure multiple
voltages and currents simultaneously while
computing phase relationships and power quanti-
ties. A typical connection to a metering site’s
test switch is shown in Figure 9-30. Connections
are made to each phase voltage and probes are
inserted in each current circuit. This allows the
site analyzer to see exactly the same signals as Figure 9-30. A Typical Connection to a Metering Site
the meter. Test Switch.
 150 The simplest presentation of this information, and perhaps the most useful, is the phasor (or
vector) diagram (Figure 9-31). Each voltage and current is shown as a vector drawn from the center of
the diagram. The length of the vector is proportional to the voltage or current amplitude. It is custom-
ary to draw the vectors with the phase angle relative to phase A voltage. Phase angles are measured
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

clockwise from the phase A voltage, which is drawn horizontally to the right.
A quick glance at the phasor diagram for a site can tell the operator whether the meter connec-
tions are correct or perhaps miss-wired as in Figure 9-31. Note that the phase A voltage and current
are closely aligned but Vb is aligned with Ic and Vc is aligned with Ib. This is the signature of a meter
with phase B and phase C current circuits reverse wired.
Each meter application has an expected ideal vector diagram. By comparing the expected diagram
with the site’s diagram many problems can be detected. Many modern analyzers provide instant access
to the reference diagrams.

Figure 9-31. A Phasor Diagram Showing a Miss-Wired Connection.

Instrument Transformer Testing

Several surveys have shown that most problems at metering sites are the result of problems with
instrument transformers and their wiring. Many of the wiring problems can readily be diagnosed with
the vector diagram, but some require direct testing of the transformers.

RATIO TESTING WITH APPLIED BURDEN

The only way to determine the accuracy of a CT under “as operated” conditions is to make a direct
measurement in the field. For this measurement both the primary current and the secondary current
are measured simultaneously. Additional burden is often applied to the secondary circuit in order to
determine how much burden room remains.
With zero burden on a CT, most CTs exhibit a ratio slightly below nameplate. As burden is
increased, the ratio typically increases until, when the burden exceeds the burden rating, the accuracy
moves outside the appropriate accuracy parallelogram. The plot in Figure 9-32 is for an AC0.3B0.1
CT where the data points are at 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 ohms.
Note that the phase error also increases with burden. When the power factor is near unity, the
phase errors contribute very little to the power error. However at PF0.5 a phase error of 10 minutes
causes a power error of 0.5%.
 151

INSTRUMENTS
Figure 9-32. Sample Plot of Ratio Testing with Applied Burden.

BURDEN-ONLY TESTING
Sometimes it is not possible to access the primary side of the CT. In this situation the CT output as a
function of applied burden can still be measured. Under ideal conditions the current output of a CT
decreases as additional burden is applied. The curve in Figure 9-33 shows the nominal performance
for a burden class 0.5 CT as burden is applied. To achieve a measurement like this the primary current
must be very stable. This is often not the case, even over the very short time required to make all of
the measurements (typically several seconds). The data in Figure 9-34 show results when the primary
current is not stable.

Figure 9-33. Curve Indicating the Nominal Performance for a Burden Class.

Figure 9-34. Results of Burden-Only Testing when the Primary Current is Not Stable.
 152 Applying additional burden should never cause the secondary output to increase, so when there
is a result like above it means that the primary current has been unstable. By repeating the test
several times, the meter technician can get a better idea of whether the CT looks generally healthy.
A ­burden-only test, like that in Figure 9-34, simply gives a general idea of the health of a CT. Some
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

analyzers may offer the option of repeating the measurement multiple times and averaging the data.

ADMITTANCE TESTING
Because admittance testing does not involve measuring the currents directly, it has historically not
been a feature of site analyzers. However, there is no reason this approach could not be included as a
feature by adding the appropriate circuitry. As mentioned above, admittance testing involves injecting
an audio frequency signal into a CT secondary and looking at the response.

PT TESTING
Accurate PT testing can be done using the ratio approach just as in CT testing. Similar accuracy
parallelograms are defined in IEEE C57. Historically there has been less trouble with PTs than with
CTs because many services of 600 V and below did not use PTs. However, with the advent of arc-flash
concerns, many more PTs are being used.

METER TESTING
Recent developments in test equipment have made meter testing in the field much easier and more
accurate. By testing a meter on-site the utility can save both time and money. It can also better
determine whether the meter is accurate under the actual customer conditions. One of the problems
today is that meters are type tested only under sinusoidal conditions, while in the real world loads can
be very non-sinusoidal.
There are three general approaches to testing meters in the field. Each has a specific purpose and
answers different questions.
Testing Using Test Set Supplied Voltage and Current
In this approach the test set provides both the test voltage and current. This allows the laboratory
type test results to be reproduced in the field. This type of testing is required by some Public Service
Commissions and answers the question, “Is the meter meeting its specifications under laboratory load
conditions?”
Testing is generally performed at the nominal service voltage and three different loads: (1) full
load at PF1.0 (full load for a Class 20 meter is 2.5 A), (2) light load at PF1.0 (light load for a
Class 20 meter is 0.25 A), and (3) full load at PF0.5 lagging. (See Figure 9-35.)

Figure 9-35. Sample Test Results Using Test Set Supplied Voltage and Current.
Testing Using Customer Voltage and Test Set Supplied Current 153
This is a compromise approach (compared to that above) based on the assumption that even with
non-sinusoidal current loads most voltage retains a nearly sinusoidal waveform. This allows the use of
customer voltage and only supply current from the test equipment. This is not always a good assump-

INSTRUMENTS
tion. If the purpose of performing the test is to reproduce the laboratory results, then the assumption
should be verified by measurement. Test points are generally the same as listed above.
Testing Using Customer Voltage and Current
The most fundamental reason for all testing is to verify that the customer is being billed correctly.
This can only be completely assured if it can be verified that the meter is operating correctly under the
conditions at the customer’s site. Today, test equipment is available that makes accurate measurements
under ALL test conditions. This allows a meter’s performance to be verified under the customer’s
specific conditions.
When a customer’s voltage and load is used, there is only one set of test conditions. A question
that is often raised is, “What are the requirements for a ‘valid’ test?” Any test that is within the speci-
fied operating range of the meter should be considered valid. For a Class 20 meter, that would mean
any load within the 100 mA to 20 A range would be valid. Voltages outside the operating range occur
very infrequently.
As shown in Figure 9-36, a field test typically includes a number of measurements made simulta-
neously. In addition to the information shown in the report, many test devices record vector diagrams,
waveforms for voltage and current, and full harmonic analysis. This suite of data allows not only a
determination of the meter’s accuracy but a complete analysis of the customer’s load.

Figure 9-36. Sample Results for a Field Test Using Customer Voltage and Current.

Note: Measurement of VA and VAR under non-sinusoidal conditions may lead to differences
between the standard and the meter under test. There is currently in the United States no legal defini-
tion of VA and VAR under non-sinusoidal conditions. The meter may be working according to the
manufacturer’s specifications, and the standard working perfectly, yet the two may not agree because
they are working with different definitions. A new version of C12.20 is in editorial review (June
2014). This version will address active energy measurement (WHrs) under non-sinusoidal conditions.
However, it will not address either VA or VAR under non-sinusoidal conditions.
Work on a new metering standard, C12.46, is currently under way. This standard is intended to
replace C12.1 and C12.20 with an integrated document following the outline of OIML IR-46. This
standard is expected to address watts, VA, and VAR under all conditions, including rapidly varying
conditions.
 Chapter 10

Instrument Transformers

IT WOULD BE difficult and impractical to build self-contained meters to measure the energy in
high-voltage or high-current circuits. To provide adequate insulation and current-carrying capacity,
the physical size of the meters would have to be enormously increased. Such meters would be costly
to build and would expose the meter technician to the hazards of high voltage. The use of instrument
transformers makes the construction of such high-voltage or high-current meters unnecessary.
Instrument transformers are primarily used to insulate and thereby isolate the meters from the
high-voltage circuits, and to reduce the primary voltages and currents to usable sizes and standard
values that are easily metered with meters having a common secondary rating. The instrument trans-
formers deliver accurately known fractions of the primary voltages and currents to the meters. With
proper register ratios and multipliers, the readings of the meters can be made to indicate the primary
kilowatthours.

Conventional Instrument Transformers

DEFINITIONS
Definitions which relate mainly to instrument transformers are listed below. Other general definitions
are included in Chapter 2 of this book and in IEEE Standard 100, The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE
Standards Terms.
Bar-Type Current Transformer
A transformer with a fixed and straight single primary turn which passes through the magnetic circuit.
The primary and secondary(s) are insulated from each other and from the core(s) and are assembled
as an integrated structure.
Burden of an Instrument Transformer
The active and reactive power consumed by the load on the secondary winding. Burden is expressed
either as impedance with the effective resistance and reactive components, or as voltamperes and
power factor at a specified current or voltage and frequency.
Bushing-Type Current Transformer
A transformer with an annular core, no primary winding, and a secondary winding insulated from
and permanently assembled on the core which can fit on the bushing of a power transformer or power
circuit breaker.
Grounded-Neutral Terminal-Type Voltage Transformer
A transformer with the neutral line of the primary permanently connected to the case or mounting
base.

155
 156 Hazardous Current Transformer (CT) Open-Circuiting
An energized current transformer (CT) with the secondary open-circuited can result in a high voltage
across the secondary terminals or conductors which may be hazardous to personnel or damaging to
equipment.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Indoor Transformer
A transformer which must be protected from weather.
Insulated-Neutral Terminal-Type Voltage Transformer
A transformer with the neutral line of the primary insulated from the case or base and connected to
a terminal with insulation for a lower voltage than the voltage that is required by the line terminal.
The neutral line may be connected to the case or mounting base in a manner which allows temporary
disconnection for dielectric testing.
Leakage Flux
Magnetic flux, produced by current in a transformer winding, which flows outside the windings.
Low Remanence Current Transformer
A transformer with a remanence less than 10% of maximum flux.
Multiple-Secondary Current Transformer
A transformer with one primary and two or more secondaries, each on separate magnetic circuits.
Multi-Ratio Current Transformer
A transformer with three or more ratios obtained by taps on the secondary winding.
Rated Current
The current in the primary upon which the performance specifications are based.
Rated Secondary Current
Rated current divided by the marked ratio.
Rated Secondary Voltage
Rated voltage divided by the marked ratio.
Rated Voltage
The primary voltage upon which the performance specifications of a voltage transformer are based.
Series-Parallel Primary Current Transformer
A transformer with two insulated primaries that can be connected in series or in parallel, and that
provide different rated currents.
Tapped-Secondary Current (Voltage) Transformer
A transformer with two ratios, obtained by a tap on the secondary winding.
Window-Type Current Transformer
A transformer with no primary winding, and a secondary winding insulated from, and permanently
assembled on, the core, providing a window through which the primary line conductor can pass.
Wound-Type Current Transformer
A transformer with a primary with one or more turns mechanically encircling the core. The primary
and secondary windings are insulated from each other and from the core and are assembled as an
integrated structure.

Basic Theory of Instrument Transformers

THE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
The Ideal Voltage Transformer Connection Diagram
Figure 10-1 shows the connection diagram for an ideal voltage transformer. Note that the primary
winding is connected across the high-voltage line and the secondary winding is connected to the
voltage coil of the meter. When 2,400 volts are applied to the primary of this voltage transformer,
120 volts are developed in the secondary by transformer action. This secondary voltage is applied to
the voltage coil of the meter. Since there is no direct connection between the primary and secondary
windings, the insulation between these windings isolates the meter from the primary voltage. One side
of the secondary circuit is connected to ground to provide protection from static charges and insula- 157
tion failure.
Polarity

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
In Figure 10-1, the polarity markers are used to show the instantaneous direction of current flow in
the primary and secondary windings of the voltage transformer. They are so placed that when the
primary current IP is flowing into the marked primary terminal H1, the secondary current Is is at the
same instant flowing out of the marked secondary terminal X1. These markings enable the secondaries
of the voltage and current transformers to be connected to the meter with the proper phase relation-
ships. In the case of a single-stator meter installed with a voltage and a current transformer, reversal
of the secondaries from either transformer would cause the meter to run backward.
Secondary Burden
In Figure 10-1, the voltage coil of the meter draws a small current from the secondary winding and is
therefore a burden on the secondary winding. The burden of an instrument transformer is defined by
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard C57.13 as follows:
That property of the circuit connected to the secondary winding that determines the active and reactive
power at its secondary terminals.
The burden on a voltage transformer is usually expressed as the total volt amperes and power
factor of the secondary devices and leads at a specified voltage and frequency (normally 120 volts at
25 KV and below and 115 volts above 25 KV, 60 hertz [Hz]).
The burden imposed by the voltage sensors of an electronic (solid-state) meter is typically less
than 0.1 VA and may be considered insignificant. However, the solid-state meter’s power supply, which
is typically connected to phase A, may be significant enough for consideration as a voltage transformer
secondary burden.
Marked Ratio, Turn Ratio, True Ratio
The marked ratio of a voltage transformer is the ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage as given
on the rating plate.
The turn ratio of a voltage transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary winding
to that in the secondary winding.
The true ratio of a voltage transformer is the ratio of the root-mean-square (rms) primary voltage
to the rms secondary voltage under specified conditions.
In an ideal voltage transformer, the marked ratio, turn ratio, and true ratio would always be equal
and the reversed secondary voltage would always be in phase with the impressed primary voltage. It
must be strongly emphasized that this ideal voltage transformer does not exist. It has been assumed
that the ideal voltage transformer is 100% efficient, has no losses, and requires no magnetizing cur-
rent. This assumption is not true for any actual voltage transformer.
The concept of the ideal voltage transformer is, however, a useful fiction. Modern voltage trans-
formers, when supplying burdens which do not exceed their accuracy ratings, approach the fictional
ideal very closely. Most metering installations involving instrument transformers are set up on this
ideal basis and, in most cases, no corrections need be applied. Thus, in the example shown in Fig-
ure 10-1, it would normally be assumed that the meter voltage coil is always supplied with 1/20th of
the primary voltage. If this assumption is to be valid, the limitations of actual voltage transformers
must be clearly understood and care taken to see that they are used within these limitations.
The Actual Voltage Transformer—The Phasor Diagram
In the ideal voltage transformer, the secondary voltage is directly proportional to the ratio of turns and
opposite in phase to the impressed primary voltage. In an actual transformer, an exact proportionality
and phase relation is not possible because the exciting current necessary to magnetize the magnetic
core causes an impedance drop in the primary winding and the load current that is drawn by the
burden causes an impedance drop in both the primary and secondary windings.
Both of these currents produce an overall voltage drop in the transformer and introduce errors in
ratio and phase angle. The net result is that the secondary voltage is slightly different from that which
the ratio of turns would indicate and there is a small shift in the phase relationship, resulting in
the introduction of ratio and phase angle errors as compared to the performance of the ideal voltage
transformer.
 158
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-1. The Ideal Voltage Transformer.

Figures 10-2 and 10-3 are the schematic

and phasor diagrams of an actual voltage
transformer. The phasor diagram (Figure
10-3) is drawn for a transformer having a
1:1 turn ratio and the voltage-drop and loss
phasors have been greatly exaggerated so that
they can be clearly separated on the diagram.
Primary: RP, XP, ZP, TP These are normal conventions used when
drawing phasor diagrams for transformers
Secondary: RS, XS, ZS, TS and do not invalidate any of the results to be
derived.
The operation of the voltage transformer
may be explained briefly by means of the
RL 5 Secondary Lead Resistance phasor diagram in Figure 10-3 as follows: the
flux  in the core induces a voltage ES, in the
secondary winding lagging the flux by 90°.
A voltage equal to nES (where n is the turn
ratio) is also induced in the primary winding
Burden: RB, XB, ZB, B
lagging  by 90°. To overcome this induced
voltage, a voltage EP 5 2nES must be supplied
Burden Power Factor 5 Cos B in the primary. Thus, nES must lead ES by
180° and therefore leads the flux  by 90°.
Figure 10-2. The Actual Voltage Transformer with
Burden and Lead Resistance.
 159

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
IE

VP

 5 Flux in Core RL 5 Resistance of Secondary Leads

IM 5 Magnetizing Current VB 5 Voltage at Terminals of Burden
IW 5 Core Loss Current RB 5 Resistance of Burden
IE 5 Exciting Current XB 5 Reactance of Burden
VP 5 Impressed Primary (Terminal) Voltage ZB 5 Impedance of Burden
EP 5 Voltage Required to Overcome Induced B 5 Phase Angle of Burden
Primary Voltage cos B 5 Power Factor of Burden
IP 5 Primary Current B 5 Apparent Phase Angle of Voltage Transformer
RP 5 Resistance of Primary at Burden Terminals
XP 5 Reactance of Primary TP 5 Turns on Primary
ZP 5 Impedance of Primary TS 5 Turns on Secondary
ES 5 Induced Secondary Voltage N 5 Turns Ratio 5 TP/TS
VS 5 Secondary Terminal Voltage VP/VS 5 True Ratio of Voltage Transformer
IS 5 Secondary Current VP/VB 5 Apparent Ratio of Voltage Transformer at
RS 5 Resistance of Secondary Burden Terminals
XS 5 Reactance of Secondary  5 Phase Angle of Voltage Transformer
ZS 5 Impedance of Secondary

Figure 10-3. Phasor Diagram of Voltage Transformer.

The secondary current IS is determined by the secondary terminal voltage VS and the impedance
of the burden ZB. Theoretically, the true burden seen by a voltage transformer includes the leads RL in
series with the connected instruments. In practice, the effect of the leads on the total burden is very
VS
small and is neglected. I is equal to —— and lags V by a phase angle B, where cos B is the power factor
ZB
of the burden. This burden power factor should not be confused with the power factor of the load
being supplied by the primary circuit.
The voltage drop in the secondary winding is equal to ISZS where ZS is the impedance of this wind-
ing. This drop is the phasor sum of two components ISRS and ISXS, where RS and XS are the resistance
and reactance of the secondary winding. The voltage drop ISRS must be in phase with IS and the voltage
drop ISXS must lead IS by 90°. The induced secondary voltage ES is equal to the phasor sum of VS 1 ISZS
and VS is the phasor difference ES 2 ISZS.
IM is the magnetizing current required to supply the flux  and is in phase with the flux. IW is the
current required to supply the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core and leads IM by 90°. The
phasor sum of IM 1 IW is the exciting current IE. This would be the total primary current if there were
no burden on the secondary.
When a burden is connected to the secondary, the primary must also supply the reflected
I I
secondary current, —S . The total primary current IP is therefore the phasor sum of IE and 2—S .
n n
 160 The voltage drop in the primary winding is equal to IPZP where ZP is the impedance of the primary
winding. This drop is the phasor sum of the two components IPRP and IPXP where RP and XP are the
resistance and the reactance of the primary winding. The voltage drop IPRP must be in phase with IP
and the drop IPXP must lead IP by 90°. The primary terminal voltage VP is equal to the phasor sum of
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

EP 1 IPZP.
The phasor 2VS is obtained by reversing the secondary voltage phasor VS. In practice this simply
amounts to reversing the connections to the secondary terminals. This reversal is automatically done
by the polarity markings and, if these are followed, the terminal voltage from the marked to the
unmarked secondary lead will be 2VS.
In Figure 10-3, note that the reversed secondary voltage phasor 2VS is not equal in magnitude
to the impressed primary voltage VP and that 2VS is out of phase with VP by the angle . In an ideal
voltage transformer of 1:1 ratio, 2VS would be equal to and in phase with VP. In the actual voltage
transformer, this difference represents errors in both ratio and phase angle.
True Ratio and Ratio Correction Factor
The true ratio of a voltage transformer is the ratio of the rms primary voltage to the rms secondary
voltage under specified conditions.
V
In the phasor diagram, Figure 10-3, the true ratio is —P . It is apparent that this is not equal to the
T VS
1:1 turn ratio —P upon which this diagram was based. In this case, VS is smaller in magnitude than VP
TS
as a result of the voltage drops in the transformer.
T
The turn ratio of a voltage transformer —P is built in at the time of construction and the marked
TS
ratio is indicated on the nameplate by the manufacturer. These ratios are fixed and permanent values
for a given transformer.
The true ratio of a voltage transformer is not a single fixed value since it depends upon the speci-
fied conditions of use. These conditions are secondary burden, primary voltage, frequency, and wave-
form. Under ordinary conditions, primary voltage, frequency, and waveform are practically constant
so that the true ratio is primarily dependent upon the secondary burden and the characteristics of the
particular voltage transformer.
The true ratio of a voltage transformer cannot be marked on the nameplate since it is not a
constant value but one that is variable and is affected by external conditions. The true ratio is deter-
mined by test for the specified conditions under which the voltage transformer is to be used. For most
practical applications where no corrections are to be applied, the true ratio is considered to be equal to
the marked ratio under specified IEEE standard accuracy tolerances and burdens.
Thus, it might be found that the true ratio of a voltage transformer having a marked ratio of 20:1
was 20.034:1 under the specified conditions. However, the true ratio is not usually written in this way
because this form is difficult to evaluate and inconvenient to use. The figure 20.034 may be broken
into two factors and written 20 3 1.0017, where 20 is the marked or nominal ratio of the voltage
transformer and is multiplied by the factor 1.0017.
This factor, by which the marked ratio must be multiplied to obtain the true ratio, is called the
ratio correction factor (RCF).
True Ratio 5 Marked Ratio 3 RCF
True Ratio
RCF 5 ——————————
Marked Ratio

Phase Angle
Figure 10-3 shows that the reversed secondary voltage 2VS is not in phase with the impressed primary
voltage VP. The angle  between these two phasors is known as the phase angle of the voltage trans-
former and is usually expressed in minutes of arc. Sixty minutes of arc is equal to one degree.
In the ideal voltage transformer, the secondary voltage VS would be exactly 180° out of phase with
the impressed primary voltage VP. The polarity markings automatically correct for this 180° reversal.
The reversed secondary voltage 2VS, would therefore be in phase with the impressed primary VP and
the phase angle  would be zero.
In the actual voltage transformer, the phase angle  represents a phase shift between the primary
and secondary voltages in addition to the normal 180° shift. The 180° shift is corrected by the rever-
sal that occurs when the polarity markings are followed, but the phase angle  remains. This uncor- 161
rected phase shift can cause errors in measurements when exact phase relations must be maintained.
The phase angle of an instrument transformer is defined by IEEE Standard C57.13 as the phase
displacement, in minutes, between the primary and secondary values. The phase angle of a voltage

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
transformer is designated by the Greek letter gamma () and is positive when the secondary voltage
from the identified to the unidentified terminal leads the corresponding primary voltage.
The phase angle of a voltage transformer is not a single fixed value but varies with burden, primary
voltage, frequency, and waveform. It results from the voltage drops within the transformer as shown
in Figure 10-3. Under ordinary conditions where voltage, frequency, and waveform are practically
constant, the phase angle is primarily dependent upon the secondary burden and the characteristics of
the particular voltage transformer.
Effects of Secondary Burden on Ratio and Phase Angle
Figure 10-3 shows that any change in the secondary current IS will change the relative magnitudes and
phase relations of the primary terminal voltage VP and the secondary terminal voltage VS. Since the
V
secondary current IS is a function of the burden impedance ZB the true ratio —P and the phase angle 
VS
are affected by any change in burden. Figure 10-5 shows the metering accuracy curve of a voltage
transformer referenced to connected burden.
Effects of Primary Voltage on Ratio and Phase Angle
A change in primary voltage causes a nearly proportional increase or decrease in all of the other
voltages and currents shown in the phasor diagram in Figure 10-3. If this proportionality were exact,
no change in true ratio or phase angle would result from a change in voltage. However, the exciting
current IE is not strictly proportional to the primary voltage VP, but varies according to the saturation
curve of the magnetic core as shown in Figure 10-4. The change in exciting current for the normal
operating range of 90 to 110% of rated primary voltage is very nearly linear. Above 110% rated volt-
age the core is rapidly approaching saturation and the exciting current IE increases more rapidly than
the primary voltage VP. This could result in a change in true ratio and phase angle with voltage if the
transformer is operated at more than 110% of its rated voltage. The exact point of saturation depends
upon the particular design. Some voltage transformers may show greater changes with voltage than
others.
In the normal operating range, and even well below this range, the change of true ratio and phase
angle with voltage is very small with modern well-designed voltage transformers.

Normal Operating Range

Rated
Primary
Voltage

Exciting Current

Figure 10-4. Typical Saturation Curve for a Voltage Transformer.

 162 Effects of Frequency on Ratio and Phase Angle
A change in frequency changes the impedance of the voltage transformer and the burden. Increasing
frequency increases the reactance of the transformer XP and XS and would increase the voltage drops
IPXP and ISXS were it not for the fact that the secondary current IS would decrease due to an increase
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

in the burden reactance XB (see Figure 10-3). These two effects tend to cancel each other, but depend
upon the ratio of resistance to reactance in the transformer and the burden. In addition, the excit-
ing current IE decreases rapidly at higher frequencies and increases at lower frequencies. At lower
frequencies the core will saturate at voltages below the normal rating and large changes in ratio and
phase angle could occur. As a result, a small increase in frequency may have little effect, whereas a
small decrease may result in appreciable change in true ratio and phase angle. A drastic decrease in
frequency results in excessive exciting current and overheating of the voltage transformer.
Voltage transformers are normally designed for a single frequency, though they can be designed to
work satisfactorily for a small range of frequencies such as 50 to 60 Hz. In utility work, this frequency
is usually 60 Hz. Since power system frequency is closely regulated, the problem of varying frequency
does not normally arise.
Effects of Waveform on Ratio and Phase Angle
Since any distorted waveform of the impressed primary voltage may be considered equivalent to a mix-
ture of a sinusoidal voltage at the fundamental frequency and sinusoidal voltages at higher harmonic
frequencies, waveform distortion would also have an effect on the true ratio and phase angle.
If the burden is a magnetic core device requiring a large exciting current, this may result in a
waveform distortion in the secondary current IS. However, this error is included if the transformer is
tested with this burden. In testing voltage transformers, care must be used to avoid overloading the
primary voltage supply as this could produce a distorted primary voltage waveform.
Effects of Temperature on Ratio and Phase Angle
A change in temperature changes the resistance of the primary and secondary windings of the voltage
transformer. This results in only slight changes of ratio and phase angle as the voltage drops in the

Lagging
Burden
Phase Power
Angle  Factor
Leading

Ratio Burden
Correction Power
Factor Factor

Secondary Burden in Voltamperes

Figure 10-5. Characteristic Ratio and Phase Angle Curves for a Voltage Transformer at 60 Hertz, 120 Volts.
transformers are primarily reactive and the secondary current is determined by the impedance of the 163
burden. The change in accuracy is usually less than 0.1% for a 55°C change in temperature.
Effects of Secondary Lead Resistance on the Ratio and Phase Angle as Seen by the Meter

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
The true ratio and phase angle of a voltage transformer are defined in terms of the terminal voltages
VP and VS. The true secondary burden is defined in terms of the impedance connected to the secondary
terminals and therefore includes the secondary lead resistance RL as shown in Figure 10-2. The resis-
tance of the secondary leads RL is small compared to the impedance of the burden ZB so that ordinar-
ily the lead resistance does not change the secondary burden sufficiently to make any appreciable
difference in the ratio and phase angle at the voltage transformer terminals.
However, the meter is not connected directly to the secondary terminals, but at the end of the
secondary leads. The voltage at the meter terminals is the burden voltage VB as shown in Figure 10-2
and not the secondary terminal voltage VS; VB differs from VS by the phasor drop ISRL that occurs in
the leads (see Figures 10-3 and 10-6).
This voltage drop is in phase with the secondary current IS and therefore causes the burden volt-
age VB to be slightly different in magnitude and slightly shifted in phase relation with respect to the
secondary terminal voltage VS.
The effect of this line drop in terms of ratio correction factor and phase angle may be calculated
as shown in Figure 10-6. Values for a typical example have also been given to illustrate the use of
these equations. In this example, the ratio correction factor 1.0009 and the phase angle 11.7 minutes
due to the secondary lead resistance were small and could be ignored in all but the most exacting
applications. If a greater lead resistance or a heavier secondary burden had been assumed, then this

VS 5 Secondary Terminal Voltage (Example: 120 Volts)

VB 5 Voltage at Terminals of Burden (Example, calculated: 119.896 Volts)
IS 5 Secondary Current (Example: 0.24 Amperes)
B 5 Phase Angle of Burden (Example: 30°)
cos B 5 Power Factor of Burden (Example: .866)
RL 5 Resistance of Secondary Leads (Example: 0.50 Ohms)
RCFL 5 Ratio Correction Factor (Caused by Secondary Leads Only)

Example:
VS VS 120
RCFL 5 ——  ——————— 5 —————————— 5 1.009
VB VS 2 ISRL cos B 120 2 (0.24)(0.5)(.866)

L 5 Phase Angle in Minutes (Caused by Secondary Lead Resistance Only)

Example:
ISRL sin B (0.24)(0.5)(0.5)(3438)
L (min.)  ——————— 3438 5 —————————— 5 11.7 Minutes
VS 120

Note: The constant 3438 is the number of minutes in a radian.

The above formulas are approximations based on small angles.

Figure 10-6. Phasor Diagram and Calculation of the Ratio Correction Factor and Phase Angle Due to the
Secondary Lead Resistance Only (Applies to Voltage Transformer Secondary Leads).
 164 effect would be much greater. For example, if the lead resistance RL was increased to one ohm and the
secondary current IS to one ampere at 0.866 burden power factor (B), then the ratio correction factor
and phase angle due to the leads would rise to 1.0073 and 114.3 minutes. Such an error should not
be ignored.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

It should be emphasized that the effect of the secondary lead resistance, in causing a change in
apparent ratio and phase angle at the meter terminals, is a straight lead-drop problem and is not due
to the voltage transformer in any way. The effect would be exactly the same if an ideal voltage trans-
former were used.
In spite of the fact that this lead-drop effect is not due to the voltage transformer, it is sometimes
convenient to include this drop during the test of a voltage transformer by determining the apparent
ratio and phase angle between the primary terminals of the transformer and the terminals of the
V
burden of the end of the actual or simulated secondary leads. This apparent ratio —P and apparent
VB
phase angle (B) are indicated by the dashed-line phasors VB, 2VB, and ISRL on the phasor diagram,
Figure 10-3. This is the total RCF and phase angle that must be used to correct the readings of the
meter as both the transformer and lead-drop errors are included. Since the lead-drop is not caused by
the transformer, acceptance tests to determine if the transformers meet specifications must be made at
the transformer secondary terminals.
In actual practice, the ratio and phase angle errors due to secondary lead-drop are usually limited
to small values by strict limitations of allowable lead resistance and secondary burden. This lead-drop
is troublesome only in exceptional cases where long leads and heavy burdens are required. In case of
doubt, a calculation, using the formulas given in Figure 10-6, will quickly indicate the magnitude of
the error involved.
Effects of Common Secondary Leads on Ratio and Phase Angle as Seen by the Meter
In a polyphase circuit where two or three voltage transformers are used, it is the normal practice to
use one wire as the common neutral secondary lead for all of the voltage transformers.
This fact must be taken into account when measuring or calculating the effect of the lead-drop on
the ratio and phase angle at the meter. If three voltage transformers are connected in wye as shown
in Figure 10-25, the neutral secondary lead carries no current with a balanced burden. If two voltage
transformers are connected in open delta as shown in Figure 10-23, the neutral secondary carries  3
times the current of the other leads for a balanced burden on phases 1-2 and 2-3.
If, because of long secondary leads or heavy burdens, the lead-drop effect causes significant error,
then the use of a common secondary lead increases the difficulties of determining this effect by test
or calculation. Calculations must be made phasorially, taking into account the magnitude and phase
relation of the current in each secondary lead.
Polyphase Burdens
When the secondaries of two or three voltage transformers are used to supply interconnected poly-
phase burdens, it becomes difficult to determine the actual burden in each transformer. Calculations
of burden must be made phasorially and become exceedingly complex when several polyphase and
single-phase burdens are involved. Such calculations can be avoided by testing at the burden under
actual or simulated three-phase conditions. This is required only in the most exacting applications,
where corrections based on the actual burden must be applied. In most cases burdens are kept within
the ratings of the voltage transformers and no corrections are applied.
Methods of Compensating Voltage Transformers to Reduce Ratio and Phase Angle Errors
Voltage transformers are designed to have low exciting current and low internal impedance, which
reduces the ratio and phase angle errors. In addition, the turn ratio may be made slightly different
than the marked ratio in order to compensate the transformer for minimum error at a specific burden
instead of at zero burden. If the transformer is used with a burden approximating the design burden,
errors may be greatly reduced.
Permanence of Accuracy
The accuracy of a voltage transformer does not change appreciably with age. It may change due to
mechanical damage or to electrical stresses beyond those for which the transformer was designed.
THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER 165
The Ideal Current Transformer Connection Diagram
Figure 10-7 shows the connection diagram for an ideal current transformer. The primary winding is

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
connected in series with one of the high-voltage leads carrying the primary current, and the secondary
winding is connected to the current coil of the meter. When 600 amperes flow through the primary
winding of this current transformer, 5 amperes are developed in the secondary winding by transformer
action. This secondary current is passed through the current coil of the meter. Since there is no direct
connection between the primary and secondary windings, the insulation between these windings
isolates the meter from the voltage of the primary. One side of the secondary circuit is connected to
ground to provide protection from static charges and insulation failure.
Polarity
In Figure 10-7, the polarity markers are used to show the instantaneous direction of current flow in
the primary and secondary windings of the current transformer. They are so placed that when the
primary current IP is flowing into the marked primary terminal H1, the secondary current IS is at the
same instant flowing out of the marked secondary terminal X1. These markings enable the secondaries
of the current and voltage transformers to be connected to the meter with the proper phase relation-
ships. For example, in the case of a single-stator meter installed with a current and a voltage trans-
former, reversal of the secondaries from either transformer would cause the meter to run backward.
Secondary Burden
In Figure 10-7, the impedance of the current coil
of the meter and the resistance of the second-
ary leads causes a small voltage drop across the
secondary terminals of the current transformer
when the secondary current IS is flowing. The cur-
rent transformer must develop a small terminal
voltage VS to overcome this voltage drop in order
to maintain the secondary current. The imped-
ance of the meter and resistance of the secondary
leads is therefore a burden on the secondary
winding.
This burden may be expressed as the total
voltamperes and power factor of the second-
ary devices and leads at a specified current and
frequency (normally, 5 amperes and 60 Hz). It is
often more convenient to express current trans-
former burdens in terms of their total resistance
in ohms and inductance in millihenries, or as
total ohms impedance at a given power factor and
frequency.
While the basic definition of burden for a
current transformer and voltage transformer is
the same in terms of active and reactive power
supplied by the ­instrument transformer, the effect
of burden impedance is the reverse. Zero burden
on a voltage transformer is an open-circuit or
infinite impedance, while zero burden on a
current transformer is a short-circuit or zero
impedance.
The impedance of the current coil of the
meter in Figure 10-7 is very low so that the cur-
rent transformer is operated with what amounts
to a short circuit on its secondary winding. This Figure 10-7. The Ideal Current Transformer.
is the normal condition of operation for a current
transformer.
 166 Marked Ratio, Turn Ratio, and True Ratio
The marked ratio of a current transformer is the ratio of primary current to secondary current as
given on the rating plate.
The turn ratio of a current transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

winding to the number of turns in the primary winding. This is the opposite of a voltage transformer.
A voltage transformer that steps down the voltage has more turns on the primary than the secondary,
while a current transformer that steps down the current has more turns on the secondary than on the
primary.
The true ratio of a current transformer is the ratio of rms primary current to the rms secondary
current under specified conditions.
In an ideal current transformer, the marked ratio, turn ratio, and true ratio would always be equal
and the reversed secondary current would always be in phase with the impressed primary current. It
must be strongly emphasized that this ideal current transformer does not exist.
The concept of the ideal current transformer is a useful fiction. Modern current transformers
when supplying burdens which do not exceed their accuracy ratings, approach this fictional ideal very
closely. Most metering installations involving instrument transformers are set up on this ideal basis
and, in most cases, no corrections need be applied. In the example shown in Figure 10-7, it would
normally be assumed that the meter current coil is always supplied with 1/120 of the primary current.
If this assumption is to be valid, the limitations of actual current transformers must be clearly under-
stood and care taken to see that they are used within these limitations.
The Actual Current Transformer—The Phasor Diagram
In the ideal current transformer, the secondary current is inversely proportional to the ratio of turns
and opposite in phase to the impressed primary current. In reality, an exact inverse proportionality
and phase relation is not possible because part of the primary current must be used to excite the
core. The exciting current may be subtracted phasorially from the primary current to find the amount
remaining to supply secondary current. Therefore, the secondary current will be slightly different from
the value that the ratio of turns would indicate and there is a slight shift in the phase relationship.
This results in the introduction of ratio and phase angle errors as compared to the performance of the
“ideal” current transformer.
Figures 10-8 and 10-9 are the schematic and phasor diagrams of an actual current transformer.
The phasor diagram, Figure 10-9, is drawn for a transformer having a 1:1 turn ratio and the volt-
age drop and loss phasors have been greatly exaggerated so that they can be clearly separated on the
diagram.
Basically, the phasor diagram for a current transformer is similar to that for the voltage trans-
former. However, in the current transformer, the important phasors are the primary and secondary
current rather than the voltages.

Primary: RP, XP, ZP, TP

Secondary: RS, XS, ZS, TS

RB 5 RM 1 RL 5 Meter Resistance 1 Lead Resistance

Burden: RB, XB, ZB, B

Burden Power Factor 5 Cos B

Figure 10-8. The Actual Current Transformer with Burden.

 167

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
 5 Flux in Core XS 5 Reactance of Secondary
IM 5 Magnetizing Current RB 5 Resistance of Burden
IW 5 Core Loss Current XB 5 Reactance of Burden
IE 5 Exciting Current ZB 5 Impedance of Burden
EP 5 Voltage Required to Overcome Induced B 5 Phase Angle of Burden
Primary Voltage cos B 5 Power Factor of Burden
IP 5 Primary Current TP 5 Turns on Primary
ES 5 Induced Secondary Voltage TS 5 Turns on Secondary
VS 5 Secondary Terminal Voltage n 5 Turns Ratio 5 TS/TP
IS 5 Secondary Current IP/IS 5 True Ratio of Current Transformer
RS 5 Resistance of Secondary b 5 Phase Angle of Current Transformer

Figure 10-9. Phasor Diagram of Current Transformer.

The operation of the current transformer may be explained briefly by means of the phasor dia-
gram, Figure 10-9, as follows:
The flux  in the core induces a voltage ES in the secondary winding lagging the flux by 90°. A
E TS
voltage equal to —S , where n is the turn ratio ——  , is also induced in the primary winding lagging
n TP E
 by 90°. To overcome this induced voltage, a voltage E 5 —S , must be supplied in the primary.
n
Thus, EP must lead ES by 180° and therefore leads the flux by 90°.
The secondary current IS is determined by the secondary terminal voltage VS and the impedance
V
of the burden ZB. IS is equal to —S and lags VS by a phase angle B where cos B is the power factor of
ZB
the burden (this burden power factor should not be confused with the power factor of the load being
supplied by the primary circuit). The burden impedance ZB is made up of the burden resistance RB and
the burden reactance XB (see Figure 10-8). The burden resistance RB is equal to the sum of the meter
resistance RM and the secondary lead resistance RL. Since the total impedance of current transformer
burdens is very low, usually less than one ohm, the lead resistance RL is an appreciable part of the
burden and cannot be neglected. In many cases the resistance of the secondary leads may constitute
the greater part of the burden impedance.
The voltage drop in the secondary winding is equal to ISZS, where ZS is the impedance of this
winding. This drop is the phasor sum of the two components ISRS and ISXS, where RS and XS are the
resistance and reactance of the secondary winding. The voltage drop ISRS must be in phase with IS and
the voltage drop ISXS must lead IS by 90°. The induced secondary voltage ES is equal to the phasor sum
of VS 1 ISZS and VS is the phasor difference ES 2 ISZS.
IM is the magnetizing current required to supply the flux  and is in phase with the flux. IW is the
current required to supply the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core, and leads IM by 90°. The
phasor sum of IM 1 IW is the exciting current IE.
 168 The primary must supply the reflected secondary current 2nIS. The total primary current IP is
therefore the phasor sum of IE and 2nIS.
With a low-impedance burden connected to the secondary winding, the impedance of the primary
winding is extremely low, since the reflected impedance of the secondary is approximately proportional
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

to the square of the turn ratio, and the primary winding of a step-down current transformer has fewer
turns than the secondary.
The primary current in the current transformer is determined by the load on the primary circuit of
the installation. The voltage drop in the primary winding is therefore very small, even with full-rated
current in the primary line, due to the low impedance of this winding. The induced secondary voltage
ES and the secondary terminal voltage VS are both small because the transformer is essentially short
E
circuited by the low-impedance burden. Therefore, the voltage EP required to overcome the voltage —S ,
n
induced in the primary is also very small.
IP
Since the true ratio of a current transformer is —, it is not ordinarily necessary to consider the
IS
primary voltage or the voltage drops in the primary, since they do not effect the value of either the
primary or secondary currents.
The phasor 2IS is obtained by reversing the secondary current phasor IS. In Figure 10-9, which is
for a 1:1 transformer, 2IS is coincident with 2nIS. This reversal is automatically done if the polarity
markings are followed.
Also note that the reversed secondary current phasor 2IS is not equal in magnitude to the
impressed primary current phasor IP and that 2IS is out of phase with IP by the angle beta, . In an
ideal current transformer of 1:1 ratio, 2IS would be equal to and in phase with IP. In the actual cur-
rent transformer, this difference represents errors in both ratio and phase angle.
True Ratio and Ratio Correction Factor
I
In the phasor diagram, Figure 10-9, the true ratio is —P. It is apparent that this is not equal to the
IS
TS
1:1 turn ratio ——  upon which the diagram was based. IS in this case is smaller in magnitude than IP
TP
because part of the primary current IP is required to supply the exciting current IE.
TS
The turn ratio of a current transformer ——  is built in at the time of construction and the marked
TP
ratio is indicated on the nameplate by the manufacturer. These ratios are fixed and permanent values
for a given transformer.
The true ratio of a current transformer is not a single fixed value since it depends upon the speci-
fied conditions of use. These conditions are secondary burden, primary current, frequency, and wave-
form. Under ordinary conditions, frequency and waveform are practically constant so that the true
ratio is primarily dependent upon the secondary burden, the primary current, and the characteristics
of the particular current transformer.
The true ratio of a current transformer cannot be marked on the nameplate since it is not a
constant value but a variable which is affected by external conditions. The true ratio is determined by
test for the specified conditions under which the current transformer is to be used. For most practical
applications, where no corrections are to be applied, the true ratio is considered to be equal to the
marked ratio under specified IEEE standard accuracy tolerances and burdens. Thus, it might be found
that the true ratio of a current transformer having the marked ratio of 120:1 was 119.796:1 under
the specified conditions. However, the true ratio is not usually written in this way because this form
is difficult to evaluate and inconvenient to use. The figure 119.796 may be broken into two factors
and written 120 3 0.9983. Note that 120 is the marked or nominal ratio of the current transformer
which is multiplied by the factor 0.9983.
This factor, by which the marked ratio must be multiplied to obtain the true ratio, is called the
ratio correction factor (RCF). It has exactly the same meaning when applied to the current trans-
former as previously given for the voltage transformer.
True Ratio
RCF 5 ——————————
Marked Ratio
Phase Angle 169
Figure 10-9 shows that the reversed secondary current IS is not in phase with the impressed primary
current IP. The angle beta () between these phasors is known as the phase angle of the current
transformer and is usually expressed in minutes of arc (60 minutes of arc is equal to one degree).

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
In the ideal current transformer, the secondary current IS would be exactly 180° out of phase with
the impressed primary current IP. The polarity markings automatically correct for this 180° reversal.
The reversed secondary current 2IS would therefore be in phase with the impressed primary current IP
and the phase angle  would be zero.
In the actual current transformer, the phase angle  represents a phase shift between the primary
and secondary currents in addition to the normal 180° phase shift. The 180° shift is corrected by
the reversal that occurs when the polarity markings are followed, but the phase angle  remains.
This uncorrected phase shift can cause errors in measurements when exact phase relations must be
maintained.
The phase angle of a current transformer is designated by the Greek letter beta () and is positive
when the current leaving the identified secondary terminal leads the current entering the identified
primary terminal.
The phase angle of a current transformer is not a single fixed value, but varies with burden, pri-
mary current, frequency, and waveform. It results from the component of the primary current required
to supply the exciting current IE as shown in Figure 10-9. Under ordinary conditions where frequency
and waveform are practically constant, the phase angle is primarily dependent upon the secondary
burden, the primary current, and the characteristics of the particular current transformer.
Effects of Secondary Burden on Ratio and Phase Angle
An increase of secondary burden, which for a current transformer means an increase in the burden
impedance ZB, requires an increase in the secondary voltage VS if the secondary current IS is to remain
the same. See Figure 10-9 (note that in a voltage transformer an increase of secondary burden requires
an increase in the secondary current if the secondary voltage is to remain the same). Increasing the
secondary current requires an increase in the induced secondary voltage ES which can only be pro-
duced by an increase in the flux .
To provide an increased flux, the magnetizing current IM must increase and the core loss current IW
also increases. This results in an increase in the exciting current IE. Thus, increasing the burden causes
an increase in the exciting current. Since the exciting current is the primary cause of the ratio and
phase angle errors in the current transformer, these errors are affected by any change in the secondary
burden.
Effect of Primary Current on Ratio and Phase Angle
Unlike the voltage transformer which operates at a practically constant primary voltage, the current
transformer must operate over a wide range of primary currents from zero to rated current, and
above rated current in special cases, such as the operation of protective relays. This means that with
a constant secondary burden, the flux in the core must vary over a wide range as the primary current
is changed. To produce this varying flux, the exciting current must also vary over a wide range. If the
flux  varied in exact proportion with the exciting current IE then the changes in primary current
would not effect the ratio and phase angle. However, current transformers are designed to operate at
low flux densities in the core and under these conditions the flux is not directly proportional to the
exciting current. Figure 10-10 shows a typical exciting current curve for the magnetic core of a current
transformer.
The change of exciting current over the normal operating range from 10 to 100% rated primary
current is not a linear function of the primary current. The shape of the saturation curve for the
current transformer is actually similar to the curve for the voltage transformer, as seen in Figure 10-4,
but only an expanded portion of the lower end of the curve is shown in Figure 10-10. With normal
secondary burdens, saturation does not occur until the primary current reaches 5 to 20 times the
rated value. Thus, the saturation point is not shown in Figure 10-10.
Since the exciting current does not change in exact proportion to the primary current, the true
ratio and phase angle vary to some extent with the primary current. The ratio and phase angle errors
are usually greater at 10% primary current than at 100% primary current, though this depends upon
the burden and the compensation of the particular current transformer. Figure 10-11 shows typical
metering accuracy curves for a 0.3 Accuracy Class current transformer at IEEE standard burdens and
 170
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Flux in Core
or
Rated Primary
Current (IS) Normal Operating
Range

Exciting Current (IC)

Figure 10-10. Typical Exciting Current Curve for a Current Transformer.

rated current ranging from 5 to 160%. Note that the typical current transformer ratio and phase
angle errors are very small at the lower burdens. Also, the current transformers are typically much
more accurate over a wider current range than is required by IEEE Accuracy Class 0.3 (at these lower
burdens), i.e., 0.3% maximum error at 100% rated current and 0.6% maximum error at 10% rated
current.
Effects of Frequency on Ratio and Phase Angle
The effect of frequency variation on the ratio and phase angle of a current transformer is less than
that on a voltage transformer primarily because of the low flux density. Current transformers may be
designed to have reasonable accuracy over a range from 25 to 133 Hz. There will, however, be some
slight variation with frequency in this range.
Effects of Waveform on Ratio and Phase Angle
Waveform distortion in the primary current may have slight effects on the ratio and phase angle but
in general such effects are negligible. Even a large amount of third harmonic in the primary current
wave is reasonably well reproduced in the secondary and causes little error. Higher harmonics could
cause errors but these are not normally present in sufficient magnitude to be significant.
Effects of Secondary Leads on Ratio and Phase Angle
In the current transformer, the secondary current IS must be the same in all parts of the secondary
circuit, including the burden, since it is a series circuit. Thus, the secondary current and, therefore,
the true ratio and phase angle, will be the same whether measured at the transformer or at the meter
at the end of the secondary leads. The only effect of the secondary leads is on the burden. With long
secondary leads, the leads may constitute the major portion of the secondary burden. In all cases, the
secondary leads must be included in all tests and calculations as part of the secondary burden.
Effects of Common Secondary Leads
In a polyphase circuit where two or three current transformers are used it is a common practice to use
one wire as the common secondary lead for all of the current transformers.
This fact must be taken into account when measuring or calculating the effect of the leads as part
of the secondary burden. If the current transformers are connected in wye as shown in Figure 10-28,
the neutral secondary lead carries no current if the primary load current is balanced. In this case, the
resistance of the common lead is not part of the burden on any of the current transformers. If the
two current transformers are connected open delta as shown in Figure 10-27 the common secondary
 171

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Phase Angle
Leading

Ratio Correction
Factor

Percent Rated Current

Figure 10-11. Characteristic Ratio and Phase Angle Curves for a Typical Current Transformer at 60 Hertz.

lead carries a current whose magnitude is the same as the other leads under conditions of balanced
line currents and an open-delta burden as shown. However, the current in the common lead is not in
phase with the current in either of the other two leads. Thus, the lead resistance of the common lead
does not effect the burden on the two current transformers equally.
Figure 10-12 is a schematic and a phasor diagram of a two-stator polyphase meter whose current
elements are connected to two current transformers. If the lead resistance RL is an appreciable part of
the burden, the burden on the two current ­transformers is not the same because of the effect of the
common lead resistance. The effective burdens differ in both magnitude and phase. The burden on
one current transformer is V1I1 cos B1 and the other is V3I3 cos B3. The secondary currents I1 and I3
were assumed to be equal, but the terminal voltages V1 and V3 are not equal. In addition, the phase
angles of the two burdens B1 and B3 are not equal. Thus, the effect of the common secondary lead
resistance results in unequal burdens on the two current transformers even though the two elements
of the meter are identical.
If a burden of 2.1 VA at 0.60 power factor lagging and a lead resistance of 0.1 ohm (100 feet
of No. 10 wire) are assumed, the burdens on the two transformers would be 6.34 VA at 0.79 power
factor lagging on the current transformer in line 1 and 5.05 VA at 0.996 power factor leading on the
current transformer in line 3.
These small differences in burden would have little effect on the ratio and phase angle of a
modern current transformer. However, if a much longer common secondary lead with a resistance of
0.3 ohm or more is used, the effect might cause significant error unless appropriate corrections are
applied.
In most installations, the common lead resistance is kept low so that the resulting error is insig-
nificant. In the most accurate work, if long secondary leads must be used and exact corrections must
be applied, the current transformers can be tested under actual three-phase conditions. If the common
lead is eliminated by using separate return leads for each transformer, the calculations of burden are
simplified.
 172
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

ZM 5 Impedance of Meter Coil

M 5 Phase Angle of Meter Impedance
RL 5 Resistance of Each Secondary Lead
I1 5 Secondary Current of Current Transformer in Line 1
I3 5 Secondary Current of Current Transformer in Line 3
I2 5 Current In Common Secondary Lead
V1 5 Terminal Voltage of Current Transformer in Line 1
V3 5 Terminal Voltage of Current Transformer in Line 3
B1 5 Phase Angle of Burden on Current Transformer in Line 1
B3 5 Phase Angle of Burden on Current Transformer in Line 3

Figure 10-12. Effect of Common Secondary Lead on Burdens of Current Transformers.

Difficulties with Low-Ampere-Turn Designs

With a given current transformer core, the number of ampere-turns needed to excite this core to a
certain flux density is essentially a constant value. The exciting-current ampere-turns must be taken
from the primary ampere-turns and the remainder supplies the secondary ampere-turns.
As the total ampere-turns of the primary become lower, the exciting ampere-turns become a
greater percentage of the total, thus increasing the errors. When the primary ampere-turns are less
than 600, it becomes difficult to design current transformers with small errors. Only by using special
core materials and compensation methods can the errors be reduced to reasonable values.
Dangers Due to an Open Secondary
The secondary circuit of a current transformer must never be opened when current is flowing in
the primary. With an open secondary, the secondary impedance becomes infinite, the flux rises to
saturation, and the voltage drop in the primary is increased due to the reflected secondary impedance.
The primary voltage is stepped up by the ratio of the transformer and the secondary voltage rises to
dangerously high values. Voltages of several thousand volts are possible under open-circuit conditions.
Such voltages are dangerous to personnel and can damage the transformer.
Permanence of Accuracy 173
The accuracy of a current transformer does not change appreciably with age. It may be permanently
changed by mechanical or electrical failure and it may be temporarily changed by magnetization.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument Transformer Correction Factor
RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR AND RELATED TERMS
The marked ratio, the true ratio, and the ratio correction factor have been defined and discussed. In
addition to the RCF, the terms percent ratio (or percent marked ratio), ratio error, and percent ratio
error are often used when stating the errors in ratio of instrument transformers. Though these four
terms are numerically different, they describe the same phenomenon. Table 10-1 defines these and
related terms with algebraic formulas which provide the means of converting one term to another. Of
the four, RCF is the only one defined in IEEE Standard C57.13 and is therefore the preferred term.
Example 1:
If RCF is 1.0027, the percent ratio is 100.27%, the ratio error is 10.0027, and the percent ratio
error is 10.27%.
If the RCF is 0.9973, the percent ratio is 99.73%, the ratio error is 20.0027, and the percent
ratio error is 20.27%.
Note that the proper sign, 1 or 2, must be used for the ratio error or the percent ratio error and
the word percent or a percent sign (%) must be used with the percent ratio and the percent ratio
error.

Table 10-1. Definitions of Instrument Transformer Ratio,

Ratio Correction Factor, and Related Terms.

Term Formula Application

Marked Primary Voltage

Marked (Nominal) Ratio ————————————— VT
Marked Secondary Voltage
Marked Primary Current
Marked (Nominal) Ratio ————————————— CT
Marked Secondary Current
True Primary Voltage
True Ratio ———————————— VT
True Secondary Voltage
True Primary Current
True Ratio ———————————— CT
True Secondary Current
True Primary Voltage True Secondary Voltage 3 Marked Ratio 3 RCF VT
True Primary Current True Secondary Current 3 Marked Ratio 3 RCF CT
True Ratio
Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) ——————— VT, CT
Marked Ratio
True Primary Voltage
Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) ——————————————————— VT
True Secondary Voltage 3 Marked Ratio
True Primary Current
Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) ——————————————————— CT
True Secondary Current 3 Marked Ratio
Percent Ratio 100 3 RCF VT, CT
True Ratio 2 Marked Ratio
Ratio Error —————————————— 5 (RCF 21) VT, CT
Marked Ratio
100 3 (RCF 21)
Percent Ratio Error True Ratio 2 Marked Ratio VT, CT
5 100 3 ——————————————
Marked Ratio
 174 COMBINED RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR
Where both a voltage and a current transformer are used for the measurement of watts or watthours,
the combined ratio correction factor is
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

RCFK 5 RCFE 3 RCF I

where RCFK is the combined ratio correction factor
RCFE is the ratio correction factor of the voltage transformer
RCF I is the ratio correction factor of the current transformer
The combined ratio correction factor RCFK corrects for the ratio error of both the voltage and
current transformers but does not correct for the effects of phase angles.

PHASE ANGLE CORRECTION FACTOR

Figure 10-13 shows the schematic and phasor diagrams of a meter connected to a high-voltage line
using a voltage and a current transformer.

Figure 10-13. Relations Between Primary and Secondary Power.

 The primary power WP is equal to the product of the primary voltage EP, the primary current IP, 175
and the true power factor of the primary circuit (cos ):
WP 5 EPIP cos 

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
The secondary power WS measured by the meter is equal to the product of the secondary voltage
ES, the secondary current IS, and the power factor of the secondary circuit (cos 2):
WS 5 ESIS cos 2
The power factor of the secondary circuit (cos 2) is called the apparent power factor and dif-
fers from the primary power factor (cos ) because of the effect of the phase angles beta () and
gamma () of the current and voltage transformers, respectively.
If the instrument transformers had 1:1 ratios and no errors due to ratio, then the subscripts could
be omitted. For this condition:
WP 5 EI cos 
WS 5 EI cos 2
In this special case, the primary power WP would be equal to the secondary power WS were it
not for the difference between cos  and cos 2 which is due to the phase angles of the instrument
transformers.
The phase angle correction factor (PACF) is defined by IEEE as the ratio of the true power factor to
the measured power factor. It is a function of the phase angles of the instrument transformer and the
power factor of the primary circuit being measured.
Note that the phase angle correction factor is the factor that corrects for the phase displacement
of the secondary current or voltage, or both, due to the instrument transformer phase angles.
The measured watts or watthours in the secondary circuits of instrument transformers must be
multiplied by the phase angle correction factor and the true ratio to obtain the true primary watts or
watthours.
The combined phase angle correction factor (PACFK) is used when both current and voltage
transformers are involved. When current transformers only (no voltage transformers) are involved,
PACFI is used.
Therefore, for the special case of 1:1 ratio and no ratio errors:
WP 5 WS(PACFK)
and
W EI cos  cos 
PACFK 5 ——P 5 —————— 5 —————
WS EI cos 2 cos 2
The PACFK is therefore equal to the ratio of the true power factor (cos ) to the apparent power
factor (cos 2). This equation for the phase angle correction factor is not directly usable, since, in
general, cos 2, the apparent power factor, is known, but the exact value of the true power factor,
cos , is not.
The phasor diagram in Figure 10-13 shows that  5 2 1  2 . In this phasor diagram, all the
angles shown have a plus (1) sign and are positive. The secondary current and voltage phasors have
been drawn so that they lead their respective primary phasors. Therefore,  and  are both positive by
definition. The angles  and 2 between the voltage and current phasors, are considered positive (1)
when the current phasors are lagging the voltage phasors (lagging power factor). Hence,  and 2 are
both positive as drawn. Substituting  5 2 1  2  into the previous equation:
cos (2 1  2 )
PACFK 5 —————————————
cos 2
When a current transformer is used alone, PACFI may be determined by using the formula for
PACFK with the 2 term deleted.
If cos 2, , and  are known, PACFK can now be calculated using trigonometric tables. Care must
be taken to use the proper signs for , , and , as previously noted.
 176 Example 3:
Given:
cos 2 5 0.80 lag,  5 2139,  5 1109
Then: 2 5 cos21 0.80 5 36°529
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

 5 2 1  2 
 5 (136°529) 1 (2139) 2 (1109) 5 36°299
cos  5 cos 36°299 5 0.804030
0.804030
PACFK 5 ——————— 5 1.0050
0.800000
This method of evaluating the PACF is straight forward but too time consuming for practical work.
Therefore, Tables 10-2 and 10-3 have been calculated by this method to give the PACF directly in
terms of the apparent power factor (cos 2) and the combined value of the phase angles ( 2 ).
Use of Tables 10-2 and 10-3 to Find the Phase Angle Correction Factor
In the example just given, cos 2 5 0.80 lagging and  2  5 (213 minutes) 2 (110 minutes) 5
223 minutes. Hence, Table 10-3 must be used as indicated by the heading “For Lagging Current When
 2  is Negative.” At the intersection of the 0.80 power factor column and the 23 minute row, the
phase angle correction factor is 1.0050.
Two precautions are necessary when using these tables:
1. The algebraic signs of the phase angles and the minus sign in the formula must be carefully
observed when calculating  2 ;
2. Care must be used in selecting either Table 10-2 or 10-3 according to the notes heading these
tables regarding leading or lagging power factors and the resultant sign of  2 .
For an installation where a current transformer is used, but no voltage transformer is used:
cos (2 1 )
PACFI 5 —————————
cos 2

Tables 10-2 and 10-3 can still be used to find the phase angle correction factor using the value of
 itself for  2 , since  is not involved.
The PACFK depends upon the phase angles of the instrument transformers ( and ) and on
the apparent power factor of the load (cos 2). Thus, the phase angle correction factor varies with
the apparent power factor of the load. In actual practice, the difference between the apparent power
factor (cos 2) and the true power factor (cos ) is so small that for ordinary values of phase angle
either power factor can be used with Tables 10-2 and 10-3 to find the phase angle correction factor.
The value of  2  must be accurately known. Note in Tables 10-2 and 10-3 that the PACFK increases
rapidly at low power factors.
Tables 10-2 and 10-3 cover values of  2  from zero to one degree by minutes and from 0.05
to 1.00 power factor in steps of 0.05. Interpolation between values may be done but will rarely be
required with these tables. Values of  2  greater than 60 minutes are rarely encountered with
modern instrument transformers.

TRANSFORMER CORRECTION FACTOR

The correction factor for the combined effect of ratio error and phase angle of an instrument trans-
former is called the transformer correction factor (TCF). It is the factor by which the reading of a
wattmeter or the registration of a watthour meter must be multiplied to correct for the effect of ratio
error and phase angle.
TCF 5 RCF 3 PACF
then
cos (2 1 )
TCFI 5 RCFI 3 ————————— 5 RCFI 3 PACFI
cos 2
TCFI 5 RCFI 3 PACFI
and 177
cos (2 1 )
TCFE 5 RCFE 3 —————————
cos 2

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
TCFE 5 RCFE 3 PACFE
When both current and voltage transformers are used, the PACF should be determined for the
combination in one step as previously shown and not calculated separately and combined. The product
of the two separate phase angle correction factors is not exactly equal to the true value of the overall
phase angle correction factor.

FINAL CORRECTION FACTOR

The correction factor for the combined effects of ratio error and phase angle, where both current
and voltage transformers are used, is called the final correction factor (FCF) and is also referred to
as the instrument transformer correction factor. It is the factor by which the reading of a wattmeter,
or the registration of a watthour meter, operated from the secondaries of both a current and voltage
transformer must be multiplied to correct for the effect of ratio errors and phase displacement of the
current and voltage caused by the instrument transformers.
FCF 5 RCFK 3 PACFK

THE NOMINAL INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER RATIO

If the marked or nominal ratio of the voltage transformer is NE and the marked or nominal ratio
of the current transformer is NI, the product of these two marked ratios is the nominal instrument
transformer ratio, NK.
NK 5 N E 3 N I

SUMMARY OF BASIC INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER RELATIONSHIPS

Table 10-4 is a summary of the relation of primary and secondary values in a single-phase metering
installation using instrument transformers. This table can be used as a reference that ties together
most of the factors which have been covered in detail in the preceding pages. Table 10-4 is in terms
of the primary and secondary power in watts. If both sides of all of these equations are multiplied by
time in hours they would then apply equally well in terms of energy in watthours. All of the equations
in this table apply to the metering installation whose schematic and phasor diagrams are shown in
Figure 10-13.

COMPENSATING ERRORS
The equation for the transformer correction factor (TCF 5 RCF 3 PACF) shows that for some values
of RCF and PACF, their product would be closer to one than either separately. For example, (1.0032)
(0.9970) 5 1.0002. Thus, under some conditions the overall effect of the error in ratio may be offset
by an opposite effect due to the phase angle.
This fact is used as a basis for the tolerance limits of the standard accuracy classifications of IEEE
Standard C57.13, where the specified tolerances of ratio and phase angle are interdependent. These
classifications are set up on the basis of a maximum overall tolerance in terms of TCF for power
factors from unity to 0.6 lagging. This is covered later under the subheading “IEEE Standard Accuracy
Classes for Metering.”
When a current and a voltage transformer are used, the combined ratio correction factor can be
improved by matching transformers with opposite ratio errors since RCFK 5 RCFE 3 RCFI.
To reduce the effect of phase angle errors, which are dependent upon  2 , current and voltage
transformers can be selected having phase angles of the same sign (i.e., both positive or both nega-
tive), thus reducing the overall phase angle error.
Current and voltage transformers are not usually matched to balance errors in this manner but
occasionally these methods may be useful.
 HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING
178

Table 10-2. Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs).

For Lagging Current When (b 2 g) is Positive     For Leading Current When (b 2 g) is Negative

Apparent Power Factor (Cos 2)

(b 2 g) .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 .99 (b 2 g)

19 .9942 .9971 .9981 .9986 .9989 .9991 .9992 .9993 .9994 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998 .9998 .9999 .9999 1.0000 I9
29 .9884 .9942 .9962 .9971 .9977 .9981 .9984 .9987 .9988 .9990 .9991 .9992 .9993 .9994 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9997 .9998 .9999 29
39 .9826 .9913 .9942 .9957 .9966 .9972 .9977 .9980 .9983 .9985 .9987 .9988 .9990 .9991 .9992 .9993 .9995 .9996 .9997 .9999 39
49 .9768 .9884 .9923 .9943 .9955 .9963 .9969 .9973 .9977 .9980 .9982 .9984 .9986 .9988 .9990 .9991 .9993 .9994 .9996 .9998 49
59 .9709 .9855 .9904 .9929 .9944 .9954 .9961 .9967 .9971 .9975 .9978 .9981 .9983 .9985 .9987 .9989 .9991 .9993 .9995 .9998 59

69 .9651 .9826 .9885 .9914 .9932 .9944 .9953 .9960 .9965 .9970 .9973 .9977 .9980 .9982 .9985 .9987 .9989 .9992 .9994 .9997 69
79 .9593 .9797 .9866 .9900 .9921 .9935 .9945 .9953 .9960 .9965 .9969 .9973 .9976 .9979 .9982 .9985 .9987 .9990 .9993 .9997 79
89 .9535 .9768 .9847 .9886 .9910 .9926 .9938 .9947 .9954 .9960 .9965 .9969 .9973 .9976 .9979 .9983 .9986 .9989 .9992 .9997 89
99 .9477 .9739 .9827 .9872 .9899 .9917 .9930 .9940 .9948 .9955 .9960 .9965 .9969 .9973 .9977 .9980 .9984 .9987 .9991 .9996 99
109 .9419 .9711 .9808 .9857 .9887 .9907 .9922 .9933 .9942 .9950 .9956 .9961 .9966 .9970 .9974 .9978 .9982 .9986 .9990 .9996 109

119 .9361 .9682 .9789 .9843 .9876 .9898 .9914 .9927 .9936 .9945 .9951 .9957 .9963 .9967 .9972 .9976 .9980 .9984 .9989 .9995 119
129 .9303 .9653 .9770 .9829 .9865 .9889 .9907 .9920 .9931 .9939 .9947 .9953 .9959 .9964 .9969 .9974 .9978 .9983 .9988 .9995 129
139 .9245 .9624 .9751 .9815 .9853 .9880 .9899 .9913 .9925 .9934 .9943 .9950 .9956 .9961 .9967 .9972 .9976 .9982 .9995 .9987 139
149 .9186 .9595 .9731 .9800 .9842 .9870 .9891 .9907 .9919 .9929 .9938 .9946 .9952 .9958 .9964 .9969 .9975 .9980 .9987 .9994 149
159 .9128 .9566 .9712 .9786 .9831 .9861 .9883 .9900 .9913 .9924 .9934 .9942 .9949 .9955 .9961 .9967 .9973 .9979 .9986 .9994 159

169 .9070 .9537 .9693 .9772 .9820 .9852 .9875 .9893 .9908 .9919 .9929 .9938 .9945 .9952 .9959 .9965 .9971 .9977 .9985 .9993 169
179 .9012 .9508 .9674 .9758 .9808 .9843 .9868 .9887 .9902 .9914 .9925 .9934 .9942 .9949 .9956 .9963 .9969 .9976 .9984 .9993 179
189 .8954 .9479 .9655 .9743 .9797 .9833 .9860 .9880 .9896 .9909 .9920 .9930 .9939 .9946 .9954 .9961 .9967 .9975 .9983 .9992 189
199 .8896 .9450 .9636 .9729 .9786 .9824 .9852 .9873 .9890 .9904 .9916 .9926 .9935 .9943 .9951 .9958 .9966 .9973 .9982 .9992 199
209 .8838 .9421 .9616 .9715 .9775 .9815 .9844 .9867 .9884 .9899 .9911 .9922 .9932 .9940 .9949 .9956 .9964 .9972 .9981 .9992 209

219 .8780 .9392 .9597 .9701 .9763 .9806 .9836 .9860 .9879 .9894 .9907 .9918 .9928 .9937 .9946 .9954 .9962 .9970 .9980 .9991 219
229 .8721 .9363 .9578 .9686 .9752 .9796 .9829 .9853 .9873 .9889 .9903 .9914 .9925 .9935 .9943 .9952 .9960 .9969 .9979 .9991 229
239 .8663 .9334 .9559 .9672 .9741 .9787 .9821 .9846 .9867 .9884 .9898 .9911 .9922 .9932 .9941 .9950 .9958 .9967 .9978 .9990 239
249 .8605 .9305 .9540 .9658 .9729 .9778 .9813 .9840 .9861 .9879 .9894 .9907 .9918 .9929 .9938 .9947 .9956 .9966 .9977 .9990 249
259 .8547 .9276 .9520 .9643 .9718 .9768 .9805 .9833 .9855 .9874 .9889 .9903 .9915 .9926 .9936 .9945 .9955 .9965 .9976 .9989 259

269 .8489 .9247 .9501 .9629 .9707 .9759 .9797 .9826 .9850 .9869 .9885 .9899 .9911 .9923 .9933 .9943 .9953 .9963 .9975 .9989 269
279 .8431 .9218 .9482 .9615 .9696 .9750 .9789 .9820 .9844 .9864 .9880 .9895 .9908 .9920 .9930 .9941 .9951 .9962 .9974 .9989 279
289 .8373 .9189 .9463 .9601 .9684 .9741 .9782 .9813 .9838 .9859 .9876 .9891 .9904 .9917 .9928 .9939 .9949 .9960 .9973 .9988 289
299 .8315 .9160 .9444 .9586 .9673 .9731 .9774 .9806 .9832 .9854 .9872 .9887 .9901 .9914 .9925 .9936 .9947 .9959 .9972 .9988 299
309 .8256 .9131 .9424 .9572 .9662 .9722 .9766 .9800 .9826 .9848 .9867 .9883 .9898 .9911 .9923 .9934 .9946 .9957 .9971 .9987 309
Table 10-2 (continued). Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs).

For Lagging Current When (b 2 g) is Positive     For Leading Current When (b 2 g) is Negative

Apparent Power Factor (Cos 2)

(b 2 g) .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 .99 (b 2 g)

319 .8198 .9102 .9405 .9558 .9650 .9713 .9758 .9793 .9821 .9843 .9863 .9879 .9894 .9908 .9920 .9932 .9944 .9956 .9970 .9987 319
329 .8140 .9073 .9386 .9544 .9639 .9704 .9750 .9786 .9815 .9838 .9858 .9875 .9891 .9905 .9917 .9930 .9942 .9954 .9969 .9986 329
339 .8082 .9044 .9367 .9529 .9628 .9694 .9743 .9780 .9809 .9833 .9854 .9872 .9887 .9902 .9915 .9928 .9940 .9953 .9968 .9986 339
349 .8024 .9015 .9348 .9515 .9616 .9685 .9735 .9773 .9803 .9828 .9849 .9868 .9884 .9899 .9912 .9925 .9938 .9952 .9967 .9985 349
359 .7966 .8986 .9328 .9501 .9605 .9676 .9727 .9766 .9797 .9823 .9845 .9864 .9880 .9896 .9910 .9923 .9936 .9950 .9966 .9985 359

369 .7908 .8958 .9309 .9486 .9594 .9666 .9719 .9760 .9792 .9818 .9840 .9860 .9877 .9893 .9907 .9921 .9935 .9949 .9965 .9985 369
379 .7850 .8929 .9290 .9472 .9583 .9657 .9711 .9753 .9786 .9813 .9836 .9856 .9874 .9890 .9905 .9919 .9933 .9947 .9964 .9984 379
389 .7791 .8900 .9271 .9458 .9571 .9648 .9704 .9746 .9780 .9808 .9832 .9852 .9870 .9887 .9902 .9916 .9931 .9946 .9963 .9984 389
399 .7733 .8871 .9252 .9444 .9560 .9639 .9696 .9739 .9774 .9803 .9827 .9848 .9867 .9884 .9899 .9914 .9929 .9944 .9962 .9983 399
409 .7675 .8842 .9232 .9429 .9549 .9629 .9688 .9733 .9768 .9798 .9823 .9844 .9863 .9881 .9897 .9912 .9927 .9943 .9961 .9983 409

419 .7617 .8813 .9213 .9415 .9537 .9620 .9680 .9726 .9763 .9793 .9818 .9840 .9860 .9878 .9894 .9910 .9925 .9942 .9960 .9982 419
429 .7559 .8784 .9194 .9401 .9526 .9611 .9672 .9719 .9757 .9788 .9814 .9836 .9856 .9875 .9892 .9908 .9924 .9940 .9959 .9982 429
439 .7501 .8755 .9175 .9386 .9515 .9601 .9664 .9713 .9751 .9783 .9809 .9832 .9853 .9872 .9889 .9905 .9922 .9939 .9958 .9981 439
449 .7443 .8726 .9156 .9372 .9503 .9592 .9657 .9706 .9745 .9778 .9805 .9829 .9850 .9869 .9886 .9903 .9920 .9937 .9957 .9981 449
459 .7384 .8697 .9136 .9358 .9492 .9583 .9649 .9699 .9739 .9772 .9800 .9825 .9846 .9866 .9884 .9901 .9918 .9936 .9956 .9980 459

469 .7326 .8668 .9117 .9344 .9481 .9547 .9641 .9693 .9734 .9767 .9796 .9821 .9843 .9863 .9881 .9899 .9916 .9934 .9955 .9980 469
479 .7268 .8639 .9098 .9329 .9470 .9564 .9633 .9686 .9728 .9762 .9791 .9817 .9839 .9860 .9878 .9897 .9914 .9933 .9954 .9980 479
489 .7210 .8610 .9079 .9315 .9458 .9555 .9625 .9679 .9722 .9757 .9787 .9813 .9836 .9857 .9876 .9894 .9912 .9931 .9953 .9979 489
499 .7152 .8581 .9060 .9301 .9447 .9546 .9618 .9672 .9716 .9752 .9783 .9809 .9832 .9854 .9873 .9892 .9911 .9930 .9952 .9979 499
509 .7094 .8552 .9040 .9286 .9436 .9356 .9610 .9666 .9710 .9747 .9778 .9805 .9829 .9851 .9871 .9890 .9909 .9929 .9951 .9978 509

519 .7036 .8523 .9021 .9272 .9424 .9527 .9602 .9659 .9705 .9742 .9774 .9801 .9825 .9848 .9868 .9888 .9907 .9927 .9950 .9978 519
529 .6978 .8494 .9002 .9258 .9143 .9518 .9594 .9652 .9699 .9737 .9769 .9797 .9822 .9845 .9865 .9885 .9905 .9926 .9949 .9977 529
539 .6919 .8465 .8983 .9244 .9402 .9509 .9586 .9646 .9693 .9732 .9765 .9793 .9819 .9842 .9863 .9883 .9903 .9924 .9948 .9977 539
549 .6861 .8436 .8963 .9229 .9390 .9499 .9578 .9639 .9687 .9727 .9760 .9789 .9815 .9839 .9860 .9881 .9901 .9923 .9947 .9976 549
559 .6803 .8407 .8944 .9215 .9379 .9490 .9571 .9632 .9681 .9722 .9756 .9785 .9812 .9836 .9858 .9879 .9900 .9921 .9946 .9976 559

569 .6745 .8378 .8925 .9201 .9368 .9481 .9563 .9625 .9675 .9717 .9751 .9781 .9808 .9832 .9855 .9877 .9898 .9920 .9945 .9975 569
579 .6687 .8349 .8906 .9186 .9536 .9471 .9555 .9619 .9670 .9711 .9747 .9778 .9805 .9829 .9852 .9874 .9896 .9918 .9944 .9975 579
589 .6629 .8320 .8887 .9172 .9345 .9462 .9547 .9612 .9664 .9706 .9742 .9774 .9801 .9826 .9850 .9872 .9894 .9917 .9943 .9975 589
599 .6571 .8291 .8867 .9158 .9334 .9453 .9539 .9605 .9658 .9701 .9738 .9770 .9798 .9823 .9847 .9870 .9892 .9915 .9942 .9974 599
609 .6512 .8262 .8848 .9143 .9323 .9444 .9531 .9599 .9652 .9696 .9733 .9766 .9794 .9820 .9845 .9868 .9890 .9914 .9941 .9974 609
179

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
 HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING
180

Table 10-3. Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs).

For Lagging Current When (b 2 g) is Negative     For Leading Current When (b 2 g) is Positive

Apparent Power Factor (Cos 2)

(b 2 g) .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 .99 (b 2 g)

19 1.0058 1.0029 1.0019 1.0014 1.0011 1.0009 1.0008 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0004 1.0003 1.0003 1.0003 1.0002 1.0002 1.0001 1.0001 1.0000 I9
29 1.0116 1.0058 1.0038 1.0028 1.0023 1.0018 1.0016 1.0013 1.0012 1.0010 1.0009 1.0008 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 29
39 1.0174 1.0087 1.0058 1.0043 1.0034 1.0028 1.0023 1.0020 1.0017 1.0015 1.0013 1.0012 1.0010 1.0009 1.0008 1.0007 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0001 39
49 1.0232 1.0116 1.0077 1.0057 1.0045 1.0037 1.0031 1.0027 1.0023 1.0020 1.0018 1.0016 1.0014 1.0012 1.0010 1.0009 1.0007 1.0006 1.0004 1.0002 49
59 1.0291 1.0145 1.0096 1.0071 1.0056 1.0046 1.0039 1.0033 1.0029 1.0025 1.0022 1.0019 1.0017 1.0015 1.0013 1.0011 1.0009 1.0007 1.0005 1.0002 59

69 1.0349 1.0174 1.0115 1.0085 1.0068 1.0055 1.0047 1.0040 1.0035 1.0030 1.0026 1.0023 1.0020 1.0018 1.0015 1.0013 1.0011 1.0008 1.0006 1.0002 69
79 1.0407 1.0203 1.0134 1.0100 1.0079 1.0065 1.0054 1.0047 1.0040 1.0035 1.0031 1.0027 1.0024 1.0021 1.0018 1.0015 1.0013 1.0010 1.0007 1.0003 79
89 1.0465 1.0232 1.0153 1.0114 1.0090 1.0074 1.0062 1.0053 1.0046 1.0040 1.0035 1.0031 1.0027 1.0024 1.0020 1.0017 1.0014 1.0011 1.0008 1.0003 89
99 1.0523 1.0260 1.0173 1.0128 1.0101 1.0083 1.0070 1.0060 1.0052 1.0045 1.0040 1.0035 1.0031 1.0027 1.0023 1.0020 1.0016 1.0013 1.0009 1.0004 99
109 1.0581 1.0289 1.0192 1.0142 1.0113 1.0092 1.0078 1.0067 1.0058 1.0050 1.0044 1.0039 1.0034 1.0030 1.0026 1.0022 1.0018 1.0014 1.0010 1.0004 109

119 1.0639 1.0318 1.0211 1.0157 1.0124 1.0102 1.0086 1.0073 1.0063 1.0055 1.0049 1.0043 1.0037 1.0033 1.0028 1.0024 1.0020 1.0015 1.0010 1.0005 119
129 1.0697 1.0347 1.0230 1.0171 1.0135 1.0111 1.0093 1.0080 1.0069 1.0060 1.0053 1.0046 1.0041 1.0036 1.0031 1.0026 1.0022 1.0017 1.0011 1.0005 129
139 1.0755 1.0376 1.0249 1.0185 1.0146 1.0120 1.0101 1.0087 1.0075 1.0065 1.0057 1.0050 1.0044 1.0039 1.0033 1.0028 1.0023 1.0018 1.0012 1.0005 139
149 1.0813 1.0405 1.0268 1.0199 1.0158 1.0129 1.0109 1.0093 1.0081 1.0070 1.0062 1.0054 1.0048 1.0041 1.0036 1.0030 1.0025 1.0020 1.0013 1.0006 149
159 1.0871 1.0434 1.0288 1.0214 1.0169 1.0139 1.0117 1.0100 1.0086 1.0075 1.0066 1.0058 1.0051 1.0044 1.0038 1.0033 1.0027 1.0021 1.0014 1.0006 159

169 1.0930 1.0463 1.0307 1.0228 1.0180 1.0148 1.0124 1.0107 1.0092 1.0081 1.0071 1.0062 1.0054 1.0047 1.0041 1.0035 1.0029 1.0022 1.0015 1.0007 169
179 1.0988 1.0492 1.0326 1.0242 1.0191 1.0157 1.0132 1.0113 1.0098 1.0086 1.0075 1.0066 1.0058 1.0050 1.0043 1.0037 1.0031 1.0024 1.0016 1.0007 179
189 1.1046 1.0521 1.0345 1.0256 1.0203 1.0166 1.0140 1.0120 1.0104 1.0091 1.0079 1.0070 1.0061 1.0053 1.0046 1.0039 1.0032 1.0025 1.0017 1.0007 189
199 1.1104 1.0550 1.0364 1.0271 1.0214 1.0176 1.0148 1.0126 1.0110 1.0096 1.0084 1.0074 1.0064 1.0056 1.0049 1.0041 1.0034 1.0027 1.0018 1.0008 199
209 1.1162 1.0579 1.0383 1.0285 1.0225 1.0185 1.0156 1.0133 1.0115 1.0101 1.0088 1.0077 1.0068 1.0059 1.0051 1.0043 1.0036 1.0028 1.0019 1.0008 209

219 1.1220 1.0608 1.0402 1.0299 1.0236 1.0194 1.0163 1.0140 1.0121 1.0106 1.0093 1.0081 1.0071 1.0062 1.0054 1.0046 1.0038 1.0029 1.0020 1.0009 219
229 1.1278 1.0637 1.0422 1.0313 1.0248 1.0203 1.0171 1.0146 1.0127 1.0111 1.0097 1.0085 1.0075 1.0065 1.0056 1.0048 1.0039 1.0031 1.0021 1.0009 229
239 1.1336 1.0665 1.0441 1.0328 1.0259 1.0213 1.0179 1.0153 1.0133 1.0116 1.0101 1.0089 1.0078 1.0068 1.0059 1.0050 1.0041 1.0032 1.0022 1.0009 239
249 1.1394 1.0694 1.0460 1.0342 1.0270 1.0222 1.0187 1.0160 1.0138 1.0121 1.0106 1.0093 1.0081 1.0071 1.0061 1.0052 1.0043 1.0034 1.0023 1.0010 249
259 1.1452 1.0723 1.0479 1.0356 1.0281 1.0231 1.0194 1.0166 1.0144 1.0126 1.0110 1.0097 1.0085 1.0074 1.0064 1.0054 1.0045 1.0035 1.0024 1.0010 259

269 1.1510 1.0752 1.0498 1.0370 1.0293 1.0240 1.0202 1.0173 1.0150 1.0131 1.0115 1.0101 1.0088 1.0077 1.0066 1.0056 1.0047 1.0036 1.0025 1.0010 269
279 1.1569 1.0781 1.0517 1.0384 1.0304 1.0249 1.0210 1.0180 1.0156 1.0136 1.0119 1.0104 1.0092 1.0080 1.0069 1.0059 1.0048 1.0038 1.0026 1.0011 279
289 1.1627 1.0810 1.0537 1.0399 1.0315 1.0259 1.0218 1.0186 1.0161 1.0141 1.0123 1.0108 1.0095 1.0083 1.0071 1.0061 1.0050 1.0039 1.0026 1.0011 289
299 1.1685 1.0839 1.0556 1.0413 1.0326 1.0268 1.0225 1.0193 1.0167 1.0146 1.0128 1.0112 1.0098 1.0086 1.0074 1.0063 1.0052 1.0040 1.0027 1.0012 299
309 1.1743 1.0868 1.0575 1.0427 1.0338 1.0277 1.0233 1.0200 1.0173 1.0151 1.0132 1.0116 1.0102 1.0089 1.0077 1.0065 1.0054 1.0042 1.0028 1.0012 309
Table 10-3 (continued). Phase Angle Correction Factors (PACFs).

For Lagging Current When (b 2 g) is Negative     For Leading Current When (b 2 g) is Positive

Apparent Power Factor (Cos 2)

(b 2 g) .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 .99 (b 2 g)

319 1.1801 1.0897 1.0594 1.0441 1.0349 1.0286 1.0241 1.0206 1.0179 1.0156 1.0137 1.0120 1.0105 1.0092 1.0079 1.0067 1.0055 1.0043 1.0029 1.0012 319
329 1.1859 1.0926 1.0613 1.0456 1.0360 1.0296 1.0249 1.0213 1.0184 1.0161 1.0141 1.0124 1.0108 1.0095 1.0082 1.0069 1.0057 1.0045 1.0030 1.0013 329
339 1.1917 1.0955 1.0632 1.0470 1.0371 1.0305 1.0256 1.0219 1.0190 1.0166 1.0145 1.0128 1.0112 1.0097 1.0084 1.0072 1.0059 1.0046 1.0031 1.0013 339
349 1.1975 1.0984 1.0651 1.0484 1.0383 1.0314 1.0264 1.0226 1.0196 1.0171 1.0150 1.0131 1.0115 1.0100 1.0087 1.0074 1.0061 1.0047 1.0032 1.0014 349
359 1.2033 1.1012 1.0671 1.0498 1.0394 1.0323 1.0272 1.0233 1.0202 1.0176 1.0154 1.0135 1.0119 1.0103 1.0089 1.0076 1.0063 1.0049 1.0033 1.0014 359

369 1.2091 1.1041 1.0690 1.0512 1.0405 1.0332 1.0280 1.0239 1.0207 1.0181 1.0158 1.0139 1.0122 1.0106 1.0092 1.0078 1.0064 1.0050 1.0034 1.0014 369
379 1.2149 1.1070 1.0709 1.0527 1.0416 1.0342 1.0287 1.0246 1.0213 1.0186 1.0163 1.0143 1.0125 1.0109 1.0094 1.0080 1.0066 1.0052 1.0035 1.0015 379
389 1.2207 1.1099 1.0728 1.0541 1.0427 1.0351 1.0295 1.0253 1.0219 1.0191 1.0167 1.0147 1.0129 1.0112 1.0097 1.0082 1.0068 1.0053 1.0036 1.0015 389
399 1.2265 1.1128 1.0747 1.0555 1.0439 1.0360 1.0303 1.0259 1.0224 1.0196 1.0172 1.0151 1.0132 1.0115 1.0099 1.0084 1.0070 1.0054 1.0037 1.0016 399
409 1.2323 1.1157 1.0766 1.0569 1.0450 1.0369 1.0311 1.0266 1.0230 1.0201 1.0176 1.0154 1.0135 1.0118 1.0102 1.0087 1.0071 1.0056 1.0038 1.0016 409

419 1.2382 1.1186 1.0785 1.0584 1.0461 1.0379 1.0318 1.0273 1.0236 1.0206 1.0180 1.0158 1.0139 1.0121 1.0104 1.0089 1.0073 1.0057 1.0038 1.0016 419
429 1.2440 1.1215 1.0805 1.0598 1.0472 1.0388 1.0326 1.0279 1.0242 1.0211 1.0185 1.0162 1.0142 1.0124 1.0107 1.0091 1.0075 1.0058 1.0039 1.0017 429
439 1.2498 1.1244 1.0824 1.0612 1.0484 1.0397 1.0334 1.0286 1.0247 1.0216 1.0189 1.0166 1.0145 1.0127 1.0110 1.0093 1.0077 1.0060 1.0040 1.0017 439
449 1.2556 1.1273 1.0843 1.0626 1.0495 1.0406 1.0342 1.0292 1.0253 1.0221 1.0194 1.0170 1.0149 1.0130 1.0112 1.0095 1.0079 1.0061 1.0041 1.0017 449
459 1.2614 1.1302 1.0862 1.0640 1.0506 1.0415 1.0349 1.0299 1.0259 1.0226 1.0198 1.0174 1.0152 1.0133 1.0115 1.0097 1.0080 1.0063 1.0042 1.0018 459

469 1.2672 1.1330 1.0881 1.0655 1.0517 1.0425 1.0357 1.0306 1.0265 1.0231 1.0202 1.0178 1.0156 1.0136 1.0117 1.0099 1.0082 1.0064 1.0043 1.0018 469
479 1.2730 1.1359 1.0900 1.0669 1.0529 1.0434 1.0365 1.0312 1.0270 1.0236 1.0207 1.0181 1.0159 1.0139 1.0120 1.0102 1.0084 1.0065 1.0044 1.0019 479
489 1.2788 1.1388 1.0919 1.0683 1.0540 1.0443 1.0373 1.0319 1.0276 1.0241 1.0211 1.0185 1.0162 1.0141 1.0122 1.0104 1.0086 1.0067 1.0045 1.0019 489
499 1.2846 1.1417 1.0938 1.0697 1.0551 1.0452 1.0380 1.0326 1.0282 1.0246 1.0215 1.0189 1.0166 1.0144 1.0125 1.0106 1.0087 1.0068 1.0046 1.0019 499
509 1.2904 1.1446 1.0958 1.0711 1.0562 1.0461 1.0388 1.0332 1.0288 1.0251 1.0220 1.0193 1.0169 1.0147 1.0127 1.0108 1.0089 1.0069 1.0047 1.0020 509

519 1.2962 1.1475 1.0977 1.0726 1.0573 1.0471 1.0396 1.0339 1.0293 1.0256 1.0224 1.0197 1.0172 1.0150 1.0130 1.0110 1.0091 1.0071 1.0048 1.0020 519
529 1.3020 1.1504 1.0996 1.0740 1.0585 1.0480 1.0404 1.0345 1.0299 1.0261 1.0229 1.0201 1.0176 1.0153 1.0132 1.0112 1.0093 1.0072 1.0049 1.0020 529
539 1.3078 1.1533 1.1015 1.0754 1.0596 1.0489 1.0411 1.0352 1.0305 1.0266 1.0233 1.0204 1.0179 1.0156 1.0135 1.0114 1.0094 1.0073 1.0049 1.0021 539
549 1.3136 1.1562 1.1034 1.0768 1.0607 1.0498 1.0419 1.0359 1.0310 1.0271 1.0237 1.0208 1.0182 1.0159 1.0137 1.0117 1.0096 1.0075 1.0050 1.0021 549
559 1.3194 1.1591 1.1053 1.0782 1.0618 1.0507 1.0427 1.0365 1.0316 1.0276 1.0242 1.0212 1.0186 1.0162 1.0140 1.0119 1.0098 1.0076 1.0051 1.0022 559

569 1.3252 1.1619 1.1072 1.0797 1.0630 1.0517 1.0435 1.0372 1.0322 1.0281 1.0246 1.0216 1.0189 1.0165 1.0142 1.0121 1.0100 1.0078 1.0052 1.0022 569
579 1.3310 1.1648 1.1091 1.0811 1.0641 1.0526 1.0442 1.0379 1.0328 1.0286 1.0250 1.0220 1.0192 1.0168 1.0145 1.0123 1.0101 1.0079 1.0053 1.0022 579
589 1.3368 1.1677 1.1111 1.0825 1.0652 1.0535 1.0450 1.0385 1.0333 1.0291 1.0255 1.0224 1.0196 1.0171 1.0147 1.0125 1.0103 1.0080 1.0054 1.0023 589
599 1.3427 1.1706 1.1130 1.0839 1.0663 1.0544 1.0458 1.0392 1.0339 1.0296 1.0259 1.0227 1.0199 1.0174 1.0150 1.0127 1.0105 1.0082 1.0055 1.0023 599
609 1.3485 1.1735 1.1149 1.0853 1.0674 1.0553 1.0466 1.0398 1.0345 1.0301 1.0263 1.0231 1.0203 1.0177 1.0152 1.0129 1.0107 1.0083 1.0056 1.0023 609
181

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
 182 Application of Correction Factors
WHEN CORRECTION FACTORS SHOULD BE APPLIED
In most metering installations using instrument transformers, no corrections need be applied if
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

instrument transformers meeting IEEE Standard C57.13 accuracy specifications are used within the
burden and power factor limits of these specifications and the secondary leads are short enough so
they cause no appreciable error. Under such conditions, the error contributed by any single instrument
transformer should not exceed the IEEE standard accuracy class. Where both a current and a voltage
transformer are used, their combined error could theoretically reach the sum of the maximum errors
represented by the standard accuracy classes of the two transformers, but will, in most cases, be much
less. In polyphase metering, the total error is the weighted average of the combined errors of the
current and voltage transformer on each phase and can never be greater than the maximum errors
on the worst phase. For 0.3% Standard Accuracy Class transformers, the maximum errors, under the
IEEE-specified conditions, are summarized in Table 10-5.
These maximum errors would rarely occur in an actual combination of instrument transformers.
There is a good probability that the errors would be less than 0.3 to 0.5%, which would be acceptable
for most metering applications.

Table 10-4. Summary of Fundamental Relations for

Single-Phase Metering Installations Involving Instrument Transformers.

Primary Power 5 Primary Volts 3 Primary Amperes 3 Primary Power Factors

WP 5 EP 3 IP 3 cos 
WP 5 ESNE(RCFE) 3 ISNI(RCFI ) 3 cos(2 1  2 )
These terms can be rearranged to give:
WP 5 ESlS 3 NENI 3 (RCFE)(RCFI ) 3 cos(2 1  2 )
Multiplying the first term by cos 2 and dividing the last term by cos 2 is the same as multiplying by
cos 2
——— 5 1, which does not change the product, which gives:
cos 2

cos(2 1  2 )
WP 5 ESlS cos 2 3 NENI 3 (RCFE)(RCFI ) 3 ———————
cos 2
WP 5 WS 3 NK 3 RCFK 3 PACFK
WP 5 WS 3 NK 3 FCF
Primary Power 5 Secondary Power 3 Nominal Instrument Transformer Ratio 3 Final Correction Factor

WP 5 Primary power (watts)

EP 5 Primary voltage
IP 5 Primary current
cos  5 Primary power factor
 5 Angle between EP and lP
NE 5 Marked (Nominal) ratio of voltage transformer
NI 5 Marked (Nominal) ratio of current transformer
 5 Phase angle of current transformer
 5 Phase angle of voltage transformer
WS 5 Secondary power (watts)
ES 5 Secondary voltage
IS 5 Secondary current
cos 2 5 Secondary (apparent) power factor
2 5 Angle between £5 and 15
RCFE 5 Ratio Correction Factor of voltage transformer
RCFI 5 Ratio Correction Factor of current transformer
RCFK 5 Combined Ratio Correction Factor, voltage transformer and current transformer
PACFK 5 Phase Angle Correction Factor, voltage transformer and current transformer
FCF 5 Final Correction Factor

See Figure 10-13 for the corresponding schematic and phasor diagrams.
Table 10-5. Maximum Percent Errors for Combinations of 0.3% IEEE Accuracy Class 183
Instrument Transformers under IEEE-Specified Conditions of Burden,
and Load Power Factors between 1.00 and 0.6 Lag.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Percent Error at 100% Load Percent Error at 10% Load

Current Transformers 0.3 0.6

Voltage Transformers 0.3 0.3
Maximum Percent Error 0.6 0.9

Special cases may arise that make the application of instrument transformer corrections necessary
or desirable. Such cases could be due to the use of older types of instrument transformers that do not
meet IEEE Standard C57.13 accuracy specifications, the necessity of using heavier burdens than speci-
fied by IEEE, the use of long secondary leads, power factor of the load below 0.6 lagging, power factor
of the load leading, and requirements for higher than normal accuracy for special installations, such
as large wholesale installations, interchange metering between power companies, or measurement of
total generator output during efficiency tests of power station generators and turbines.
The decision as to when instrument transformer corrections should be applied is a matter of policy
that must be decided by each utility company on the basis of both technical and economic consider-
ations. In general, most utilities do not apply instrument transformer corrections for routine work and
may or may not apply corrections in special cases.
If the meter is to be adjusted to compensate for the errors of the instrument transformers, great
care must be taken to make this adjustment in the proper direction. An error in the sign of the correc-
tion applied results in doubling the overall error instead of eliminating it. The best precaution against
this type of mistake is the use of prepared forms which are set up to show each step in the process.
With a well prepared form, correction factors can be applied easily. The actual field work may
involve nothing more than adding the percent error caused by the transformers to the percent error of
the meter.

DETERMINING THE METER ADJUSTMENT IN PERCENT REGISTRATION TO CORRECT FOR

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER ERRORS—CALCULATIONS BASED ON TABLES 10-2 AND 10-3
It has been shown in Table 10-4 that:
Primary Power 5 Secondary Power 3
Nominal Instrument Transformer Ratio 3 Final Correction Factor
Multiplying both sides by hours gives:
True Primary Watthours 5 True Secondary Watthours 3 NK 3 FCF
But the indicated primary watthours are:
Indicated Primary Watthours 5 Indicated Secondary Watthours 3 NK
The overall percent registration of the installation, or primary percent registration, is:
(Indicated Primary Watthours)(100)
Primary Percent Registration 5 ———————————————————————————
True Primary Watthours
Substituting equivalent secondary values gives:
(Indicated Secondary Watthours)(NK)(100)
Primary Percent Registration 5 ———————————————————————————————
(True Secondary Watthours)(NK)(FCF)

(Indicated Secondary Watthours)(100)

Primary Percent Registration 5 ———————————————————————————
(True Secondary Watthours)(FCF)
 184 (Secondary Percent Registration)
Primary Percent Registration 5 ———————————————————————
(FCF)
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Percent Registration Meter Only

Primary Percent Registration 5 ——————————————————————
(FCF)
Thus, the overall percent registration may be obtained by dividing the percent registration of the
meter by the final correction factor.
Example 4:
Given: Percent Registration of Meter Alone 5 99.75% and FCF 5 1.0037
99.75
Then: Primary (or overall) Percent Registration 5 —————— 5 99.38%
1.00 37
To divide using the approximate method for numbers close to 1, add one to the numerator and
subtract the denominator: 0.9975 divided by 1.0037, is approximately equivalent to 1.9975 minus
1.0037 5 0.9938, and 0.9938 3 100 5 99.38%.

The primary (overall) percent registration can be made 100.00% if the percent registration of the
meter is adjusted to 100 times the final correction factor.
If the meter in the preceding example were adjusted to 100.37% registration, then
100.37
Primary (overall) Percent Registration 5 ——————— 5 100.00%
1.0 037
Table 10-6 shows a standard form that can be used to determine the required meter adjustment by
this method. This method is particularly useful when meter tests are made with a fixed routine, such
as light-load, full-load, and inductive-load, made respectively with 10 and 100% rated current at 1.0
power factor and with 100% rated current at 0.5 power factor lagging.
This method is applicable to installations with current and voltage transformers, or to either, and
the calculations are simplified by using addition and subtraction for the multiplication of quantities
near unity, as previously explained. Ratio correction factors and phase angles are used directly and the
result is the accuracy performance to which the meter should be adjusted to compensate for instru-
ment transformer errors.
The ratio correction factors and phase angles are taken from test data on the instrument trans-
formers or from the manufacturers’ certificates. These values must be the values that apply at the
terminals of the meter and be based on the actual burdens. If long secondary leads are used from the
voltage transformer to the meter, the effect of the lead drop on the ratio and phase angle as seen at
the meter must be included. This can be determined by test or calculation as previously explained. If
the available instrument transformer data are not based on the actual burden, the desired value may
be determined by interpolation or calculation by methods to be explained later.
The appropriate ratio correction factors and phase angles are shown in Table 10-6. The phase angle
correction factor at unity power factor is 1.0000, within 0.02% or less, for all values of ( 2 ) up to
60 minutes. At 0.50 power factor lagging, the phase angle correction factor is read from Table 10-3 as
1.0050 for a value of ( 2 ) of 210 minutes. The operations indicated in Table 10-6 are performed
and the meter accuracy settings in percent registration are determined as shown. The bottom two
lines show the percent errors caused by the instrument transformers and the percent errors to which
the meter should be set to compensate. The meter is then adjusted to the desired tolerance of these
settings and the compensation has been accomplished.
The calculations in this table have been carried to 0.01%, as it is normal practice to use one more
place in calculations of this kind than is used in the final result. If the final overall accuracy of the
installation were to be reported, it would normally be rounded to the nearest 0.1%.
The same setup may be used when only a current transformer or a voltage transformer is used.
It is only necessary to enter zero under phase angle and 1.0000 under ratio correction factor in the
places where no transformer is used and make the additions and subtractions indicated. For polyphase
installations, when correction factors and phase angles are not widely divergent, the ratio correction
factors and phase angles for the current transformers for all phases may be respectively averaged and
Table 10-6. Calculation of Meter Accuracy Settings. 185

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
the average values of ratio correction factor and phase angle of the current and voltage transformers
used for the calculations.
Alternatively, calculations may be made on each stator using the ratio correction factors and phase
angles for the transformers connected to that stator. For precise work, where either voltage or current
transformer phase angles materially differ, this method is preferred.

OVERALL PERCENT ERROR CAUSED BY THE INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS ALONE

The percent error due to the instrument transformers may be derived as follows:
True Primary Watthours 5 True Secondary Watthours 3 NK 3 FCF
Indicated Primary Watthours 5 Indicated Secondary Watthours 3 NK
Indicated 2 True
Overall Percent Error 5 ————————————— 3 100 5
True
(Indicated Secondary Watthours)(NK) 2 (True Secondary Watthours)(NK)(FCF)
——————————————————————————————————————————————————————— 3 100
(True Secondary Watthours)(NK)(FCF)
 186 Overall Percent Error 5
(Indicated Secondary Watthours) 2 (True Secondary Watthours)(FCF)
————————————————————————————————————————————————— 3 100
(True Secondary Watthours)(FCF)
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

This is the overall percent error of the installation including both meter and transformer errors.
To find the errors due to the transformers alone, assume that the meter is correct. Then, Indicated
Secondary Watthours 5 True Secondary Watthours, and substituting in the preceding equation:
Percent Error Caused by Instrument Transformer 5
(True Secondary Watthours) 2 (True Secondary Watthours)(FCF)
—————————————————————————————————————————————— 3 100
(True Secondary Watthours)(FCF)
1 2 FCF
Percent Error Caused by Instrument Transformer 5 —————— (100) 5 (1 2 FCF) 3 100
FCF
Where 5 means “is approximately equal to.”
The second or approximate form is the most convenient to use and will not be in error by more
than 0.01% for values of FCF between 0.9900 and 1.0100 or more than 0.02% for values of FCF
between 0.9800 and 1.0200.
Example 5:
Given FCF 5 0.9853
Percent Error Caused by Instrument Transformer 5
1 2 0.9853 (0.0147)(100)
————————— 3 100 5 —————————— 5 1.49% using the exact method.
0.9853 0.9853
Percent Error Caused by Instrument Transformer 5
(1 2 0.9853)100 5 0.0147 3 100 5 1.47% using the approximate method.
Note that the sign of the error will be minus for values of FCF greater than 1.

A form such as Table 10-6 can be used to determine the final correction factor from which the
percent error caused by the instrument transformers is determined, as shown on the next to bottom
line of the table.

DETERMINING THE OVERALL PERCENT ERROR BY ADDING THE PERCENT ERRORS

CAUSED BY INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS AND THE METER
It can be shown that: Overall Percent Error 5 Percent Error Caused by the Instrument Transformer 1
Percent Error of the Meter.
This expression is an approximation that is good only when the percent errors are small. When
adding percent errors up to 61.0%, the error in this approximation will not exceed 0.01%. When add-
ing percent errors up to 62.0%, the error in this approximation will not exceed 0.04%. This expres-
sion is convenient to use and may be used for errors up to 2% or 3% without significant error.
Example 6:
Meter Error Instrument Transformer Error Overall Error
1 5
1 0.32% 20.15% 1 0.17%
The required compensation can be made by adjusting the percent error of the meter to the same
magnitude as the percent error caused by the instrument transformers, but with the opposite
sign. This is shown in the last line of Table 10-6.

A GRAPHICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING THE PERCENT ERROR CAUSED

BY THE INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS AND THE REQUIRED COMPENSATION
The percent error caused by the instrument transformers and the required meter adjustment to com-
pensate may be determined by using the chart shown in Figure 10-14.
A straight edge is placed on the chart so that one end intercepts the ratio correction factor scale
on the left at the desired value of RCF and the other end intercepts the phase angle scale on the right
at the desired value of ( 2 ). The percent error, or percent meter adjustment, is read from the
 187

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 10-14. Percent Error Calculation Chart for Effects of Instrument Transformer Ratio and Phase Angle.

center scale that represents the desired power factor. The proper half of the phase angle scale to be
used depends upon the load power factor and the sign of ( 2 ) and this is indicated in the headings
for this scale. The sign of the error caused by the instrument transformers and the sign of the percent
error of the required compensating meter adjustment is indicated in the blocks between the 100 and
95% power factor scales. The chart is designed to give percent errors for a current and voltage trans-
former combined, by using the RCFK and the combined phase angle ( 2 ).
To use the chart for an installation involving a current transformer only, use RCFI on the RCF
scale and  in place of ( 2 ). For polyphase values, the percent errors may be determined separately
for each phase, or average values of RCFK and ( 2 ) may be used to obtain the total percent error
in one step. The chart is based on the approximate formula for the percent error caused by the instru-
ment transformer previously discussed. Thus, the results read from the chart may differ by a few
hundredths of a percent from the values computed from Tables 10-2 and 10-3.
 188 Example 7:
For a load power factor 70%, lagging:
Current Transformer: RCFI 5 1.0043  5 112
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Voltage Transformer: RCF

_____
E 5 1.0012
_______  5
______ 17
____
Combined Values: RCFK 5 1.0055  2  5 15

One end of the straight edge is placed on the RCF scale at 1.0055 and the other end on the
lower half of the phase angle scale at 5. The straight edge then intercepts the 70% power factor
scale at 0.40% in the upper half of the chart. Therefore, the error caused by the instrument
transformers is 20.40% and the meter must be adjusted to 10.40% (fast) to compensate.

APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER AND WATTHOUR STANDARD

CORRECTIONS IN ONE STEP TO A THREE-PHASE, THREE-STATOR,
FOUR-WIRE, WYE METERING INSTALLATION
Most special installations justifying the application of corrections for the instrument transformers
will be three-phase. If the load is reasonably balanced, the work may be greatly simplified by averag-
ing the corrections. In addition, the corrections for the calibration errors of the watthour standards
may also be included. The required total percent error caused by all of the instrument transformers
and all of the watthour standards can be calculated for any load and power factor. These calculations
may be made and checked before going into the field to test the meter. The actual work in the field
then simply requires the addition of these percent errors to the apparent percent error of the meter as
determined by test.
To use this method, forms such as Tables 10-7, 10-8, and 10-9 are prepared and completed as
needed. For a three-phase, three-stator, four-wire, wye installation the procedure is described in the
following paragraphs.
The procedure is shown for a test method using three watthour standards and a special three-
phase phantom load, such that the meter is tested under actual three-phase conditions. It is also
suitable for a three-phase customer’s load test using three watthour standards, one in series with each
meter stator respectively. This second method is limited to the system load and power factor of the
installations at the time of test, but is occasionally useful for installations having a relatively constant
load. This procedure can also be used to apply corrections when using the usual standard test methods
requiring only one watthour standard to make single-phase series tests on the three-phase meter. The
method is therefore adaptable to any test procedure desired.
The RCFs and phase angles of the three current transformers at various values of secondary
current are entered in the proper spaces in Table 10-7 as shown. These values would be available from
certificates or test data. The averages of all these values are computed and entered.
The RCFs and phase angles of the voltage transformers are entered and averaged. The average
values of these are recopied into the additional spaces as shown, so that they may be combined with
the current transformer values.
The RCFK and average phase angle ( and ) are computed and entered as shown.
These combined values will apply to this installation indefinitely unless the instrument transform-
ers or burdens are changed. A form similar to Table 10-8 is now filled out. First, the desired three-
phase power factors and test voltages are entered in the spaces to the left. In the example shown,
power factors of 1.00, 0.87 lag and 0.50 lag at 120 V are shown. Other values can be used as required.
The percent errors of the three watthour standards to be used for the test are then entered in the
spaces provided. These values are determined by tests of the watthour standards at the current, volt-
age, and power factors to be used. Since on a balanced load all three stators operate at a single-phase
power factor equal to the three-phase load power factor, the three watthour standards will be running
at the same speed and power factor. The errors can therefore be averaged and entered in Column A.
Where only one watthour standard is used for a single-phase series test of a polyphase meter, the
errors of the watthour standard should be entered directly in Column A, as no average is involved. In
this case the preceding three columns are not needed.
The combined average ratio correction factors from Table 10-7 are now entered in the proper
column of Table 10-8. These are the same at all power factors.
The PACFK is determined from Tables 10-2 or 10-3 for the desired values of load power factor
as shown in Table 10-8 and the average values of ( 2 ) previously determined in Table 10-7. The
Table 10-7. Average Ratio and Phase Angle Calculation Sheet 189
for Polyphase Installations.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

product of the average RCFK and the average PACFK gives the average final correction factor. The
percent error caused by the instrument transformers is equal to (1 2 FCF) 3 100. This is entered in
Column B. The values in Columns A and B are added algebraically and entered in the final column to
give the combined percent error caused by the instrument transform ers and the watthour standards.
If correction for the watthour standards is not desired, this can be omitted, in which case the
values in Column A would be zero.
The values in Column B could also be obtained directly from Table 10-7 and the chart shown in
Figure 10-14. This is a simpler but slightly less accurate method.
Table 10-9 is a watthour meter test form suitable for this method. The revolutions of the three
watthour standards for each test run are entered and added as shown. Where only one watthour
standard is used for a single-phase series test of a polyphase meter, its revolutions should be entered
directly in the column for the total revolutions. In this case, the preceding three columns are not
needed. The indicated percent error is computed from the total revolutions and entered as shown. The
 190 Table 10-8. Watthour Meter Test, Combined Error Calculation Sheet for
Three-Stator, Three-Phase Meters Tested Three-Phase Using Three Watthour
Standards or Single-Phase Series Using One Watthour Standard.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

percent error caused by the instrument transformers and watthour standards from the last column
of Table 10-8 is entered as shown in Table 10-9. This value, plus the percent error indicated, is equal
to the overall percent error. Only the values at 0.87 power factor have been shown on Table 10-9.
Values at other power factors would be obtained in the same manner. Meter adjustments are made as
required to reduce the overall percent error to the desired tolerances. Table 10-9 has been filled in to
show an “as left” curve at 0.87 power factor lagging, taken after all adjustments had been made. The
“as found” tests and adjustments would be on previous sheets and are not shown in Table 10-9.
This method is simple and fast in actual use as the corrections are precalculated before starting
the meter tests. The forms reduce the whole operation to simple bookkeeping and allow the calcula-
tions to be checked at any time. If only standard single-phase series tests are made on polyphase
meters, the forms shown in Tables 10-8 and 10-9 may be simplified to one column for the watthour
standard data.
Table 10-9. Watthour Meter Test. 191

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

APPLICATION OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER AND WATTHOUR STANDARD

CORRECTIONS IN ONE STEP TO A THREE-PHASE, TWO-STATOR,
THREE-WIRE, DELTA METERING INSTALLATION
It can be shown mathematically that the following statement is true: In a three-phase, three-wire
metering circuit having balanced voltages, currents, and burdens, using two voltage transformers
having equal ratio and phase angle errors and two current transformers having equal ratio and phase
angle errors, the true primary power may be determined by applying the instrument transformer cor-
rections separately to the single-phase power in each meter stator at the single-phase power factor of
each stator, or the instrument transformer corrections may be applied in one step to the total three-
phase secondary power at the three-phase power factor of the circuit.
For the three-phase, two-stator, three-wire delta installations, if the errors of the instrument trans-
formers on both phases are reasonably similar, the instrument transformer RCFs and phase angles
 192 may be averaged and the total error of the instrument transformers at the three-phase power factor
determined in exactly the same manner as for the three-stator meter using Tables 10-7 and 10-8. This
method does not involve appreciable error if the errors of the instrument transformers on both phases
are reasonably similar. The only difference is that only two current and two voltage transformers will
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

now be shown on Table 10-7.

However, the watthour standard corrections must be weighted before averaging as the two
watthour standards are running at different speeds. Also, the corrections entered for the watthour
standards must be at the single-phase power factor of each stator.
This is easily done using a prepared form such as Table 10-10. If the three-phase power factor is
cos , then the two-stator power factors, for balanced loads, are cos ( 1 30°) and cos ( 2 30°).
Since the speed of each watthour standard is proportional to the single-phase power factor at
which it is running, their percent errors must be weighted before averaging by the factors

Table 10-10. Watthour Meter Test, Combined Error Calculation Sheet

for Two-Stator, Three-Phase Meters Tested Three Phase
Using Two Watthour Standards.
 PF1 PF2
———————— and ————————
193
PF1 1 PF2 PF1 1 PF2
where PF1 and PF2 are the two single-phase power factors of the stators involved. This is illustrated

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
clearly in the column headings and in the example shown in Table 10-10. The remaining columns of
Table 10-10 would be filled in similar to Table 10-8 using the three-phase power factor to determine
the PACFK.
The same form (Table 10-9) may be used for the watthour meter test as was used for the three-
stator meter, though using only two columns for the revolutions of the two watthour standards.
This method is quite satisfactory for the three-phase phantom load test using two watthour
standards, since balanced loads are applied. It can be used for a customer’s load test using two watt-
hour standards if the load on the circuit is reasonably balanced. For customers’ load tests with badly
imbalanced loads, this method cannot be used. In such cases the corrections must be applied to each
stator and watthour standard separately.
When only one watthour standard is used for a single-phase series test of a two-­stator polyphase
meter, both stators operate during the test at the same single-phase power factor and it is not neces-
sary to use Table 10-10 at all. Rather, Table 10-8 is used and the watthour standard error entered
directly in Column A.

SUMMARY OF BASIC FORMULAS FOR

APPLYING INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER CORRECTIONS
Table 10-11 summarizes the basic formulas for applying instrument transformer corrections in a form
for convenient reference.

INDIVIDUAL STATOR CALCULATIONS

In the preceding discussion, the voltage transformers and the current transformers were assumed to
be reasonably matched, i.e., have nearly similar ratio and phase angle errors. If each of the current
transformers is of the same make, model, and type, it is usually found that they will have similar
accuracy characteristics. This is also true of voltage transformers. In these cases the procedures previ-
ously described for applying corrections will lead to no significant errors.
At times it is necessary to use instrument transformers with widely dissimilar correction factors.
When a high degree of accuracy is required, calculation of the effect of instrument transformer errors
on each individual meter stator should be made. ­Correction factors may be calculated by referring to
the basic meter formula and comparing meter registration to true power.
For a three-phase, three-wire delta circuit,
True Power 5 
3 EI cos 
Meter Registration, for a balanced symmetrical load, 5
EI 3 Ratio Correction FactorA 3 cos (2 2 30° 1 A 2 A) 1
EI 3 RCFB 3 cos (2 1 30° 1 B 2 B)

Table 10-11. Summary of Basic Formulas for

Applying Instrument Transformer Corrections.

Percent Registration of Meter Only

Overall (Primary) Percent Registration —————————————————
FCF
Required Percent Registration of Meter Only to Compensate for
FCF 3 100
Instrument Transformer Errors
Percent Error Caused by Instrument Transformers Only  (1 2 FCF) 3 100
Required Percent Error Adjustment of Meter Only to
 (FCF 2 1) 3 100
Compensate for Instrument Transformer Errors
 Percent Error Caused by
Overall (Primary) Percent Error Instrument Transformers Only
1 Percent Error of Meter Only
 194 It has been shown that the phase angle error depends on the apparent power factor of the load.
Because of the phase voltage and the line current displacement as seen by each stator, the power factor
under which stator A operates differs from that of stator B. Hence, when either the current or voltage
transformer phase angle errors differ widely, calculation of correction factors for individual stators is
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

advisable. Differences in signs may lead to unsuspected errors.

In the following example, although values of  and  would average to zero, signs have been
applied to give maximum error.
Given the following conditions:
Three-phase power factor 5 0.866 (30° lagging), balanced load
Combined RCF, stator A 5 0.997
Combined RCF, stator B 5 1.001
, stator A 5 212 minutes
, stator B 5 112 minutes
, stator A 5 112 minutes
, stator B 5 212 minutes

Secondary Meter Registration 5

EI 3 RCFA 3 cos (2 2 30° 1 A 2 A) 1 EI 3 RCFB 3 cos (2 1 30° 1 B 2 B)
With the transformer errors listed above, at 5 amperes, 120V secondary:
Secondary Meter Registration 5 120 3 5 3 0.997 3 cos [30° 2 30° 1 (2129) 2 (1129)]
1 120 3 5 3 1.001 3 cos [30° 1 30° 1 129 2 (2129)]
5 598.2 cos 249 1 600.6 cos 60° 249
5 598.2 1 296.6
5 894.8
True Power 5  3 3 120 3 5 3 cos 30° 5 900
900
FCF 5 ————— 5 1.0058
894.8

Cosines have been used in this calculation to make clear the phase angle errors possible. Similar
results may be obtained by use of PACF, Tables 10-2 and 10-3.

Burden Calculations
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER BURDENS
The secondary burdens of voltage transformers are connected in parallel across the secondary of the
transformer. The voltampere burden is equal to — E2 where Z is the impedance.
Z
Usually voltage transformer burdens are expressed as voltamperes at a given power factor. To
calculate the total burden on the secondary of a voltage transformer, the burden of each device should
be divided into in-phase and quadrature-phase components and added (voltamperes cannot be added
directly unless they are all at the same power factor).
The in-phase component is:
Watts 5 (Voltamperes)(Cos ) 5 VA 3 PF
The quadrature-phase component is:
VARs 5 (Voltamperes)(Sin ) 5  PF)
(1 2 2

Total Voltamperes 5  

(Total )
Watts 2
1Tota
(lR
VAs)
2
Total Watts
Power Factor of Combined Burden 5 Cos  5 —————————————
Total Voltamperes
CURRENT TRANSFORMER BURDENS 195
When more than two instruments or meters with the required wiring are connected in series with the
secondary of a current transformer, the total burden impedance is:

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Total Burden Impedance (Z) 5  
(Sum of stan
resices
 )21m
(Suf
o ctan
reaces
 )2
The voltampere burden on a current transformer is equal to I2Z. Burdens are usually computed at
5 amperes rated secondary current. It may be necessary to convert burdens stated in meter manuals at
2.5 amperes to 5.0 amperes.
When the burdens are expressed in voltamperes at a given power factor, the burden of each device
and the secondary conductors should be divided into in-phase and quadrature-phase components, and
added.
The in-phase component is:
Watts 5 (Voltamperes)(cos ) 5 VA 3 PF 5 I2R
The quadrature-phase component is:
VARs 5 (Voltamperes)(sin ) 5 VA 
(1 2PF)
 2
5 I2X
Where X is the inductive reactance, X 5 2fL, L is the inductance in henries, and f is the frequency in
hertz.
Total Voltamperes 5  
(Total s)
Watt 
2
1 VAR
(Total s)
2
Total Watts R
Power Factor of Combined Burden 5 Cos  5 ———————————— 5 ——
Total Voltamperes Z
The secondary lead resistance must be included in the burden calculations for current
transformers.
The basic formulas for burden calculations are summarized in Table 10-12 for both current and
voltage transformers.

POLYPHASE BURDENS
When the secondary burdens of instrument transformers are interconnected, as is often the case in
polyphase metering, no simple method of computing the bur dens on each transformer is applicable
to all cases. Such combinations of burden must be computed phasorially on the basis of the actual
circuit.
For wye-connected burdens on wye-connected instrument transformers, each transformer is
affected by the burden directly across its terminals from the polarity to the neutral secondary leads.
Thus, each transformer “sees” only the burden on its own phase and burdens are easily calculated. The

Table 10-12. Methods of Expressing Burdens of Instrument Transformers.

Conversion to Watts and VAR

Voltage Transformers
Burden Expression Watts at 120 V VARs at 120 V, 60 Hz
VA 5 Voltamperes at 120 V, 60 Hz
VA 3 PF VA 3 
(1 2
PF)2
PF 5 Burden power factor

Current Transformers
Burden Expression Watts at 5 A VARs at 5 A, 60 Hz
R 5 Resistance in ohms
25 3 R 9.43 3 L
L 5 Inductance in millihenries
Z 5 Inductance in ohms, 60 Hz
25 3 Z 3 PF 25 3 Z 3 
(1 2
PF)2
PF 5 Burden power factor
VA 5 Voltamperes at 5 A, 60 Hz
VA 3 PF VA 3 
(1 2
PF)2
PF 5 Burden power factor
 196 same situation is true for an open-delta burden on transformers connected open delta. These are the
normal arrangements for metering burdens.
Unusual cases, such as wye-connected burdens on open-delta-connected instrument transformers,
delta-connected burdens, on wye-connected instrument transformers, and complex combinations of
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

single-phase and three-phase burdens must be analyzed individually. Since such analysis is complex,
this type of burden should be avoided in metering applications when possible.

THE CIRCLE, OR FARBER, METHOD FOR DETERMINATION

OF VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER ACCURACY
The accuracy of a voltage transformer is primarily affected by the burden connected to the secondary
of the transformer. This burden is usually expressed in terms of volt­amperes and percent power factor.
The circle, or Farber Method, copyrighted 1960 by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, provides an
easy method for determining the accuracy of a voltage transformer at any desired burden by using only
the phase angle and RCF of the transformer at zero burden and one other known burden. Normally
the manufacturer furnishes this information with the transformer.
The circle, or Farber Method, is a graphical method in which voltamperes are represented by arcs,
and the percent power factor by the straight lines which are plotted on a special graph paper that has
the RCF as the vertical axis and the phase angle as the horizontal axis.
Graph paper is scaled so that a given distance represents 0.0010 units on the RCF axis and 3.438
minutes on the phase angle. A sample is shown in Figure 10-15a.

1.006

1.005

1.004

1.003

1.002
RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

1.001

1.000

0.999

0.998 0.3 Accuracy Class

0.997

0.996 0.6 Accuracy Class

0.995

0.994

230 225 220 215 210 25 0 15 110 115 120 125 130
PHASE ANGLE IN MINUTES

Figure 10-15a. Sample of Graph Paper Specifically Scaled for oltage Transformer Circle Diagram.
 An example of the use of the circle method is shown in Figure 10-15b. The following data are test 197
results at 120 secondary volts for a 2400:120 volt voltage transformer:
At 0 voltampere burden, RCF 5 0.9979 and phase angle 5 12.0 minutes

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
At 50 voltamperes, 85% power factor burden, RCF 5 1.0040 and phase angle5 11.0 minute
Performance at other voltampere and power factor burdens can be plotted by making radii propor-
tional to voltamperes and angles equal to burden power factor angles.

IEEE Standard Accuracy Classes for Metering

The standard accuracy classifications of instrument transformers for metering are based on the
requirement that the transformer correction factor (TCF) shall be within the stated limits over a
specified range of power factor of the metered load and with specified secondary burdens. The require-
ment is in terms of the TCF, rather than in either of its components, the RCF or the PACF. Since
at 1.0 power ­factor the PACF is insignificant, the TCF is equal to RCF. The PACF is limited to values
and direction (1 or 2) such that its effect on the TCF does not cause the latter to exceed the limits
of its stated class at power factors other than unity. Transformer standard accuracy classes can best
be shown by parallelograms as is done in Figure 10-16a for current transformers and Figure 10-16b

1.008

1.007

1.006

1.005

1.004
RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

1.003

1.002

1.001

1.000

0.999

0.998

0.997

0.996

230 225 220 215 210 25 0 15 110 115 120 125 130
PHASE ANGLE IN MINUTES

Figure 10-15b. Circle Method for Determination of Voltage Transformer Accuracy.

Note: Points representing two sets of performance data are plotted as REF on the grid. Points along the line which connects two given
burdens represent performance at various burdens with the same power factor.
 198
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-16a. Parallelograms Showing Graphical Equivalent of IEEE Accuracy Classes 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 for
Current Transformers for Metering.
Note: The accuracy requirements for 100% rated current also apply at the continuous-thermal-current rating of the transformer.

for voltage transformers. Note that the inclination of the accuracy class parallelogram for voltage
transformers is opposite that of current transformers. The current transformer allowable TCF at 10%
current is double that at 100% current.
It has been shown that a TCF is not a constant but depends on the secondary burden. Hence, the
standard accuracy class is designated by the limiting percent error caused by the transformer followed
by the standard burden designation at which the transformer accuracy is determined. For a current
transformer the accuracy class may be written: 0.3 B-0.5, 0.6 B-1.8. This means that at burden B-0.5
the transformer would not affect the meter accuracy more than 6 0.3% at 100% rated current or
6 0.6% at 10% rated current, and at burden B-1.8 the transformer would not effect the meter accu-
racy more than 6 0.6% at 100% rated current or 6 1.2% at 10% rated current, when the power factor
of the metered load is between 0.6 and 1.0 lagging.
Likewise, the accuracy of a voltage transformer could be given as 0.3 X, 0.3 , 1.2 Z, with similar
meanings. Accuracy classes of voltage and current transformers are shown in Tables 10-13 and 10-15.

Table 10-13. IEEE Accuracy Classes for Voltage Transformers.

Limits of Ratio Correction Factor and Limits of Power Factor (Lagging)

Accuracy Class Transformer Correction Factor of Metered Power Load

1.2 1.012–0.998 0.6–1.0

0.6 1.006–0.994 0.6–1.0
0.3 1.003–0.997 0.6–1.0
 199

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 10-16b. Parallelograms Showing Graphical Equivalent of IEEE Accuracy Classes 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 for
Voltage Transformers for Metering.
Note: The transformer characteristics shall lie within the limits of the parallelogram for all voltages between 90 and 110% of rated voltage.

The standard burdens for both voltage and current transformers are precisely defined by IEEE
Standard C57.13. Standard burdens and characteristics are given in Tables 10-14 and 10-16.
The use of the IEEE standard accuracy classifications permits the installation of instrument trans-
formers with reasonable assurance that errors will be held within known limits provided that burden
limitations are strictly followed and secondary connections introduce no additional error.

High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers

High-accuracy instrument transformers have been available from most manufacturers for specific
applications for over 40 years and are used primarily for high-current, low-burden applications.
Interest in greater accuracy increased in the 1980s with the introduction of solid-state, low-impedance
meters. More recently there has been an increase in using high accuracy current transformers for
several reasons:
• Independent generation plants and wind generation has required metering to measure not only
the peak output of the plant but also the plant auxiliary load when not generating. The auxil-
iary load could be substantially less than the generator output, requiring current transformers

Table 10-14. IEEE Standard Burdens for Voltage Transformers.

Burden Voltamperes Burden Power Factor

W 12.5 0.10
X 25. 0.70
M 35. 0.20
Y 75. 0.85
Z 200. 0.85
ZZ 400. 0.85
 200 Table 10-15. IEEE Accuracy Classes for Metering Current Transformers.

Limits of Ratio Correction Factor and

HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Transformer Correction Factor

100% Rated Current 10% Rated Current Limits of

Power Factor
Accuracy (Lagging) of
Class Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Metered Power Load

1.2 0.988 1.012 0.976 1.024 0.6–1.0

0.6 0.994 1.006 0.988 1.012 0.6–1.0
0.3 0.997 1.003 0.994 1.006 0.6–1.0

Table 10-16. IEEE Standard Burdens for Current Transformers

with 5 Ampere* Secondaries.

Burden Resistance Inductance Impedance Voltamperes Power

Designation** (Ohms) (mH) (Ohms) (at 5 A) Factor

Metering Burdens

B-0.1 0.09 0.116 0.1 2.5 0.9

B-0.2 0.18 0.232 0.2 5.0 0.9
B-0.5 0.45 0.580 0.5 12.5 0.9
B-0.9 0.81 1.04 0.9 22.5 0.9
B-1.8 1.62 2.08 1.8 45.0 0.9

*If a current transformer is rated at other than 5 amperes, ohmic burdens for specification and rating may be derived by multiplying the
resistance and inductance in the table by [5/(ampere rating)]2, the VA at rated current and the power factor remaining the same.
**These standard burden designations have no significance at frequencies other than 60 Hz.

(CTs) to maintain accuracy over a much wider range than for standard revenue metering
installations.
• Increasing cost of energy places additional emphasis on accurately metering large customers.
• High accuracy CTs’ extended range capability allows the use of fewer ratios. High accuracy CTs
extend their accuracy at a lower range of current while maintaining equivalent rating factors
compared to standard CTs. This extended range of the high accuracy CTs allows a reduction in
CT inventory by minimizing the different ratios of CTs that must be kept in inventory.
Design and material changes have resulted in making the cost and availability of high accuracy
instrument transformers of more interest to some users. Magnetic core material for high accuracy
instrument transformers is made of specialized steel with better magnetic properties than grain-
oriented electrical grade steel used for conventional instrument transformers, which results in better
accuracy. Non-conventional methods of compensation have enhanced performance at the lower
ranges of 1%–10% of rated current while permitting continuous duty to 400% of rated current.
In general, high accuracy current transformers should not be considered for use in protective relay-
ing applications. Cores produced from specialized steels have much lower saturating induction levels
than those of grain oriented silicon-iron steel. For example, nickel-iron will saturate at 33% that of
silicon-iron, while nanocrystalline amorphous steel saturates at about 50%. These levels will tremen-
dously decrease the CTs fault level capability. In some cases, high accuracy CTs may go into saturation
slightly above 500% rated current by design. In addition, if the CT winding has been compensated,
true errors above 500% may not be easily calculated.
 IEEE Standard C57.13.6-2005 was developed to define two new accuracy classes and burdens for 201
current transformers and one new accuracy class for voltage transformers.
For CTs, accuracy class .15 and .15S are now defined. Figure 10-17 shows the limits for the .15
accuracy class and Figure 10-18 shows the limits for the .15S accuracy class. The .15 accuracy class

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
maintains .15% accuracy from 100% to maximum rated current and .3% accuracy down to 5% of
rated current. The .15S accuracy rating maintains an accuracy of .15% from 5% to maximum rated
current.
The standard defines one additional accuracy class for voltage transformers, .15, as shown in
Figure 10-19.
Several manufacturers currently provide an extended range high accuracy current transformer.
Figure 10-18 also shows the limits of accuracy of this CT. The accuracy of these units are .15% from
1% to maximum current rating. The 1% rating would be at a current of .05 amp, which is below the
.25 amp minimum test current for most revenue accuracy class 20 meters. The accuracy of the meter
is not well documented or normally tested below .25 amp.
Due to the extensive use of electronic meters and instrumentation, a significantly lower burden
may be present than for electromechanical meters or instrumentation. As a result, IEEE C57.13-2005
has added two additional standard burdens as listed in Table 10-17.

1.0045 20.45

1.003 20.30

1.0015 20.15

PERCENT CURRENT ERROR

RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

1.000 10

0.9985 10.15

0.997 10.30

0.9955 10.45

215 210 25 0 15 110 115

LAGGING           LEADING

PHASE ANGLE (MINUTES)

Figure 10-17. Limits for .15 Accuracy Class for Current Transformers for Metering.
 202
1.0015 20.15%
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

1.0010 20.10%

1.0005 20.05%

PERCENT CURRENT ERROR

RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

1.0000 10%

0.9995 10.05%

0.9990 10.10%

0.9985 10.15%

27.5 25 22.5 0 12.5 15 17.5

LAGGING           LEADING

PHASE ANGLE (MINUTES)

Figure 10-18. Limits for .15S Accuracy Class for Current Transformers for Metering.

Burden E.04 is applicable for applications where the CTs are adjacent to the meter (within
10 feet).
From an application perspective, many existing CTs currently installed, as well as many produced
today that are rated 0.3 class, may inherently satisfy a class of 0.15 at lower burdens. This can be
evaluated if RCF and phase angle curves at lower burdens are readily available, and which provide
characteristics below 10% of rated current. ­Recertification of such CTs with performances verified to
5% of rated current and lower may be a viable option if the CTs are accessible. Use and calibration
should be in accordance with the utilities’ standard metering practices and/or policies.

Types of Instrument Transformers

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current transformers reduce the current being measured to a highly accurate value that is propor-
tional to the line current and can be measured by the meter. Current transformers can also be used
for isolating test equipment when there is a high voltage in the circuit to be measured. Current
transformers are used in both metering and relay applications.
 203
1.0015 20.15%

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1.0010 20.10%

1.0005 20.05%

PERCENT CURRENT ERROR

RATIO CORRECTION FACTOR

1.0000 10%

0.9995 10.05%

0.9990 10.10%

0.9985 10.15%

27.5 25 22.5 0 12.5 15 17.5

LAGGING           LEADING

PHASE ANGLE (MINUTES)

Figure 10-19. Limits for .15 Accuracy Class for Voltage Transformers for Metering.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Similarly, a voltage transformer reduces the voltage being measured to a highly accurate value that is
proportional to the line voltage and can be measured by the meter.

Table 10-17. Standard Burdens for Current Transformers

Supplying Electronic Meters and Instrumentation.

Burden Resistance Inductance Impedance Total Power Power

Burden Type Designation (Ω) (mH) (Ω) (VA) Factor

Electronic Metering E-.2 0.2 0 0.2 5 1

Burden E-.04 0.04 0 0.04 5 1
 204 APPLICATION TYPES
Indoor
An indoor transformer is constructed for installations where the transformer is not exposed to the
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

weather. This construction is generally limited to circuits of 25,000 volts (125 kV BIL) or less.
Typically, indoor voltage transformers are fused.
Outdoor
An outdoor instrument transformer is constructed for installations exposed to the weather.
Indoor-Outdoor
For circuits rated at 24 kV or above, common designs of instrument transformers are suitable for
either indoor or outdoor use. At lower voltages, units for outdoor use are provided with additional
protection, particularly against moisture. Spacings between high-voltage terminals and between these
terminals and ground are generally increased for outdoor types.

CONSTRUCTION TYPES
Both liquid filled and dry type construction is used for transformers rated 69 kV (350 kV BIL) and
lower. Above 69 kV liquid filled and gas filled, construction is used.
Butyl Rubber
Butyl rubber is used for the outside coating of instrument transformers. Butyl rubber has excellent
insulating properties and the ability to ensure exact dielectric clearances and geometries of the core-
coil assembly.
Cycloaliphatic Epoxy (CEP)
CEP is also used, due to its good resistance to degradation and tracking erosion as well as its ability to
withstand exposure to humidity, UV radiation, and outdoor pollutants.
Hydrophobic Cycloaliphatic Epoxy
Introduced in the 2000s, hydrophobic cycloaliphatic epoxy incorporated improved hydrophobic proper-
ties, causing water to bead up on the surface and remove conductive contaminants when the water
rolls off.
Dry Type
A dry type transformer’s core and coils are embedded in a body of material which serves as the
insulation, case, and bushings. This construction is usually employed for individual current or voltage
transformers.
The materials used to insulate and furnish mechanical support are rubbers, epoxies, thermoplastic
elastomers (TPE) and ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer (EPDM) as these materials are adaptable
to molding into the geometry of the transformer. Other plastics may be used, but their use is not
widespread.
The core and coils may be wrapped in layers of insulating paper or material and then inserted into
the transformer.
Compound Filled
In a compound filled construction, the core and coils are wrapped and inserted in the same manner
as in the dry type construction. The element is then mounted in the case and the case filled with a
compound with a high dielectric strength. These units are designed for voltages not exceeding 15 kV.
Liquid Filled
In the liquid filled construction, the core and coils are insulated and then mounted in a tank which is
filled with the insulating liquid.
Higher voltage transformers, in addition to the primary winding, often have two other windings,
a secondary and a tertiary, on a common core. Sometimes one or both windings have a tap allowing
multiple ratios.
Gas Filled
Sulfur hexafluoride gas SF6 is used to insulate the core and coils of instrument transformers in voltage
ranges above 69 kV. Insulating gas is used instead of liquid insulation and requires special coil insula-
tion and other precautions.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS 205
Voltage transformers are made with various methods of winding. They are usually wound for single-
ratio at lower voltages and two ratios at higher voltages, particularly for substation applications.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
For special purposes, taps may be taken off at various points on the secondary winding. While
these taps are usually marked, great care should be used in connecting such a transformer to ensure
that the proper tap is used.

COUPLING CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

Coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVTs) consist of two major components, the capacitor
voltage divider and the electromagnetic unit (EMU), and are designed such that the secondary voltage
of the electromagnetic unit is proportional to and in phase with the primary voltage applied to the
capacitor divider.
The capacitor voltage divider is made up
of a number of individual capacitor elements
connected in series from line to ground. Each
capacitor element is approximately the same
capacitance, hence the voltage drop across each
capacitor element is approximately uniform.
The divider is tapped at a point that provides
from 7 kV to 13 kV to the EMU, depending on
the design. The EMU consists of the intermedi-
ate transformer, which provides for the voltage
transformation, and the compensating series
reactance, which compensates for the phase-
angle shift inherent in the capacitor voltage
divider. The intermediate transformer and the
compensating series reactance are typically
tapped to allow for factory calibration due to
normal manufacturing variations in the capaci-
tor divider.
CCVTs can also be used as the coupling
means for power-line carrier and relay
communication.
Currently, the steady-state accuracy of
CCVTs matches that of wound-type voltage Figure 10-20. Electrical Diagram for a CCVT.
transformers (VTs) and CCVTs are used for
revenue metering.
Performing as a voltage transformer, CCVTs provide a secondary voltage that is almost an exact
analog replica of the applied voltage, with an attenuation factor called the transformation ratio.
CCVTs used for revenue metering are commonly available with accuracy classes of 0.3 and 0.15%.
Concerns with using CCVTs for revenue metering are accuracy drift over time and accuracy drift
over temperature.
Accuracy Drift Over Time
Accuracy drift over time is mainly caused by changes in the capacitance of the capacitor voltage divider
while in-service. During the manufacture of the CVT, the series reactor is tuned to the capacitance of
the capacitor divider, so any change in capacitance directly causes the transformer correction factor
(TCF) to change (accuracy drift). This change in capacitance over time is due to a change in the space
between the electrodes (spacing factor) of the individual capacitor elements. To ensure the spacing
factor remains constant over the life of the unit, some manufacturers separate the capacitor divider
into smaller assemblies. These small capacitor stacks are hydraulically compressed at a controlled
pressure and then bound together using rigid tape. By utilizing the small capacitor stacks, the spacing
factor can be tightly controlled and the capacitance of each capacitor element is extremely uniform.
Accuracy Drift Over Temperature
There are two capacitor element designs currently used. They are known as mixed dielectric and all
film.
 206
CORRECTION FACTOR FOR CAPACITANCE vs. TEMPERATURE
1.0075
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

CORRECTION FACTOR
1.0050

1.0025

1.00

.0075
260 250 240 230 220 210 0 110 120 130 140 150 160
TEMPERATURE (°C)

Figure 10-21. CCVT Correction Factor vs. Temperature for Mixed Dielectric Design.

The mixed dielectric design typically consist of kraft paper and polypropylene film dielectric layers,
impregnated with synthetic oil. The paper and film have dielectric properties that change in an oppos-
ing manner with regard to temperature, thus providing a relatively flat capacitance change over a wide
temperature range. This capacitance change is normally considered to be within the accuracy class
range of the unit.
All film designs use only polypropylene as the dielectric. As the temperature changes below the
freezing point, these designs tend to experience capacitance changes that may effect the accuracy
performance of the CCVT. When using these designs for revenue metering, the temperature response
of the CCVT should be investigated.
Older CCVTs using paper/mineral oil dielectrics can drift substantially over normal operating
temperatures and are generally not recommended for revenue metering.

AUTOTRANSFORMERS
An autotransformer is one having only one coil with taps brought out at the proper points in the coil
to give the voltages desired. Any portion of the coil may be used as the line-voltage connection and
any other portion as the load connection. The ratio of such a transformer is approximately:
Line voltage Number of turns used for line winding
————————— 5 ————————————————————————————
Load voltage Number of turns used for load winding
Autotransformers may be used for special purposes as in the phase-shifting transformers used
with VARhour meters. The widespread use of solid-state meters with VAR measurement capability has
significantly reduced the need for phase-shifting transformers.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Wound (Wound Primary) Type
This type of CT has the primary and secondary windings completely insulated and permanently
assembled on the core. The primary is usually a multi-turn winding.
Three-Wire Transformers
The primary winding is in two equal sections, each of which is insulated from the other and to
ground so that the transformer can be used for measuring total power in the conventional three-wire,
single-phase power service. Three-wire transformers are used on low voltage only since it is difficult to
provide the necessary insulation between the two primary windings. Two two-wire CTs are commonly
used for three-wire metering.
Window Type
This type is similar in construction to the wound type except that the primary winding is omitted
and an opening is provided in the core through which a bus or primary conductor may be passed,
serving as the primary winding. Complete insulation for such a primary is not always provided by the 207
transformer.
By looping the primary conductor through the core, a number of different ratios may be obtained.
For instance, if a transformer had a ratio of 1,200:5 or 240:1 with a single turn, it would have a ratio

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
of 120:1 with two turns, 80:1 with three turns, etc. In other words, the ratio is:
Original Ratio
Ratio 5 ——————————
Turns
The number of turns in the primary is the number of times the conductor passes through the hole in
the core and not the number of times the cable passes some point on the outside.
Bar-Type
The bar-type is similar to the window type but has an insulated primary provided. The bar in bar-type
may be removable or fixed.
Window Type as a Three-Wire
This is done by passing one wire of a three-wire, single-phase service through the window in one
direction and the other line in the opposite direction. The ratio of the CT would be one-half the
marked ratio. For example, an 800:5 CT can be used to measure 400A on each leg. Some manufac-
tures provide a bar-type CT and label as a 400&400:5.
Dual Ratio
The series/parallel type has the primary divided into two sections and may be used as a dual ratio
transformer. A 200 3 400:5 CT has a ratio of 200:5 when the primary coils are connected in series
and 400:5 when connected in parallel.
The tapped secondary type, designated, for example, 200/400:5, provides the advantage of chang-
ing ratio without interrupting service.
Split-Core Type
The split-core type is convenient to install where the primary conductor cannot be broken or opened.
Part of the core is separable or hinged to permit its encircling a primary conductor or an uninsulated
conductor operating at a voltage within the voltage rating of the transformer. It has a secondary
winding completely insulated and permanently assembled on the core but does not have a primary
winding. It may or may not have insulation for a primary winding.
The exciting current of this type of CT may be relatively large as are the losses,ratio error, and
phase angle error.
Multi-Core
When it is necessary or desirable to operate two or more separate burdens from a single CT, a
complete secondary winding and magnetic circuit must be supplied for each burden and the indi-
vidual magnetic circuits linked by a common primary winding. A double-secondary CT is designated
200:5//5, for example.
Each secondary function is entirely independent of the other.
Miniature Transformers
These transformers are exceptionally small, no larger than a four inch cube, and are used in metering
low-voltage circuits. The typical continuous current rating factors are one, two, three, and four times
the nominal rating. Each type and ratio of CT may have a different rating factor.
With rated current in the primary, the open secondary voltage is low and may be considered non-
hazardous. Current transformers should never be open-circuited, even though miniature CTs may not
develop enough voltage before they saturate and damage themselves. An open circuit can cause the CT
to be magnetized, and in larger units can cause a failure as well as voltages in excess of 2,500 volts.
Bushing Type
This type has a secondary winding completely insulated and permanently assembled on a ring-type
core but does not have a primary winding or insulation for a primary winding. The circuit breaker or
power transformer bushing with its conductor or stud becomes the completely insulated single-turn
primary winding of the bushing type CT.
For metering application, considerable improvement in accuracy over the range of primary current
is obtained by using special core materials and compensated secondary windings. Bushing type CTs, at
 208 ratings above 100 amperes may have accuracies within acceptable revenue metering limits. The burden
capability of these CTs is directly related to core cross-section and inversely related to ratio.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Selection and Application of Instrument Transformers

Before specifying instrument transformers for any installation, the characteristics of the transformers
must be taken into account to ensure that the units proposed meet all requirements. Certain types
of installations present no unusual features and standard units may be specified, while others require
careful study before a final decision is made. For detailed specifications, see IEEE Standard C57.13.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Basic Impulse Insulation Level
The basic impulse insulation level (BIL) rating of a voltage transformer indicates the factory dielectric
test that the transformer insulation is capable of withstanding. The dielectric test values, minimum
creepage distances associated with each BIL, the appropriate BIL level for each primary voltage rating,
and conditions for transformer application are given in IEEE Standard C57.13. In a wye system with
voltage transformers connected line to grounded neutral, the transformer may be subjected to 1.73
times normal voltage during a ground fault. Hence the distinction among the various groups must be
maintained to avoid over-stressing transformer insulation.
Insulation must be de-rated when transformers are installed at altitudes greater than 3,300 feet
(1,000 meters) above sea level. See IEEE C57.13.
The BIL of voltage transformers should be coordinated with associated equip ment. In a substation
with a BIL level of 200 kV, it is considered poor practice to use voltage transformers of 150 kV BIL.
When deciding on the insulation level to be used, questions such as whether the power circuits are
overhead or under ground and adequacy of lightning arrester protection should be considered.
Thermal Rating
The thermal rating of a voltage transformer is the voltamperes that the transformer will carry continu-
ously at rated voltage and frequency without causing the specified temperature limits to be exceeded. It
has little, if anything, to do with the burdens at which accuracies are established. It must be remem-
bered that whether the transformer remains within its accuracy class depends upon the burden (load)
on the secondary.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Basic Impulse Insulation Level
The Basic Impulse Insulation Level is a useful guide in selecting current transformers for installation
in critical locations. Current transformers should not be rated at a lower level than the other station
or service equipment.
Continuous Thermal Current Rating Factor
Current transformers may carry a thermal rating factor of 1.0, 1.33, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, or 4.0. This means
that the nameplate current rating may be multiplied by the rating factor applicable to give the maxi-
mum current the transformers can carry continuously in an ambient temperature not exceeding 30°C.
High-voltage current transformers typically have a rating factor of 1.5. For altitudes above 3,300 feet
or 24 hour temperatures appreciably different from 30°C, refer to IEEE Standard C57.13.
The IEEE accuracy classifications for current transformers apply throughout the current range
defined by the continuous thermal current rating factor.
Short-Time Thermal Limit or Rating
The short-time thermal current limit of a current transformer is the rms, symmetrical primary current
that may be carried with the secondary winding short-circuited for a stated period, usually 1 second,
without exceeding a maximum specified temperature in any winding. When this current limit is
expressed as a rating, it is a number which represents how many times normal primary current.
Short-Time Mechanical Limit or Rating
This limit indicates the maximum current value (how many times normal primary current), for one
second, that the current transformer can stand without mechanical failure. The possible mechanical
failure is the distortion of the primary winding. Hence the bar-type or through-type has a practically
unlimited mechanical rating. It is often considered not an applicable rating for window or bushing
style CT’s, as damage to the transformer is dependent upon the support or bracing of the primary 209
conductor or bus work.
When indoor current transformers are in locations critical to public safety, it may be necessary
to use a higher rated transformer than the circuit requires to obtain the necessary mechanical and

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
thermal short-time ratings. Both of these short-time ratings should be matched to possible fault cur-
rents in the circuit.

FREE STANDING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND

INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENT RATINGS
Design Criteria for Determining CT Loading Factors
The current carrying capability of a CT is generally limited by the temperature at which the CT’s
insulation materials begin to suffer damage. This upper temperature limit is the maximum allowable
hottest-spot temperature and is the sum of the ambient temperature and the maximum hottest-spot
temperature rise.
The following conditions (selectable) were used to determine the load carrying capability of CTs
under various situations:
• Normal—The maximum continuous current carrying capacity based on the temperature index
of the insulation. The acceptable loss of life from insulation overheating at normal loading is
less than 0.01%/day.
• Long Term Emergency (LTE)—The maximum 4-hour overload current that can be tolerated
over several months with a loss of life from insulation overheating of less than 0.04%/day.
• 12-Hour—The maximum 12-hour overload current that can be tolerated with a loss of life
from insulation overheating of less than 1%/day.
• 1-Hour (short time)—The maximum 1-hour overload current that can be tolerated with a loss
of life from insulation overheating of less than 4%/day.
• Average Summer Ambient Temperature—The average hourly ambient temperature for a
summer day is 95° Fahrenheit.
Methodologies utilized to determine the maximum current carrying capabilities for the above condi-
tions are as follows:
References:
IEEE Standard C57.13—Requirements for Instrument Transformers
IEEE Standard C57.91—1995 Guide for Loading Mineral Oil Immersed Transformers
ANSI C12.11—2007 Revenue Instrument Transformers
Definitions:
• Aging Acceleration Factor (Faa)—For a given hottest spot temperature, the rate at which
the insulation aging is accelerated compared to the aging rate at a reference hottest spot
temperature.
• Average 24 Hour Ambient Temperature (AT24)—The sum of the individual 24 hour average
temperatures divided by 24.
• Continuous Thermal Current Rating Factor (RF)—The number by which the rated primary
current of a current transformer is multiplied to obtain the maximum primary current that can
be carried continuously without exceeding the limiting temperature rise from 30 C° average
ambient air temperature. The RF of tapped secondary or multi-ratio current transformers applies
to the highest ratio, unless otherwise stated. When current transformers are incorporated
internally as parts of larger transformers or power circuit breakers, they shall meet allowable
average winding and hot spot temperature limits under the specific conditions and requirements
of the larger apparatus.
• Equivalent Aging Factor of Insulation (Feqa)—To determine the 24 hour equivalent aging factor,
sum the hourly Faa values over a 24 hour period.
• Hottest Spot Temperature (HST)—Reference the values from Table 1 of C57.91 for a given Aging
Acceleration Factor.
 210 • Normal Insulation Life of a CT (NIL)—The normal insulation life of a CT is generally consid-
ered to be 180,000 hours based on a 0.0133% normal loss of life per day. Reference Table 2 of
C57.91.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

• Percent Loss of Life (%LoL)—Equivalent aging in hours at reference hottest spot temperature
over a time period (usually 24 hours) multiplied by 100 and then divided by the total normal
insulation life (in hours) at the reference hottest spot temperature (110 C° for a 65 C° average
winding rise and 95 C° for a 55 C° average winding rise).
Formulas:
1. Feqa 5 (%LoL 3 NIL) / (24 hours 3 100)
24

2. Feqa 5 n51 (Faa(n) 3 t(n)) / 24
3. HST 5 (215000 / (LN(Faa) 2 (15000/368))) 2 273 [For 55 C° Rise]
4. Loading Factor (LF) 5 (((HST 2 AT24) 3 RF²) / 55) [For 55 C° Rise]
Calculated Loading Factors Based on the Conditions Listed Above:
1. For Normal Conditions:
• Feqa 5 (0.01 * 180,000) / (24 * 100) 5 0.75
• Faa 5 Feqa / 24 5 0.75/24 5 0.03125
• HST 5 (215000/(LN(0.03125) 2 (15000/368))) 2 273 5 66 C°
• For continuous operations the Load Factor must be calculated using C12.11 and C57.13
• LF 5 (((85 2 AT24) * RF²) / 55) (Reference C12.11 and C57.13 for continuous
operations)
• LF 5 0.95 (for average ambient temp 5 35 C°; RF 5 1.0)
2. For Long Term Emergency
• Feqa 5 (0.04 * 180,000) / (24 * 100) 5 3.0
• Faa 5 (F eqa 2 (20hrs * 0.03125)) / 4 hrs 5 0.59
• HST 5 (215000/(LN(0.59)2(15000/368))) 2 273 5 90 C°
• LF 5 (((HST 2 AT24) * RF²) / 55)
• LF 5 1.0 (for average ambient temp 5 35 C°; RF 5 1.0)
3. For a 12 Hour Emergency
• Feqa 5 (1.0 * 180,000) / (24 * 100) 5 75.0
• Faa 5 (Feqa 2 (12hrs * 0.03125)) / 12 hrs 5 6.22
• HST 5 (215000/(LN(6.22)2(15000/368))) 2 273 5 112 C°
• LF 5 (((HST 2 AT24) * RF²) / 55)
• LF 5 1.19 (for average ambient temp 5 35 C°; RF 5 1.0)
4. For a 1 Hour Emergency
• Feqa 5 (4.0 * 180,000) / (24 * 100) 5 300.0
• Faa 5 Feqa 2 (23hrs * 0.03125) 5 299.28
• HST 5 (215000/(LN(299.28)2(15000/368))) 2 273 5 155 C°
• LF 5 (((HST 2 AT24) * RF²) / 55)
• LF 5 1.48 (for average ambient temp 5 35 C°; RF 5 1.0)

Impacts to Instrumentation During Emergency Situations

Based on general recommendations for overloading CTs, there is a possible impact to instrumenta-
tion for short term emergencies. Secondary current values could approach a value as high as 15 amps
(5 amp secondary * 2.95) in very short term emergency scenarios where a CT has a rating factor of
2.0. Most transducers are designed to accept up to 10 amps of continuous input current, which could
exceed the typical full scale rating of other instrumentation wired into the secondary current circuit.
Another consequence would be an over range problem for RTU analog data for a period of time,
resulting in inaccurate data availability for system grid controllers.
Emergency Ratings of Current Transformers 211
For current transformers installed inside a larger apparatus such as a breaker or power transformer,
the emergency ratings of the CT is based on the limiting factors of the apparatus in which it is
installed. To determine the emergency rating of CTs in these applications, refer to the emergency

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
ratings of the larger power apparatus.

RELAY APPLICATIONS
For relaying (system protection) applications, current transformers must meet requirements that differ
greatly from those of metering. Since relays operate under abnormal conditions, high-current charac-
teristics are important.
Current transformers for relaying service are given standard accuracy class ratings by letters and
numbers, such as T200 or C200, which describe their capabilities up to 20 times normal current
rating. The standard relay accuracy indicates the RCF will not exceed the 10% accuracy limits at loads
from one to 20 times nominal, and at the rated burden. The letters T and C indicate whether perfor-
mance is based on tests (T) or calculated (C).

TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION PROCEDURES

Usually each utility develops its own standard for metering installations based on local requirements
and the type of test facilities desired. These local standards are published and made available for instal-
lation guidance.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER SECONDARIES

To avoid the dangers of high voltage that could occur on an open secondary if the primary were
energized, the secondaries of CTs should be kept shorted during storage and installation until the
secondary leads and burden have been connected. Some utilities make the shorting of secondaries a
rule for all CTs and others have relaxed this rule for the miniature CTs as these will saturate before the
secondary voltage reaches a dangerous value.

PRECAUTIONS IN ROUTING SECONDARY LEADS

The secondary leads for a set of current or voltage transformers comprising one metering installation
should be routed to avoid the pick-up of induced voltages from other conductors as induced voltages
could cause errors in the metering.
The effects of induced voltages can be reduced by running the secondary leads in a group as a
cable or together in a single conduit. In addition, the leads should be kept well away from other
conductors carrying heavy current and should not be run in the same conduit with such conductors.
Cabling will reduce the effects of stray fields by a partial cancellation of the induced voltages. Steel
conduit will provide some magnetic shielding against stray fields. Shielded cable, in conjunction with
proper bonding and grounding methods, will also provide excellent protection. The polarity and neu-
tral secondary wires from a given instrument transformer should never be run in different conduits or
by different routes as this could produce a loop sensitive to induced voltages.

Instrument Transformer Connections

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Single-Phase Circuits
Figure 10-22 shows the connection for one voltage transformer supplying single-phase voltage to the
potential element of a meter. Note the standard polarity designations H1 and H2 for the primary and
X1 and X2 for the secondary. The non-polarity secondary lead X2 is grounded and at one point only.
The numbers at the meter terminals show the secondary voltage corresponding to the original line
voltage 1–2.
Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta with Three-Wire Secondary
Figure 10-23 shows the connection which is most commonly used for three-wire delta polyphase
metering. Note that both the primary and secondary of the transformer across lines 2 and 3 have been
reversed. This is the usual practice as it avoids a physical crossover of the high-voltage jumper between
the transformers. The adjacent high-voltage bushings of the two transformers are tied together and to
line 2. The secondaries are likewise tied together and grounded at one point only.
 212
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-22. Single Phase.

The number 2 secondary lead is common to both transformers and carries the phasor sum of the
currents drawn by coils 1–2 and 3–2. This leads to some difficulty in very precise metering, particularly
if long secondary leads are used, as it is difficult to ­calculate the exact effect of this common lead
resistance. Generally, the common lead will not produce any significant error for watthour metering
and saves one wire.
Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta with Four-Wire Secondary
Where long secondary leads are used and where correction factors are to be applied, the four-wire
secondary shown in Figure 10-24 is preferred.

Figure 10-23. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Open-Delta, Three-Wire Secondary.

 213

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 10-24. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Open-Delta, Four-Wire Secondary.

Three-Phase, Wye-Wye, Four-Wire Secondary

Figure 10-25 shows this connection, which is the usual one for a four-wire primary system. Here the
neutral secondary wire again carries the phasor sum of the burden currents, but for a balanced voltage
and burden this sum is zero. Hence, single-phase tests may be made using the lead resistance of a
single lead.
Grounding—Primary
The primary of a voltage transformer is not normally grounded independent of the system.
Grounding—Secondary
It is standard practice to ground the common or neutral secondary wire or wires of the voltage trans-
former. Secondary grounding is necessary for safety to prevent a high static potential in secondary
leads and as a safeguard in case of insulation failure which could cause high voltage to appear on the
secondary leads. The ground connection should be made at one point only. In order to “provide the
maximum protection to personnel and connected equipment,” IEEE Standard C57.13.3, a Guide for
the Grounding of ­Instrument Transformer Secondary Circuits and Cases, recommends that this point
of grounding be at the switchboard (or meter cabinet). Additional grounds should be avoided due to
the indeterminate resistance and voltage gradients in the parallel ground path.
Grounding—Cases
Transformer cases normally are grounded for safety from static potential or insulation failure. In over-
head construction, grounding may be prohibited by local regulations to keep overhead fault potentials
away from sidewalks or streets. For safety, any standard for grounding voltage transformer cases must
be strictly followed as the operators depend on the fact that these cases are either grounded or isolated
without exception.
Primary Fuses
The use of primary fuses on a voltage transformer is a highly controversial subject. The primary fuse
could protect the transformer from damage due to high-voltage surges and the system from an outage
due to failure of the transformer. To accomplish this purpose, the fuse must have a very small current
rating as the normal primary current of a voltage transformer is exceedingly small. A suitable primary
fuse for this application has appreciable resistance which may cause errors in the overall ratio and
 214
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-25. Three-Phase, Four-Wire, Wye-Wye, Four-Wire Secondary.

phase angle measurements. In addition, such a small fuse may be mechanically weak and may fail due
to aging without any transformer failure.
If a primary fuse opens for any reason, the load will be incorrectly metered or not metered until
the fuse(s) is(are) replaced. Such incident causes error or lack of meter data for billing and settlement
purposes.
In many cases, circuit protective equipment is relied upon without the additional fusing of the
voltage transformer primaries. There are cases where primary fuses are used in metal enclosure equip-
ment. This is done to maintain equipment in service in the event of a voltage transformer failure.
On wye-connected voltage transformers, the neutral side of voltage transformers is not fused.
Secondary Fuses
The secondary leads of a voltage transformer are often fused, especially in high-voltage applications. The
secondary fuses protect the transformers from short circuits in the secondary wiring. Fuses and fuse clips
may introduce sufficient resistance in the circuit to cause metering errors. When corrosion is present
this effect may become serious. A voltage transformer is not normally subject to overload as its metering
burden is fixed at a value far below the thermal capacity of the transformer. Hence, the only value of the
fuses is short-circuit protection. The most likely chance of a short circuit is during test procedures and
normally the transformer can stand a momentary short without damage. When voltage transformers are
used for both metering and relay service, an accidental short will operate the relays and cause an inter-
ruption. In such cases the metering circuit can be fused after separation for relaying and metering have
been made. The individual utility’s standard practices will usually dictate what situations require voltage
transformer fusing.
Secondary fuses/fuse clips may suffer a soft failure (meaning increase resistance but not open).
Application of fuses will impact three goals of any metering point/service connection:
 • Safety of installation 215
• Reliability of service connection
• Quality of energy measurement

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Generally, secondary fuses would not be used when one dry type transformer is used for metering.
Effect of Secondary Lead Resistance, Length, and Size of Leads
The effect of secondary lead resistance in a voltage transformer circuit is to cause a voltage drop in the
leads so that the voltage at the meter is less than the voltage at the terminals of the transformer.
When the lead resistance exceeds a few tenths of an ohm, this voltage drop can cause errors equal
to or greater than the errors due to ratio and phase angle of the transformer.
Meters can be adjusted to compensate for these errors but most companies object to upsetting
meter calibrations to take care of secondary lead errors. This problem is avoided by limiting second-
ary lead lengths to, for example, a limit of not over 100 feet of No. 10 wire. When greater distances
are involved, either larger secondary conductors or meters adjacent to the transformers with contact
devices to transmit the intelligence to the station are used.
With normal watthour meter burdens the error due to the leads will usually be within acceptable
limits if the total lead resistance does not exceed 0.3 ohms. If the lead resistance is larger, or if heavy
burdens are used, calculations should be made to determine if corrections are necessary.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Two-Wire, Single-Phase
Figure 10-26 shows the connec-
tions for one CT supplying single-
phase current to the current coil of
a meter. Again, the grounding of
the non-polarity secondary lead is
at one point only.
Three-Wire, Three-Phase
This connection is shown in Figure
10-27. The grounding of the com-
mon connection is at one point
only. The common lead carries the
phasor sum of the secondary cur-
rents in each transformer. To avoid
the problem of applying corrections Figure 10-26. Two-Wire, Single-Phase.
for the common lead resistance,
the connection shown in Figure
10-25, using four secondary leads,
is occasionally employed.
Four-Wire, Three-Phase with
Wye-Connected Secondaries
This connection is shown in Figure
10-28. The grounding of the com-
mon lead is at one point only. On
a balanced load the common lead
carries no current.
Four-Wire, Three-Phase with
Delta-Connected Secondaries
Figure 10-29 shows this connec-
tion which is sometimes used to
provide three-wire metering from
a four-wire system. It is often used
for indicating and graphic meters
and relays and sometimes for
watthour metering. The metering Figure 10-27. Three-Wire, Three-Phase, Three-Wire Secondary.
 216
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-28. Four-Wire, Three-Phase, Four-Wire Secondary.

is theoretically correct only at balanced voltages, but on modern power systems the voltage is normally
balanced well enough to give acceptable accuracy for watthour metering. With delta-connected current
transformers, the secondary currents to the meter are displaced 30° from the primary line currents
and also increased by the square root of three ( 3 ) in magnitude due to the phasor addition. This
circuit is equivalent to the 2½-stator meter used by some companies. It permits the use of a standard
two-stator meter with none of the test complications that the 2½-stator meter involves.
Parallel Secondaries for Totalized Metering
The paralleling of CT secondaries for totalized metering is covered in Chapter 16, “Special Metering,”
under the “Totalization” section. That section outlines the details and precautions involved in this
method.
With the proper precautions, acceptable metering accuracy may be obtained. Without proper
consideration of all the factors involved, the errors may be excessive, particularly at low current values.
Grounding
It is standard practice to ground the non-polarity secondary lead of a CT. Grounding is a necessary
safety precaution for protection against static voltages and insulation failure. Normally, all metal cases
of instrument transformers should be grounded (local regulations may prohibit such grounding in
overhead construction). If grounded, the CT secondary circuit must be grounded in only one place.
In order to “provide the maximum protection to personnel and connected equipment,” IEEE Standard
C57.13.3, a Guide for the Grounding of Instrument Transformer Secondary Circuits and Cases, recom-
mends that this point of grounding be at the switchboard (or meter cabinet). When CT secondaries
are connected in parallel and grounded, there must be only one ground for the set of CTs and this
should be at the point where the secondary leads are paralleled at the meter. Additional grounds must
be avoided due to the indeterminate resistance and voltage gradients in the parallel ground path and
the resultant metering errors. On circuits of 250 volts or less, grounding of the CT secondary is not
necessarily required, but is a good practice for protection of personnel and equipment.
Number of Secondary Wires
The resistance of a CT secondary lead adds to the burden, but unless this added resistance causes the
total burden to exceed the burden rating of the transformer, it has a relatively small effect on the
transformer accuracy. For most installations, the common lead is used to save wire. For very precise
metering, separate return leads might be justified if the lead resistance is large.
 217

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 10-29. Four-Wire, Three-Phase with Delta-Connected Secondaries.

Common Lead for Both Current and Voltage Transformers

Generally, the CT secondary common lead and voltage transformer secondary common lead are kept
separate to maintain the integrity of the individual current loops especially for secondary common
lead grounding at the meter end (meter cabinet).
In some situations, the same secondary common lead for both current and voltage transformers
may be used.
When the load is not balanced and the same common secondary lead (neutral secondary wire) is
used on four-wire star metering installations for both current and voltage transformers, there will be
a small amount of neutral current flowing in this common lead from the neutral connection (neutral
point) of both current and voltage transformers to where the neutral wire is grounded (ground point).
This neutral current will result in a voltage drop between the neutral and ground points, and will shift
the phasor neutral point of voltage away from its zero (absolute) origin. This minor phasor neutral
shift in the voltage causes some measurement error in the meter. Such error has been found to be
insignificant as compared to the errors in current and voltage transformers themselves. For example,
for a situation with 20% load imbalance and a common lead of #10 Cu 165 feet long resulting in
0.2 ohms of resistance, the error is approximately 0.0042%. Such an error is relatively insignificant.
This error can be further reduced by minimizing the load imbalance condition, using a larger
conductor size for the secondary common lead, and/or reducing the distance between the neutral and
grounding points of the common lead.
For these reasons, a common lead may be used for both current and voltage transformer second-
ary neutrals especially when the distance between the neutral and ­grounding point is relatively short.
If this distance becomes significantly longer, over 300 feet, and achieving 100% accurate measurement
is important, the use of two separate common leads for current and voltage transformers is preferred.
Other connection systems are possible for special problems. Such connections must be analyzed in
detail to be sure they provide correct metering without significant error.

Verification of Instrument Transformer Connections

When a metering installation using instrument transformers has been completed, it is necessary to
verify the connections to insure correct metering. Wrong connections can cause large errors and may
go undiscovered during a normal secondary or phantom-load test.
 218 There is no single method of verifying instrument transformer connections that can be used with
complete certainty for all possible installations. The best method will depend upon the nature of the
particular installation, the facilities and instrumentation available, and the knowledge and ability
of the tester. A combination of several methods may often be necessary or desirable. The following
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

methods may be used to verify the instrument transformer connections.

VISUAL WIRE TRACING AND INSPECTION

A reasonably conclusive method of verification of instrument transformer connections is to actually
trace each secondary wire from the instrument transformers to the meter. The terminal connections of
each lead are checked to see that they conform to an approved meter connection diagram applicable
to the installation. The use of color-coded secondary wire greatly facilitates this type of checking.
The primary connections to the instrument transformers must also be checked for conformity
with the approved connection diagram. Particular attention must be paid to the relative polarity of
the primary and secondary of all instrument transformers. Often some of the instrument transform-
ers in an installation are connected with primary polarity opposite to the standard practice in order
to facilitate a symmetrical primary construction and to avoid unnecessary cross-overs of the primary
leads. These must be carefully noted to see that a corresponding reversal has been made at the second-
ary. If H2 is used as the primary polarity terminal, then X2 becomes the secondary polarity terminal.
All modern instrument transformers should have permanent and visible polarity markings. If
the polarity is not clearly marked, the visual tracing method will be inconclusive and other methods
required.
The nominal ratio of all instrument transformers should be noted from the nameplate and
checked against the ratio specified for the installation.
All meter test switches and devices should be checked for proper connection and operation. The
installation should also be checked to see that proper secondary grounds have been installed.
If the wiring is sufficiently accessible to permit a complete visual check, this method is generally
reliable although it is subject to human error. If some of the wiring is concealed, this method can only
be used if there is some means of identifying both ends of each concealed wire. The use of color-coded
secondary wire makes such identification reasonably certain provided that the colors have not become
unrecognizable through fading and that no concealed splices have been made. Where tags or wire
markers are used, the reliability of the visual check depends upon the markings being correct.

WIRE TRACING WITH INSTRUMENTS

When the secondary wiring cannot be traced visually it may be traced electrically. Generally, the
secondary windings of the current transformers may be shorted at the transformer terminals so that
the secondary leads may be safely removed for test. The utmost precautions must be taken to assure
that the secondary winding of a current transformer is never opened while the primary is energized, as
dangerously high voltages can be induced in the secondary winding. This voltage is a lethal hazard to
personnel and may also damage the current transformer.
The open-circuit voltage of a current transformer has a peaked wave form which can break down
insulation in the current transformer or connected equipment. In addition, when the secondary is
opened, the magnetic flux in the core rises to an abnormally high value which can cause a permanent
change in the magnetic condition of the iron. This change can increase the ratio and phase angle
errors of the current transformer. Demagnetization may not completely restore the transformer to
its original condition. If the open circuit continues for some length of time, the insulation may be
damaged by excessive heating resulting from the greatly increased iron losses.
If the shorting of the secondary windings of the current transformers cannot be done with
complete safety, then the primary circuits must be de-energized and made safe for work. All standard
safety practices and company safety rules covering high-voltage work must be rigorously followed to
ensure the safety of personnel.
Once the secondary windings have been shorted at the CT terminals, secondary leads may then be
disconnected one at a time from the instrument transformers and the meter and checked out with an
ohmmeter or other test device. Each lead is checked for continuity and to verify that it is electrically
clear of all other leads and ground. The normal secondary grounds must be lifted for this test. When
the leads are reconnected, care must be used to be sure all connections are properly made and securely
tightened. When the grounds are replaced they should be tested to be sure they properly ground the
circuit. Only one lead at a time should be removed to avoid the possibility of a wrong reconnection.
 If a good portable resistance bridge is available, the resistance of the secondary leads may be 219
measured. This would check the possibility of poor connections or abnormally high resistance due to
any cause, as well as confirm lead resistance.
Particular attention should be paid to all current transformer shorting devices to see that they

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
work properly. If shorting clips in meter sockets are present, they should be tested to be sure that they
open when the meter is installed. This type of verification is most conveniently done on a new instal-
lation before the service is energized.
When the service is already energized, this wire tracing method requiring the removal of wires
from terminals may be impractical and unsafe.

INTERCHANGING VOLTAGE LEADS

This method can be used for a two-stator meter on a three-wire polyphase circuit. With normal
connections, the meter is observed to see that it has forward rotation. The non-common or polarity
voltage leads to each stator are removed and reconnected to the opposite stators. If the rotation ceases
or reverses, the original connections may be assumed correct and should be restored. This method
gives fairly reliable results if the load on the circuit is reasonably balanced. On imbalanced loads this
method is not reliable. Several incorrect connections can cause rotation to cease on this test under
special conditions.

PHASOR ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS FROM SECONDARY MEASUREMENTS

With an ammeter, voltmeter, and phase rotation and phase angle meter, data may be quickly obtained
from which the complete phasor diagram of the secondary currents and voltages may be constructed
graphically to scale. First, the phase rotation of the secondary voltages is determined with the phase
rotation meter and the magnitude of the voltages measured with the voltmeter. The voltage and
current terminals of the meter or test switch are suitably numbered on a connection diagram for
identification. One voltage is selected as the zero reference and the magnitude and phase angle of all
currents relative to this voltage are measured and plotted to scale on the phasor diagram. Then, the
phase angles of the other voltages are measured relative to one of the currents and also plotted on the
phasor diagram. The phasor voltage and current in each meter stator are now known.
The phasor diagram so constructed is compared with the standard phasor diagram for the type of
metering involved and from this comparison it is usually possible to determine whether the installa-
tion has been correctly connected. To make this comparison a positive check on the connections, some
knowledge of the load power factor is needed. Usually an estimate of the load power factor can be
made on the basis of the type of load connected. On badly imbalanced loads of completely unknown
power factor this method is not positive. It also may be indeterminate if the secondary currents are
too low to give accurate readings on the meters used.
The reliability of this method depends upon the care taken to ensure correct identification of each
secondary current and voltage measured and upon the tester’s ability to correctly analyze the results.
Various other methods have been used to obtain data from secondary measurements from which
the phasor diagram may be constructed.
In the classic Woodson check method, three single-phase wattmeters, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a
phase rotation indicator, and a special switching arrangement are used to obtain data from which the
phasor diagram may be plotted. This method requires two measurements of watts, one measurement
of current, and a graphical phasor construction to determine the direction and magnitude of each
current phasor. The sum of the wattmeter readings is compared with the watts load on the watthour
meter as determined by timing the disk to provide an additional check.
The Woodson method has been in use by some utilities for over 60 years and is very reliable. On
badly balanced loads of completely unknown power factor it is not positive, having the same limita-
tions in the interpretation of the phasor diagram as the method using the phase angle meter. The
method is primarily designed for checking three-phase, three-wire installations but may, with modifi-
cations, be used for other types.
Circuit analyzers are available that can analyze any standard metering con figuration and produce
a phasor diagram. With the circuit analyzer, one piece of equipment will do what once required several
pieces of equipment. Additionally, power system analyzers are offered that will provide waveform
displays, CT ratio, and burden checks, and meter accuracy testing along with the circuit analyzer
functions mentioned above. Analyzers are very reliable. However, great care must be taken to make
connections to the circuit to be analyzed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
 220 Also available today are solid-state meters with built-in circuit analysis and site diagnostics. There-
fore, the meter itself can assist in the determination that the current and voltage secondaries are wired
correctly. Typical red flags for incorrect wiring include power flow indication in the wrong direction
and incorrect power factor polarity, i.e., leading instead of lagging.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Instrument Transformer Test Methods

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN TESTING INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
All instrument transformer testing involves the hazard of high voltage. Voltage transformers, by their
very nature, are high-voltage devices and CTs can develop dangerously high voltages if the secondary is
accidentally opened under load. No one should be allowed to make tests on instrument transformers
until thoroughly instructed on the hazards involved and the proper safety precautions.
Many safety devices, such as safety tape, warning lights, interlocked foot switches, test enclosures
with interlocked gates, and double switches requiring both hands to energize the equipment, may
be used to reduce the hazards. These devices can never be made absolutely foolproof. Ultimately, the
responsibility for safety rests with the individual doing the tests.
In testing current transformers it is particularly important to make all secondary connections
mechanically secure so that even a strong pull on the test leads cannot open the circuit. For this
reason spring test clips should not be used on current transformer secondary test leads. Only a solidly
screwed or bolted connection can prevent an accidental opening of the secondary circuit with the
consequent high-voltage hazard.
The metal cases of voltage transformers and one of the secondary test leads should be solidly
grounded to protect the tester from high static voltages and against the danger of a high-voltage break-
down between primary and secondary. All metal-clad test equipment should also be grounded.

INSULATION TESTS
The insulation of instrument transformers must be adequate to protect the meters and control appara-
tus as well as the operators and testers, from high-voltage circuits and to insure continuity of service.
The insulation tests should normally precede all other tests for reasons of safety.
When it is essential to determine the accuracy of instrument transformers removed from service
in order to confirm corrections of billing, it may be advisable to make accuracy tests with extreme
caution before any insulation test.
It is recognized that dielectric tests impose a severe stress on insulation and if applied frequently
will hasten breakdown. It is recommended that insulation tests made by the user should not exceed
75% of the IEEE standard factory test voltage. When dielectric field tests are made on a periodic basis,
it is recommended that the test voltage be limited to 65% of factory test values.
AC Applied Potential (Hi-Pot) Tests, 60 Hertz
The alternating-current test at 60 hertz should be made on each instrument transformer by the
manufacturer in accordance with IEEE standards. Similar tests may be made by the user. All insulation
tests for liquid-insulated transformers should be made with the transformer cases properly filled.
Hi-pot test sets with fault-current capacities below “Let Go” or “Threshold of Feeling” are a desir-
able safety precaution. When properly constructed, such equipment does not represent a fatal hazard
to the operator. Many small sets of this type are available commercially. These small test sets may
not supply the charging current necessary for over-potential tests on high-voltage current and voltage
transformers.
When high-potential testing equipment with larger fault-current capacity is used it must be
handled with all the safety precautions necessary for any other high-voltage power equipment. Such
equipment represents a fatal hazard to the operator. Some degree of protection from the hazards of
such equipment may be provided by the use of an enclosed test area protected by electrical interlocks
that automatically de-energize the equipment when the gate is opened.
The fundamental responsibility for safety lies with the operator who must use the utmost care to
de-energize the equipment before approaching the high-voltage terminals. The operator must never fall
into the bad habit of depending upon the interlocks as these could fail.
To protect the transformers being tested, some means should be provided in large-capacity hi-pot
equipment to prevent destructive surges and limit the current in case of breakdown. Impedance in the
form of choke coils is often used for this purpose.
 When the hi-pot test voltage is very high, a spark gap may be used to prevent the accidental 221
application of voltage above the desired value. Resistors are used in series with the spark gap to limit
the current at breakdown and to damp high-frequency oscillation. The gap is set to a breakdown
value slightly higher than the desired test value before the transformer to be tested is connected. The

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
transformer under test is then connected across the gap and its resistors. Should the test voltage be
exceeded, the gap flashes over and prevents the voltage from rising further.

POLARITY TESTS
The marking of the leads should be carefully checked by a polarity test. Most methods, as well as the
instrumentation used in checking transformers for ratio and phase angle, automatically check polarity
at the same time. When such facilities are not available, the circuits shown in Figures 10-27 through
10-30 may be used to determine polarity.
Polarity Tests for Voltage Transformers
In Figure 10-30, Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer, voltage H2 to X2 is less than voltage H1 to H2 if
polarity is correct. The reliability of this method is diminished at high ratios.
For Figure 10-31, Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer, the standard voltage transformer must have
the same nominal ratio as the
unknown voltage transformer. The
voltmeter reads zero if polarity
is correct and twice the normal
secondary voltage if incorrect.
Polarity Tests for
Current Transformers
In Figure 10-32, Polarity Test,
Current Transformer, polarity
is correct if the ammeter reads
less when X2 secondary lead is
connected to the line side of the
ammeter than when the X2 lead is
connected to X1 (shorted secondary
circuit). CAUTION: Do not apply
primary current with the secondary
Figure 10-30. Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer.
open. The reliability of this method
is diminished at high ratios.
In Figure 10-33, Polarity Test,
Current Transformer, the standard
current transformer must have
the same nominal ratio as the
unknown current transformer. The
ammeter reads zero if the polarity
is correct and twice the normal
secondary current if incorrect.
CAUTION: Do not open the CTs’
secondary circuits with primary
current applied.

TESTS TO VERIFY
THE MARKED RATIO
Voltage Transformers
The marked ratio of a voltage
transformer may be verified at
Figure 10-31. Polarity Test, Voltage Transformer.
the time of the polar ity check
with either of the circuits shown
in Figures 10-27 or 10-28. In Figure 10-27, the voltage measured across H2 to X2 should be less than
the voltage across H1 to H2 by an amount equal to the H1 to H2 applied voltage divided by the marked
ratio. For example, if 120 V is applied to the primary H1 to H2 of a 2,400 to 120 V (20:1) transformer,
 222
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Standard Unknown

Figure 10-32. Polarity Test, Current Transformer. Figure 10-33. Polarity Test, Current Transformer.

then the H2 to X2 reading should be (120 2 120—— ), or 114 V. This method may be improved by using
20
two voltmeters so that the two voltages are read simultaneously.
In the circuit shown in Figure 10-28, the voltage will not be zero unless the unknown transformer
has the same ratio as the standard and this automatically verifies its ratio.
A third method that may be used is shown in Figure 10-33. The secondary voltages will be the
same if the ratios of the standard and the unknown are the same. If not, the ratio of the unknown is
equal to the ratio of the standard times the secondary voltage of the standard divided by the secondary
voltage of the unknown. Care must be used not to apply a primary voltage in excess of the rating of
either transformer.
The marked ratio of a voltage transformer may also be checked with a turn-ratio test set such as
the Biddle Model TTR.
Current Transformers
The marked ratio of a CT may be checked by measuring the primary and secondary currents directly
with ammeters. For large primary values, a standard current transformer must be used and the
secondary current of the standard is compared with the secondary current of the unknown CT when
their primaries are connected in series as shown in Figure 10-35. CAUTION: Do not open the CTs’
secondary circuits with primary current applied.
There are power system analyzers offered that will provide a reasonably accurate ratio check for
in-service CTs.

TESTING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR SHORTED TURNS WITH A HEAVY BURDEN

A field method that may be used to detect shorted turns in a current transformer consists of inserting
an ammeter and a resistor in series with the secondary circuit. A shorting switch is connected across
the resistor. Ammeter readings are taken first with the resistor shorted out and then with the shorting
switch open which adds the burden of the resistor to the circuit. If shorted turns are present, there
will be a larger drop in current on the second reading than is normal for a good transformer.
Several precautions are necessary if this method is to provide reliable information on the condi-
tion of the transformer. Current transformers vary over a wide range in their abilities to maintain
ratio under heavy burdens. A burden that has little effect on one type may cause a large drop in
secondary current on a different type even though there are no shorted turns. Values ranging from
two to 60 ohms have been used for this test but no single value is ideal for all transformers.
To be conclusive, it is necessary to know the effect of the burden used on a good transformer of
the same make, model, and current rating. This effect must be known at the same value of secondary
current to be used in the test. This can be done by preparing graphs or tables showing the normal
effect on all makes, models, and current ratings used.
A simpler method is based on the fact that usually all of the current transformers on a given
three-phase installation are of the same make, model, and current rating and the reasonable assump-
tion that all do not have shorted turns. Thus, if the two or three transformers on the installation are
tested by this method, any transformer showing a much larger drop in current with the addition of
the heavy burden than the others probably has shorted turns.
Test sets with two burdens, a multi-range ammeter, and suitable switching are commercially avail-
able. With these sets, the tests may be done quickly and safely.
In addition to shorted turns in the current transformer, the burden test will show shorts in the
secondary wiring and grounds in the normally ungrounded wire.
TESTS TO DETERMINE RATIO AND PHASE ANGLE 223
Instrument transformers may be tested for ratio and phase angle by direct or comparative methods.
Direct methods involve the use of indicating instruments and standard resistors, inductors, and

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
capacitors while comparative methods will require a standard instrument transformer of the same
nominal ratio whose exact ratio and phase angle have been previously determined.
Direct Methods
Direct methods are necessary for the determination of the ratio and phase angle of instrument trans-
formers in terms of the basic electrical standards. Such methods are used by the National Standards
Councils to calibrate their own standard instrument transformers which, in turn, are used to test
instrument transformer standards sent for certification.
Direct methods are simple in theory but involve so many practical difficulties that they are not
suitable for non-laboratory use.
Comparative Methods
When calibrated standard instrument transformers are available, the problems of testing instru-
ment transformers are greatly simplified since only a comparison of nearly equal secondary values is
involved.
Deflection Methods
Methods involving the use of indicating instruments connected to the secondary of the standard
and unknown transformers suffer from the accuracy limitations of the instruments used. Thus the
two-voltmeter or two-ammeter methods, Figures 10-34 and 10-35, are useful only as a rough check
of ratio. If two wattmeters are used, a rough check on phase angle may also be made, although this
involves considerable calculation after tests at 1.00 and 0.50 power factors. Accuracy may be some-

Figure 10-34. Test to Verify Marked Ratio of Voltage Transformer.

Figure 10-35. Test to Verify Marked Ratio of Current Transformer.

 224 what improved by interchanging and averaging the readings of the two instruments but reading errors
still limit the accuracy for ratio to about 0.2%.
A modification of the two-wattmeter method makes use of two-watthour meters in the form of
two-watthour standards. This method is capable of good accuracy but requires excessive time to make
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

the test and compute the results. In addition, it imposes the small burden of a watthour standard
on the transformer under test which may not be desirable. Although this method requires extensive
calculations to determine ratio and phase angle correction factors to the degree of accuracy generally
required, it provides a rapid and convenient test method to determine whether transformers meet
established accuracy limits. In this case, readings are compared to tables of go and no-go limits with-
out extensive calculations. Some utility companies have adopted this method for testing the commonly
used 600 V class of transformers that are not involved in metering large blocks of power. Also, this
test confirms polarity and nominal ratio. See Figures 10-36 and 10-37.
Null Methods
Most modern methods of testing instrument transformers are null methods wherein the secondary
voltages or currents from the standard and the unknown (X) transformer are compared and their dif-
ferences balanced with suitable circuits to produce a zero or null reading on a detector. After balanc-
ing, the ratio and phase angle difference between the X-transformer and the standard transformer may
be read directly from the calibrated dials of the balancing equipment. With suitable equipment of this
type, tests for ratio and phase angle may be made rapidly and with a high degree of accuracy. Equip-
ment of this type is available commercially.

TESTING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR ABNORMAL ADMITTANCE

The condition of a CT can be tested by monitoring its admittance, which is the reciprocal of
impedance.
The admittance of a CT secondary loop can be measured with or without service current flowing
in the secondary. The tester shown in Figure 10-38 measures admittance by injecting an audio signal

Figure 10-36. Voltage Transformer Test Circuit, Two-Watthour-Meter Method.

 225

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Figure 10-37. Current Transformer Test Circuit, Two-Watthour-Meter Method.

into the secondary of an in-service transformer, then measuring the admittance seen by that signal.
While any frequency between one and two kHz could be used, this tester uses 1580 Hz to reduce false
readings caused by harmonics of 60 Hz in the secondary.
Metering current transformers have very small errors, typically less than 0.3%, when operated
within their specified current and burden ratings. Therefore, the circuit admittance of a current
transformer is nearly constant throughout its normal operating range unless a fault develops. If
an admittance measurement shows deviation from normal while in service, it is likely the current
transformer has: (1) an internal short such as short-circuited turns; (2) an abnormal internal or
external resistance such as a high resistance joint; (3) the current transformer is being operated under
abnormal conditions, perhaps with a direct current (DC) component in the primary; or (4) the cur-
rent transformer has become magnetized. Most faults are immediately obvious because they produce a
high admittance reading, typically greater than 1.5 times a normal reading. Transformers with a wrong
ratio, such as those hooked to the wrong tap, will also have readings substantially different from
normal readings.
The best way to establish a normal admittance reading is to develop a history of measurements.
Admittance readings can be taken before installation, during initial field tests, and during subsequent
checks. Admittance values depend on fixed features such as core design, burden rating, and the turns
ratio. Changes to admittance which are caused by non-fault conditions are small when compared with
changes caused by fault conditions.
In-service CTs can be tested in groups and a high admittance reading by one transformer in the
group suggests a fault condition in that transformer. If all readings in the group are high the cause
could be a capacitive load on both sides of the current transformer, high system noise including
harmonics close to the test frequency, or the presence of DC in the primary.
 226 TESTING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR ABNORMAL BURDEN
The condition of a CT can be evaluated by measuring the burden of the transformer.
Current transformers are designed to supply a known current as dictated by the turns ratio into a
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

known burden, and to maintain a stated accuracy. The principle of a burden tester is to challenge the
capability of the CT to deliver a current into a known burden.
The total burden of the CT secondary loop includes the burden of the watthour meter current
coils, the mounting device, the test switch, connection resistances, and the loop wiring. When burden
is added which exceeds the design capacity of the CT, the transformer cannot supply the same level of
current to the increased burden, which results in a drop in the current transformer of loop current.
The tester shown in Figure 10-38
measures the burden of a current
transformer by adding a known
ohmic resistance in series with the
current transformer secondary loop
and comparing the total burden
including the known resistance with
the burden when the resistance is
not in the loop.
The magnitude of the current
change depends on several factors
and is not absolutely definable. The
operating level of current in the
CT secondary loop can be a signifi-
cant factor. Current transformers
operating at low currents are able
to support several times the burden
rating because at low currents the
flux density of the core is low, leav-
ing ample head room for additional
flux before saturation. Therefore,
to obtain accurate readings, these
burden tests are performed at full
rated secondary current. At the high
end of the current range, additional
burden quickly pushes the current
transformer out of its operating
range, resulting in significant drops
in operating current.
Form factor effects the burden
Figure 10-38. Instrument for Measuring Current Transformer capability of a current transformer.
Secondary Admittance and Burden. Transformers with high form factors
can support a burden greater than
the nameplate specifications. For
high form factor transformers, it is important to take measurements at full rated secondary current.
Other procedures for testing the burden of CTs are included in the IEEE C57.13 specification
Requirements for Instrument Transformers.

Instrument Transformer Comparators

DESCRIPTION
Instrument transformer comparators provide a direct means of measuring phase angle and ratio errors
of instrument transformers. The microprocessor-based comparator automatically selects the optimum
measurement range, computes the results, and digitally displays the test current (or voltage), the
transformer ratio and phase errors, and the ANSI accuracy class for which the transformer qualifies.
METHOD 227
The current and voltage comparators measure a transformer’s ratio and phase errors with respect to a
standard (reference) transformer that has essentially zero errors. The quantities of interest are shown

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
in the following diagram:

)
urrent (U

E)
nd ary C

(
Seco

nt
TUT

e
urr
C
b

or
a

Err
Ref. Std. Secondary Current (S)

“S” is the reference standard transformer secondary current and is measured directly. “U” is the
transformer under test (TUT) secondary current. “b” is the phase angle between the reference and
TUT secondary currents and is calculated. “E” is the error current of the TUT and is measured directly.
“a” is the angle between the reference standard secondary (“S”) and the error (“E”) and is measured
directly.
These quantities are related according to the following equations for RCF and b:
S S
RCF 5 — 5 —————————————————————
U [(E sin )2 1 (S 1 E cos a)2]1/2
E sin a
b 5 tan21 ——————————
(S 1 E cos )

————
sin b
 1 ———— 2 1 
cos b 2 1/2
E5
RCF RCF


sin b
 5 sin21 ——‑‑‑‑‑‑——
E 3 RCF 
The microprocessor-based comparator calculates RCF and b and then displays the results. The ANSI
accuracy class is also calculated and displayed.
Similar equations are used for the voltage comparator.

PRECAUTIONS IN TESTING INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Stray Fields
In instrument transformer testing, precautions must be taken to prevent stray fields from inducing
unwanted voltages in the test circuits. Secondary leads are usually twisted into pairs to prevent this.
When test equipment is not shielded it must be kept well away from conductors carrying heavy
current.
Effect of Return Conductor
The location of the return conductor in a heavy-current primary loop can effect the ratio and phase
angle of a CT. Normally the return conductor should be kept two or three feet away from the CT
under test. This effect is most pronounced where the primary current is large.
In winding down a window-type current transformer for test, tight loops may give a different
result than open loops due to the return-conductor effect. Since normal operation is on a straight bus
bar, the results obtained with the open loops will be more comparable to the field conditions.
 228 Demagnetizing
Current transformers should be demagnetized before testing to ensure accurate results. Demagnetiza-
tion may be accomplished by bringing the secondary current up to the rated value of 5 amperes by
applying primary current and then gradually inserting a resistance of about 50 ohms into the second-
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

ary circuit. This resistance is then gradually reduced to zero and the current is reduced to zero. Avoid
opening the secondary circuit at any time during this procedure. A reactor in place of the resistor
reduces the possibility of re-magnetizing by accidentally open-circuiting during the procedure.
Today, equipment is available, such as the Transformer Analyzer shown in Figure 10-37, that not
only performs current transformer admittance and burden tests but also provides a safe and easy way
to demagnetize.
A current transformer can be magnetized by passing direct current through the windings, by surges
due to opening the primary under heavy load, or by accidental opening of the secondary with load
on the primary. Test circuits should provide for a gradual increase and decrease of primary current to
avoid surges.
Modern high-accuracy current transformers show relatively little change in accuracy due to
magnetization.
Ground Loops and Stray Ground Capacitance
In all instrument transformer testing, care must be taken to avoid ground loops and stray ground
capacitance that might cause errors. Usually only one primary and one secondary ground are used.
The location of these grounds must be carefully determined to avoid errors.

Alternate Method of Testing Current Transformers

TRADITIONAL OR CONVENTIONAL METHOD
The traditional or conventional method of testing a current transformer is to apply a high current
to the primary side and read the current on its secondary side. By applying different burdens during
the test, various situations can be simulated and the results measured and analyzed. This method is
typically used in conjunction with instrument transformer reference standards as a comparison, but
this method requires high currents, heavy test equipment, and loads, which makes it difficult to do
on-site testing of current transformers designed for transient behavior as they have very high knee-
point values.
While this conventional method is reliable and its long history of use by electric utilities and even
manufacturers of instrument transformers has made it a standard, recent progression in the area of
instrument transformer testing has determined a newer or alternate method of current transformer
testing.

MODELING CONCEPT AS AN ALTERNATE TEST METHOD

With the recent evolution of new technology in both computers and software, a new concept has
recently been developed. A few companies have implemented a method that allows a detailed view
of an instrument transformer’s electrical behavior by the use of modeling software applied during or
after test, or both.
These devices creates a model of the current transformer by analyzing data measured during the
test and, from that, the modeling software is able to take the measurements and calculate various
parameters such as residual magnetism, winding resistances, eddy and hysteresis losses, turns ratio,
current ratio error, and phase displacement.
The modeling software works in conjunction with the measurement results.,This test will measure
the losses of a current transformer according to its equivalent circuit diagram (Figure 10-39) in terms
of the copper and iron losses of a current transformer. Copper losses are the winding resistance RCT of
the current transformer and iron losses are eddy resistance losses Reddy, and hysteresis losses are RH of
the core. From these measurements, the current ratio error and phase displacement is calculated for a
range of burden and primary current. There is an additional list of parameter results such as residual
remanence (magnetism), saturated and unsaturated inductance, and short-current factor.
Many of these newer devices or CT testers incorporated the modeling software inside of the unit
to make them portable. They can also be connected to a computer at a later time for further analysis.
This is pictorially described in the equivalent circuit and its correlating vector diagram shown in
Figures 10-39 and 10-40, respectively.
 229
P1 IP NP : NS S1 IS

RCT

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Ie
IXm IRm RB
X
Xm Rm EMF US B 5 arctan —B
RB
XB

P2 S2

Ie 5 Excitation Current
IS 5 Secondary Current
IP 5 Primary Current
Xm 5 Main Inductivity of the Core
Rm 5 Magnetic Losses of the Core
NP, NS 5 Amount of Turns of the Ideal Core
RCT 5 Ohmic Resistance of Secondary Turns
EMF 5 Electro-Motive Force — Secondary Core Voltage
US 5 Secondary Terminal Voltage
RB 5 Ohmic Part of Complex Burden
XB 5 Inductive Part of Complex Burden
B 5 Phase Angle of Burden

Figure 10-39. Equivalent Circuit of a CT.

IS* RCT

Re

EMF Ie

US B IP
Is

Ie
Im
IRm
IXm

Figure 10-40. Vector Diagram for the Equivalent Circuit of the CT.
 230 The benefit of this method is that these new CT testers only have to inject approximately 5A of
current and a known voltage into the secondary of the current transformer and measure the output
on the primary side of the CT. During the test, the CT tester measures the secondary resistance,
excitation curve, eddy and hysteresis losses, and the turn’s ratio (core ratio). Through its modeling
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

software, it calculates the current ratio error and phase displacement at desired burden and primary
current rating, a table of calculated data results are generated and charts, graphs, and selected param-
eters can be displayed, printed, or saved for analysis or reporting. All of this can be done automatically
without any operator intervention during test once initial setup is complete.

MEASUREMENT OF SECONDARY WINDING RESISTANCE AND EXCITATION CURVE

To measure the secondary winding resistance, the unit injects a small DC current signal and the cur-
rent and drop off voltage is measured when the core is fully saturated.
URCT
RCT 5 ————
IRCT

MEASUREMENT OF THE MAGNETIZATION CURVE

A voltage signal with a varying change of frequency is applied to the secondary of the CT and the
primary is measured for the resulting voltage and current amplitude induced in the core by the differ-
ent magnetic fluxes. From this data, the excitation curve can be drawn.

MEASUREMENT OF EDDY AND HYSTERESIS LOSSES

Since Eddy losses are proportional to the square of the input frequency and the hysteresis losses are
directly proportional to the input frequency, they can be distinguished from the two losses based on
the two different frequencies that results in the same level of flux in the core.
The total iron losses are calculated as follows:
PIRON 5 PHSTERESIS 1 PEDD
The hysteresis losses are proportional to the frequency.
PHSTERESIS 5 a 3 f
The eddy losses are proportional to the square of the frequency.
PEDD 5 b 3 f 2
The measurement of the total iron losses at two different frequencies at the same resulting magnetic
flux delivers both constants, a and b.
Pf1 5 a 3 f1 1 b 3 f12
Pf2 5 a 3 f2 1 b 3 f22
Pf1 3 f12 2 Pf2 3 f12
⇒ a 5 —————————————
f1 3 f2 3 (f2 2 f1)
Pf2 3 f1 2 Pf1 3 f2
⇒ b 5 —————————————
f1 3 f2 3 (f2 2 f1)

MEASUREMENT OF THE TURNS RATIO

A nominal sinusoidal voltage is applied to the secondary side of the current transformer and the
voltage amplitude is measured at the secondary terminals (USEC) and the excitation current (Ie) that is
generated is measured at the primary side. The secondary winding resistance (URct) needs to be mea-
sured in order to calculate the core voltage or EMF.
EMF 5 USEC 2 URCT 5 USEC 2 Ie 3 RCT
During the same test phase, the induced voltage at the primary side (UPRIM) of the current transformer
is measured. From these measured values, the turns ratio N can be calculated as follows:
EMF
NCORE 5 ————
UPRIM
CURRENT RATIO ERROR AND PHASE DISPLACEMENT 231
AT SELECTED BURDEN AND CURRENT VALUES
Since all the excitation data along the excitation curve is known, the current ratio error and phase

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
displacement can be calculated by factoring in the ohmic and inductive part of the complex burden
values to the original excitation data, where IB is the secondary current:
VCore 5 EMF 5 IB 3 
(RCT
1 R
B)
2
X
1 B2
This shows how each selected primary and secondary burden can be evaluated from the excitation data
without having to add physical resistive and inductive burden components.
This method of applying low injection current into the secondary of the CT allows a safer environ-
ment and enables the unit to be made much smaller than the conventional primary injection systems
commonly used today, so its smaller size can be made portable and easily carried by field personnel to
travel to the location of the instrument transformers to perform field testing.
Accuracy
Accurate testing of instrument transformers requires adequate equipment and careful attention to
detail. Readability to 0.01% and 0.5 minute phase angle is easily possible with modern equipment,
but accuracy to this limit is much more difficult. For the greatest accuracy, the test equipment and
standard instrument transformers should be certified by the NIST or by a laboratory whose standard
accuracies are traceable to the NIST. With the greatest care, absolute accuracies in the order of 0.04%
and 1 to 3 minutes phase angle may be achieved.

Optical Sensor Systems

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL SENSORS
Measurements of voltage and current are fundamental to revenue metering and control of the electric
power system. Since the latter half of the 19th century, this function has been addressed primarily
by using wound iron-core transformers as the accuracy, stability, and reliability of these devices are
excellent.
Optical sensors for making voltage and current measurements have been commercially available
for almost two decades. Today’s optical current and voltage sensor products provide metering class
accuracy and have several advantages over conventional wound iron-core transformers. This section
compares the similarities and contrasts the differences between wound iron-core transformers and
optical voltage and current sensor systems.
There are several key reasons for considering optical sensors in metering applications:
1. Oil-free insulation in the high voltage equipment
2. The ability to measure currents with high accuracy over a wide dynamic range
3. Complete galvanic isolation between the high voltage conductor and electronic equipment
4. The ability to accurately measure over a wide frequency bandwidth (including DC) to monitor
the harmonic content of power line waveforms
5. Accuracy is not dependent on burden.
6. A small, lightweight form factor that enables greater flexibility in locating and mounting a
sensor within an existing or new substation
7. Cost savings due to a reduction in secondary copper wiring
Oil-Free Equipment
Optical sensors typically use gas insulation or slender solid-core insulators. By removing insulating oil
from the design, the utility avoids oil maintenance regimens, possible oil spills, and potentially cata-
strophic damage to substation equipment in the event of violent disassembly that is often associated
with oil-insulated equipment.
Dynamic Range
There are many metering locations that require high accuracy over a wide range of currents. For
example, the tie between a generation plant and a transmission line must be metered accurately at full
load currents (e.g., 2,400 amps) when the generator is running at capacity. However, when the plant
is idle or shut down, often a few amperes flow from the transmission line to keep the lights on in the
plant. A single optical current sensor is able to measure these currents with metering accuracy.
 232 Optical sensors that do not incorporate conventional transformers for primary measurement do
not saturate, which means they are ideal for both metering and protection applications. It also means
the knee-point voltage does not have to be considered when specifying an optical sensor.
Optical voltage as well as current sensors provide sufficient dynamic range to support protection
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

applications. For example, a metering class current sensor can also measure fault currents in excess
of 50 kA and meet all protection accuracy requirements, creating the opportunity to share the output
of a single sensing system between metering and protection equipment and lowering total substation
costs.
Galvanic Isolation
As shown in Figure 10-41, an optical sensor typically has a sensing structure located at or near the
high voltage line. Optical fibers carry information about the measured voltage or current to ground
potential, through conduit, and into an secondary converter usually located in a control house.
There is no electrical connection between the high voltage equipment and the converter, resulting in
complete galvanic isolation between the high voltage line and the control room electronics. This factor
becomes increasingly important as measurement and control equipment for the power system becomes
more electronic. For these systems, the ability of optical sensors to disconnect the control room
electronics from the hazards presented by the power system in the form of voltage transients and open
secondaries is a major factor in increasing reliability and safety. A related benefit of galvanic isolation
is the lack of interaction between the sensor and the measured parameter. Issues such as ferro-
resonant conditions caused by the interaction of iron core devices and capacitance are non-existent
with optical designs. Likewise, electromagnetic interference effects such as crosstalk are reduced or
eliminated.
Wide Frequency Bandwidth
As power quality monitoring becomes increasingly important, the ability to accurately monitor har-
monic content up to the 100th harmonic is becoming more desirable. Available optical sensors with
signal bandwidths in excess of 5 kHz fulfill this requirement.
Unlike wound iron-core transformers, certain types of optical current sensors are also capable of
measuring DC currents, so they can be used for metering of DC inter-ties or for measuring other DC
or low-frequency currents such as geomagnetic-induced currents.
Accuracy Independent of Burden
The accuracy of optical sensors is less dependent or completely independent on burden and power fac-
tor. This makes calibration easier and simplifies the selection of secondary devices and wiring designs.
Small, Lightweight Form Factor
For most optical designs, the equipment is significantly smaller and lighter than could be achieved
with conventional wound iron-core insulation systems. The equipment requires less space in the

Current sensor

High voltage conductor

High voltage
insulator and
voltage sensor

Fiber optic cable Outputs

Electronics

Figure 10-41. Schematic Diagram of Optical Current and Voltage Sensors.

substation and the amount of 233
labor and equipment needed
for installation is reduced,
thus lowering the total cost

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
of ownership. Figure 10-42
depicts an example of a retrofit
installation of optical current
sensors into a 72 kV genera-
tor substation. Figure 10-43
depicts an example of optical
voltage and current sensors
(combined units) installed in
a 362 kV sub-station. Figure
10-44 shows a 123 kV com-
bined unit and Figure 10-45
shows a flexible wraparound
fiber optical current sensor
retroactively installed around
a transformer bushing Optical
sensor elements, by virtue of
their small size and weight,
could be integrated into exist-
ing sub-station equipment such Figure 10-42. 72 kV Magneto-Optic Current Transducers at Sub-station.
as circuit breakers and switches.
Copper Wiring Cost Savings
The cost of copper has increased dramatically over the last decade, while the cost of optical cables
has dropped. With optical sensor systems, it is no longer necessary to run large amounts of copper
wire from the instrument transformers to the control house for the secondary connections. Instead, a
smaller number of fiber optic cables are used to connect the optical sensors to the secondary convert-
ers in the control room, which can result in significant cost savings.

Optical Current Sensors

Three broad classes of optical
current sensors exist, where
‘optical’ refers to the use of
optical fiber to convey mea-
surands from high voltage to
ground potential. As shown in
Figure 10-46a, the bulk optic
sensor uses a block of glass
that surrounds the high voltage
conductor. Light from an opti-
cal fiber travels inside the block
in a closed path around the
conductor, and is subsequently
collected by a second optical
fiber. Several manufacturers
sell this type of current sensor.
A large number of equipment
years have been accumulated
using this approach.
The second class of sen-
sors, shown in Figure 10-46b,
consists of multiple loops of
optical fiber that encircle the
conductor. In these all-fiber Figure 10-43. 362 kV Optical Metering Units at Sub-station.
 234
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 10-45. Flexible Optical Current Sensor Installed on a Power Transformer.

current sensors, light remains within the fiber at all times, and the light makes
multiple trips around the conductor. There are several manufacturers of this
design, with a large number of equipment years of experience.
In the third class of sensors, known as hybrid optical current sensors and
Figure 10-44. 123 kV shown in Figure 10-46c, a conventional current transducer such as an iron
Optical Metering Unit core surrounds the conductor (an air-core Rogowski coil, resistive shunt, or
Prototype. other non-optical technology could also be used). For the case of an iron
core, a secondary coil on the core generates a current that is proportional to
the primary conductor current, in a manner identical to conventional current
transformers. The secondary current is locally digitized and subsequently transmitted in serial fashion
in an optical fiber that spans from the high voltage conductor to ground potential. Since electron-
ics are present at the high voltage conductor, electrical power must be supplied to the sensor head.
Commercial devices use a high power (.100 mW) infrared laser diode coupled into an optical fiber
to carry optical power from ground potential to the sensor head. Efficient gallium arsenide (GaAs)
photocells convert the received optical power into electrical power to energize the electronics in the
sensor head. The hybrid approach has been implemented for capacitor bank protection applications
with many equipment years of experience.
The exterior appearances of all three classes of current sensors are almost identical. A lightweight
(,100 pounds) sensor pod is located at the high voltage conductor, and one or more optical fibers are
brought from high voltage to ground using some form of post insulator, suspension insulator, or shed-
ded cable. In all three cases, an electronics chassis, usually located in the control house, supports the
generation and detection of the optical signals affiliated with one or more three-phase sets of sensors.
The current sensor interface chassis can have several output signals, including:
1. Low-voltage analog output representation of the primary current
2. Ampere-level current output representation of the primary current
3. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61850-9-2 digital output
The low voltage analog output can have various ratios, but many applications typically use a
2 Vrms or 4 Vrms output to represent nominal primary current. For example, an optical sensor with a
 235
Optics
Block of glass

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Light input

HV conductor Light output

One or more loops

around conductor
Current
(a) Bulk optic
(b) Fiber optic

Transducer
PLD Optical Fibre
Filter DOIT
circuit
I1 I2

HV link
Interface Unit
Detecter

WDM
Decoder
coupler

Laser

(c) Hybrid

Figure 10-46. Optical Current Sensors.

marked ratio of 2400A:2V would generate a 2 Vrms output voltage when 2400 Arms are carried in the
primary conductor.
The current output uses a transconductance amplifier to generate an output current. The output
current is usually specified in a manner identical to that found for conventional current transformers,
and both 1 amp and 5 amp nominal secondary currents are available. For example, an optical current
sensor with a marked ratio of 2400:1 provides an output current of 1 Arms when 2,400 Arms are
flowing through the primary conductor. Since the compliance voltage of the amplifier can be limited
through careful design, safety concerns surrounding open secondary windings of current transformers
can be completely eliminated.
Optical sensor manufacturers can provide multiple outputs with different ratios using one sensor.
For example, a single optical current sensor at high voltage can provide a low voltage analog output
of 2400A:2V for monitoring applications, a low voltage analog output of 2400A:0.2V for relaying or
protection applications, and a current output of 2400:1 for metering applications. Some manufactur-
ers can provide two current outputs (2400:1 and 100:1) for metering applications.
Also, most manufacturers allow the output ratio of the current sensor to be changed, meaning if
the load of the system changes over time and a different nominal current is required, the same current
sensor can be used (assuming its dynamic range and accuracy meets the new system requirements).
The IEC 61850-9-2 output utilizes a digital protocol where data is sampled at 80 samples per cycle
and multicast over a copper or fiber Ethernet network. Real values are transmitted as opposed to scaled
values, so there is less programming required in the meters or IED.
 236 Sensing Mechanism In Optical Current Sensors
The bulk optic and all-fiber current sensors exploit the Faraday Effect and Ampere’s Law to provide
precision measurements of current. From basic electromagnetic theory, Ampere’s Law states that
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

→ →
i 5  H • dl
where i is the current enclosed by the loop integral and H is the magnetic field present in the region
of integration. Note that the path of integration does not matter, provided that it makes one or more
complete closed loops around the primary conductor. The magnetic field is generated by electrical
currents in the vicinity of the sensor. However, the integral is precisely equal to only the currents
enclosed by the integration path.
The Faraday Effect describes a change in the refractive index of a material when exposed to a
magnetic field. The change in refractive index causes the speed of light to be effected in the material.
This variation can be detected using either polarimetric or interferometric methods. With the polari-
metric approach shown in Figure 10-47, the Faraday Effect changes the polarization state of an optical
beam in proportion to the magnetic field parallel to the optical beam path. The total rotation of the
plane of polarization for linearly polarized light when the optical path encircles a conductor carrying
current I is  5 VNi, where N is the number of round trips traveled by the optical beam around the
encircled conductor, V is the Verdet constant of the material, and  is the magnetic perme ability of
the material. The change in polarization is detected using a linear polarizer, resulting in a signal that
varies with the current.
With the interferometric approach, light traveling through the sensing material ­having one refrac-
tive index is interfered with another optical signal that experiences a different refractive index. In
Figure 10-48, the two optical signals have orthogonal polarization states as they make one round trip
through the fiber. When they interfere in the fiber polarizer, the optical phase shift between the two
interfering waves generates an intensity variation at the detector. The detected signal varies with the
strength of the applied magnetic field in the sensing fiber. By encircling the conductor with the optical
path, an output signal is created that varies with the strength of the current in the encircled conduc-
tor. Another benefit of the interferometric approach is that is allows the current sensor to accurately
measure DC current.
The optical path in the sensor material must follow a closed path about the conductor without
introducing unwanted linear optical birefringence (a variation in the refractive index of a material

  Optical detector
Polarizer

Magnetic field

Sensing material
Intensity

Incident
polarized light

0 Magnetic field

Figure 10-47. Polarimetric Optical Current Sensor.

with direction that changes the state of polarization) into the beam. Several methods are commercially 237
used to accomplish this. The bulk optic sensor uses a block of glass that has been machined, finely
annealed to remove linear strain birefringence, and optically polished. A curved reflector or lens is
used to collimate the optical beam leaving an optical fiber. The collimated beam passes through a

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
linear polarizer and enters the main sensor block. At each corner of the sensor block a pair of mirrors
deflect the beam 90°. The complementary mirror pair is required to maintain the polarization state
of the light at each right angle bend in the sensor. After making a single round trip in the glass, the
beam is passed through a second polarizer and focused by a parabolic reflector or lens onto a receiving
optical fiber. A large hole in the middle of the block permits the passage of the conductor through the
optical loop formed in the sensor material. Precision machining of the block is required to maintain
accurate alignment between the two multimode fibers.
The all-fiber sensor uses the fiber itself as the Faraday material. Single mode fiber is used, and
strain-induced optical birefringence must be minimized or overwhelmed by other birefringence in
order to construct a useful sensor. This is accomplished by using finely annealed single mode fiber or
a deliberately twisted or spun single mode fiber. In all cases, the fiber must be carefully mounted in
strain-relieving packaging to avoid temperature or vibration effects. With this approach, incident light
can make many complete loops around the primary conductor, increasing the signal intensity at the
receiver electronics. The modulated light can be reflected from the end of the fiber, recombined with
the incident light in a coupler, or carried by a separate fiber. The fiber loop diameter can be adjusted to
match the application requirements. The ability to create multiple optical loops around the conductor
is important since the signal levels generated by useful Faraday materials are very small.

Optical Voltage Sensors

Whereas optical current sensors have enjoyed power metering field use since 1986, optical voltage sen-
sors are relatively new to the power-metering world. Three broad classes of optical voltage sensors exist
where ‘optical’ refers to the use of optical fiber to convey measurands from high voltage equipment to
the control house.
As shown in Figure 10-49a, the electro-optic voltage sensor uses a cylindrical single crystal rod
connected between high voltage and ground. Light from an optical fiber travels inside the rod between
ground and high voltage, and is subsequently collected by a second optical fiber. A gas dielectric such
as sulfur hexafluoride provides insulation around the rod. One manufacturer sells this type of voltage
sensor, both for air-insulated and gas-insulated substation applications. A small number of equipment
years have been accumulated using this approach.
The capacitive divider optical voltage sensor forms the second class of sensors. Shown in Figure
10-49b, it consists of a glass cylindrical rod connected electrically in series with a short single crystal

Fiber polarizer

50:50
LED coupler

PZT: Db
modulator

PD
SM fiber Current-carrying
sensing coil conductor
Lock-in
amplifier

Figure 10-48. Interferometric Current Sensor.

 238
High voltage
insulator
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Sensors
Sensor HV
Capacitor

Sensor

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10-49. Schematic Diagrams of Three Different Optical Voltage Sensor Techniques.

rod. Light from an optical fiber travels inside the short crystalline rod and is subsequently collected by
a second optical fiber. A gas dielectric such as sulfur hexafluoride provides insulation around the two
rods. The glass rod and the crystalline rod form a capacitive divider to reduce the primary high volt-
age to a value that can be measured optically using the short crystalline rod. The two rods are placed
within a metallic pressure vessel to control the electric field distributions in the rods and contain the
high-pressure dielectric insulation gas. One manufacturer offers this type of voltage sensor. A small
number of equipment years have been accumulated using this approach.
In the third class, the distributed optical voltage sensor shown in Figure 10-49c, several optical
point sensors are placed between high voltage and ground in a shedded high voltage insulator. Optical
fibers carry light to and from the optical sensors. The vertical component of the electric field is mea-
sured at these points and the measurements are combined to estimate the potential difference between
high voltage and ground. A gas dielectric such as nitrogen provides insulation around the sensors. One
manufacturer offers this type of voltage sensor.
The exterior appearances of all three classes of voltage sensors are similar. A hollow insulating
column is located between the high voltage line and ground. The bottom of the column connects to
a metallic enclosure. For the electro-optic voltage sensor, the optical sensor is placed inside the center
of the insulator, and high voltage and ground electrodes are brought to the sensor from the ends of
the column. The metallic enclosure at the base provides a means of containing and protecting the
optical fiber connections and any monitoring equipment desired (typically a gas density alarm). The
capacitive divider optical sensor is mounted in a metallic housing located at the base of the insulator.
The distributed optical voltage sensor has optical sensors located along the inside of the column. The
metallic enclosure at the base provides a means of containing and protecting the optical fiber connec-
tions and any monitoring equipment desired. In the first two cases, the column is pressurized with
sulfur hexafluoride gas to ensure dielectric integrity. In the third case, the column is pressurized with
dry nitrogen to preserve accuracy.
In all three cases, an electronics chassis, usually located in the control house, supports the genera-
tion and detection of the optical signals affiliated with one or more three-phase sets of sensors.
The output of the voltage sensor interface chassis can have several output signals, including:
1. Low-voltage, low-burden analog output representation of the primary voltage
2. Higher-voltage, higher-burden analog output representation of the primary voltage
3. IEC 61850-9-2 digital output
The low-voltage analog output can have various ratios, but metering applications typically use a
4 Vrms output to represent nominal primary voltage. For example, an optical sensor with a marked
ratio of 16,600:1 generates a 4 Vrms output voltage when the primary conductor is at 66,400 Vrms
line to ground.
The higher-voltage output uses a voltage amplifier to generate an output voltage of 69 Vrms or
120 Vrms at rated primary voltage, with a burden capability of 10 VA 2 100 VA. The output voltage is
usually specified in a manner identical to that found for conventional voltage transformers, although
the output burdens are typically ,100 VA instead of the more common .100 VA burdens found 239
with conventional voltage transformers. For example, an optical voltage sensor with a marked ratio of
1000:1 provides an output voltage of 69 Vrms when the primary conductor is at 69,000 Vrms.
Optical sensor manufacturers can provide multiple outputs with different ratios using one sensing

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
column. For example, a single optical voltage sensor for use on a 115 kV three phase power line can
provide a low voltage analog output of 16,600:1 for monitoring, relaying, or protection applications,
and a higher voltage output with a ratio of 2900:1 for metering applications.
The IEC 61850-9-2 output utilizes a digital protocol where data is sampled at 80 samples per cycle
and multicast over a copper or fiber Ethernet network. Real values are transmitted as opposed to scaled
values, so there is less programming in the meters or intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), leading to
fewer mistakes.

Sensing Mechanisms In Optical Voltage Sensors

From basic electromagnetic theory, the voltage or potential difference is defined by
→ →
Vb 2 Va 5 ba E • dl
where E is the electric field vector, dl is the differential length of the integration path and Va and Vb
are the potentials at points a and b. The integral is independent of the integration path, magnitude,
or direction of the electric field. The three optical voltage sensor designs approximate the integral
shown above. In all three cases, the Pockels Effect in an electro-optic crystal is used. The variation in
the polarization state of light traveling through an electro-optic crystal or Pockels cell is almost always
linearly proportional to the local electric field vector. In addition to fast response compared with the
measurement bandwidth desired, the response of the correctly selected material is relatively immune
to other environmental effects such as temperature, magnetic fields, vibration, steady-state stress, or
strain.
In all existing voltage sensor systems, the polarimetric technique is used to measure the optical
phase shift induced by the applied voltage Vb2a. Linearly polarized light traversing an electro-optic
crystal generates an intensity-modulated signal after passing through a quarter-wave wave-plate and a
linear polarizer. The signal varies according to
Io Vb–a
Im 5 —— {1 1 sin ( ———)}
4 V
where Io is the incident unpolarized optical intensity and V is a measure of the modulation efficiency
of the electro-optic material.
The three voltage sensor designs use this measurement approach in slightly different ways. The
electro-optic voltage sensor connects high voltage directly to one end of the crystal, and ground to
the other end of the crystal. The optical signal generated by the sensor is directly proportional to the
applied voltage difference. However, because the line voltages are typically much larger than V , a
number of fringes result in the output signal as the voltage increases or decreases with time. Signal
processing is used to translate these fringing signals into a representation of the primary voltage. Since
the line voltage and ground are applied directly to the crystal, the Pockels cell is insensitive to the
electric field distributions surrounding it. For example, the Pockels cell can be located inside a hollow
insulator pressurized with sulfur hexafluoride gas for dielectric insulation.
The capacitive divider sensor design connects the Pockels cell in parallel with the lower leg C2 of
a capacitive divider. The voltage imposed across the Pockels cell is then proportional to the primary
voltage through the capacitive divider relation

 C1
Vb–a 5 Vprimary ——————
C1 1 C 2

where C1 is the high voltage capacitor (,50 pF), C2 is the much larger low voltage capacitor, and C2
is assumed to be much larger than the capacitance of the Pockels cell. If the capacitors C1 and C2 are
stable and the electric field distribution in the region of the two capacitors is stable, then the resulting
optical signal is proportional to the primary high voltage. Normally the capacitive divider is located
in a grounded, metallic vessel to control the field distributions at the divider and provide dielectric
insulation using pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas.
 240 The distributed voltage sensor uses multiple Pockels cells to measure the electric field at different
locations along the high voltage insulator. Each Pockels cell measures a voltage drop that depends on
the electric field strength in the local region of the cell, the dielectric properties of the materials from
which the cell is fabricated, as well as the shape of the cell. This design is very sensitive to the shape
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

of the electric field distribution between high voltage and ground. Selecting the locations of the cells
and adding field-shaping resistors reduce the system’s sensitivity to the field distribution. With signal
processing to combine the sensor signals, a representation of the primary voltage is created.

Unique Issues for Optical Sensors

Optical current and voltage sensors are radically different from conventional wound iron core current
and voltage transformers, yet they must conform to existing utility standards and user expectations if
they are to be installed. The standards to which instrument transformers must adhere must be care-
fully applied to optical sensors. Some of the quantitative requirements for instrument transformers
exist because of known failure mechanisms. For example, the maximum temperature rise of a cur-
rent transformer is set in part by the known rapid decomposition of high-voltage insulation (paper,
polymer, and oil) when a maximum operating temperature is exceeded for certain periods of time.
Optical sensors will have similar maximum operating temperatures, but they may differ from those of
conventional current transformers because of the different design used. Other requirements easily met
by conventional transformers are more difficult ­challenges for optical sensors. For example, the maxi-
mum allowed ratio calibration factor (RCF) deviation over a wide operating temperature range is easily
met by conventional instrument transformers. With optical sensors, however, the sensing elements,
packaging materials, fiber optic cables, and interface electronics all have temperature dependencies
that must be controlled or removed.

ACCURACY OVER TEMPERATURE

The Faraday Effect in materials used for optical current sensors has an intrinsic variation of about
0.7 to 1.5% per 100°C. If every other part of the optical current sensor functions perfectly, this
temperature dependence remains. The Pockels cells normally used in optical voltage sensors also have
temperature dependencies of 1.5% per 100°C.
The temperature dependence of the sensor element is compensated using three techniques. The
first approach, known as passive temperature compensation and used in the bulk optic current sensor
and capacitive divider voltage sensor, introduces a second temperature dependence in the optical path
at the sensor head which compensates the temperature dependence of the Verdet constant or the
Pockels Effect. The resulting sensor heads typically display 60.2% RCF variations from 255 to 185°C,
which is suitable for revenue metering.
A second approach, known as active temperature compensation, measures the temperature at or
near the sensor, estimates the actual sensor temperature, and electronically corrects the system output.
This method is employed in the electro-optic voltage sensor and the all-fiber current sensor.
The third approach, known as hybrid temperature compensation, measures a secondary parameter
of the Pockels cell or the current sensor head by processing the optical signals returned to the receiver
electronics. The estimate of the temperature at the sensor is then used to electronically correct the
system output. This approach is used in the all-fiber current sensor and the distributed optical voltage
sensor.
The system accuracy also depends on the calibration accuracy of the inter face electronics over
temperature. Many installations, although provided with a control house for weather protection, are
not temperature controlled. Installations will generally involve mounting of the electronics in a rack
or enclosure, where temperatures can rise 30°C above ambient. The light sources, power amplifiers,
photodiodes, low noise analog amplifiers, analog to digital, and digital to analog converters all have
critical parameters that vary with temperature.
The optical losses of optical fiber cables and connectors also vary over temperature and time. The
interface electronics are normally designed to accommodate some variations in optical insertion loss
while maintaining accuracy.
Temperature compensation is a routine test for optical voltage and current sensors. This is never
included in the routine test report of a conventional instrument ­transformer. Normally, the sensor
head is temperature cycled while the electronic receiver is kept at a fixed temperature, or synchro-
nously cycled over a reduced temperature range. The range of testing temperatures is important, but
typically should include 250°C to 190°C. For example, a sensor head mounted in the Southwestern 241
United States can experience an ambient temperature of 50°C, combined with a 5 to 15°C solar load
and a thermal rise of 15 to 30°C due to rated primary current flow of 2,400 amps. In this steady
state condition, the sensor head could experience temperatures exceeding 90°C. Likewise, an installa-

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
tion in Northern Maine or Canada may have a primary current of 20 amps, an ambient temperature
of 250°C, and a wind velocity of 30 miles per hour (mph). Following this temperature cycle, the
electronics chassis can be temperature cycled while the sensor head is kept at a fixed temperature.
Typically, an industrial temperature range of 240°C to 170°C is used for this temperature cycle.
Compensation must be verified on every system and documented in the routine test report provided by
the manufacturer.

DYNAMIC RANGE AND NOISE OF OPTICAL CURRENT SENSORS

Optical current sensors can maintain accuracy over a wide dynamic range of currents. This charac-
teristic merits attention, since the signal-to-noise ratio of an optical current sensor output is typi-
cally poorer than a conventional current transformer. This is caused by the presence of white noise
superimposed on the current measurement. The effects of this noise must be carefully considered for
metering applications.
Many optical current sensors use fused silica as a sensing material, which provides an optical
modulation (for near-infrared light) of approximately Im/Io 5 1 2 5 3 106 per Amp-turn, where turn
refers to the number of turns taken by the optical path around the primary conductor. Usually the
light is sent in both directions around the conductor, which doubles the sensitivity to 2 2 10 3 106
per Amp-turn. This is a small modulation depth, and typically a single turn, double-pass optical
current sensor provides a noise floor on the interface electronics output of 0.05 to 0.3 Arms/(Hz)0.5
of primary current. With a noise-equivalent bandwidth of 5 kHz, this represents a noise floor of 3 to
20 Arms. Since this is usually Gaussian white noise, the full-bandwidth primary current indicated by
the optical current sensor output never drops below 3 to 20 Arms, creating measurement errors at low
primary current levels when using a wide-bandwidth ammeter.
The all-fiber current sensor has the ability to complete multiple closed optical loops around the
primary conductor by simply looping more optical fiber around the conductor. For an N-turn all-fiber
optical sensor, the noise floor is reduced by a factor of N. For example, a typical all-fiber current sen-
sor with N520 fiber turns provides a noise floor equivalent to 0.15 to 1 Arms of primary current.
The trade-off occurs when considering large currents. The single turn sensor can accurately
measure currents as large as 400 kA peak when proper signal processing is included in the interface
electronics. This is suitable for all relaying and protection applications. For the N520 all-fiber current
sensor, the largest currents that can be measured are reduced to 20 to 40 kA peak, which is insuf-
ficient for many relaying and protection applications. For all-fiber optical current sensor applications
that require both metering and protection functions in one system, three choices are available:
1. A trade-off on the number of optical turns N
2. Two separate optical fiber loops with different values of N are included in one ­sensing head
3. Additional signal processing is included in the interface electronics to accommodate a larger
dynamic range
Evidently there is a large improvement in the noise floor when using an all-fiber current sensor
with multiple turns of optical fiber. However, even this performance is not sufficient to accurately
monitor very small primary currents using a wide-bandwidth ammeter. When used for metering
applications, the noise may or may not be an issue, depending on how the selected meter calculates
power, and what power flow parameters are of interest.
A power meter can be considered a synchronous detector if the meter per forms a multiplication
of real-time or time-shifted current and voltage waveforms and integrates the result over some period
of time. The integration process narrows the effective bandwidth of the meter, and the multiplication
prior to integration effectively removes contributions from any frequency components that do not
simultaneously and synchronously exist in both the current and voltage waveforms. This type of meter
can provide excellent power metering accuracy even with a poor signal to noise ratio on the output of
the optical current or voltage sensor. One manufacturer reported maintaining 0.2% metering accuracy
when the primary current signal was ten times smaller than the noise floor of the optical current
 242 sensor. The ability to effectively average through the noise depends, however, on the detailed signal
processing carried out by the meter.
Meters that compute the rms values of current and voltage separately and then multiply the
two results to calculate apparent power will not average out the contributions from the noise, and
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

erroneous apparent power and active power readings will result. Depending on the algorithm used to
determine power factor, erroneous power factor readings may also result.
Some electronic meters calculate power quantities by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and
current and averaging over time, and separately calculate the voltage and current rms values. These
meters can provide correct power readings, but display erroneous voltage and current values, depend-
ing on the noise present on the voltage and current waveforms. This can lead to very confusing
situations.
The proposed standard IEEE 1459-2000 provides a way to describe the effect of noise on the
reported power flows measured by a meter that calculates rms values of voltage and current before
multiplying these values to calculate apparent power. Although specifically fashioned to quantify
harmonic and non-harmonic power flows on the power system, it is directly applicable to the case
at hand. The voltage and current waveforms have rms values V and I, with total harmonic distortion
levels defined by THDV 5 VH/V1 and THDI 5 IH/I1, where V1 and I1 are the fundamental (60 Hz)
voltage and current rms values, and VH and IH are the non-fundamental voltage and current rms
values, including all integer and non-integer harmonics (i.e., noise). The apparent power that results
(a single-phase analysis is used for simplicity) is
S2 5 (VI)2 5 S12 1 S12 5 S12 1 D12 1 DV2 1 SH2
where S is the total apparent power, S1 is the fundamental (60 Hz) apparent power, DI is the current
distortion power, DV is the voltage distortion power, SH 5 S1 (THDV)(THDI) is the harmonic apparent
power and SN is the non-fundamental apparent power. The distortion powers are given by DV 5 S1
THDV and DI 5 S1 THDI. For distortion-free current and voltage waveforms, DV 5 DI 5 SH 5 0 and the
apparent power S 5 S1, as expected.
When noise generated by the sensor is included but limited to THDV ,5% and THDI ,200%, then
the total apparent power S can be approximated by
S2  S12 [1 1 (THDV)2 1 (THDI)2]
Similarly, for THDV ,5%, THDI ,40%, and assuming that current waveform distortions dominate
over other sources of distortion, the power factor PF can be approximated by
PF1
PF  ———————————

1 1 D
(TH
I)
2

where PF1 is the fundamental (60 Hz) power factor.

For a meter that calculates the rms values of voltage and current separately before calculating the
total apparent power, both results will have considerable error as the noise levels on the voltage and
current waveforms increase.
Example 1:
An undistorted primary voltage of 200 kVrms is monitored by an optical voltage sensor with
noise, creating a THDV 5 1%. An undistorted primary current of I1 5 50 Arms is monitored by a
bulk optic current sensor with a noise floor of 20 Arms, giving a THDI 5 20/50 5 40%.
The apparent power reported by the meter will be 10.77 MVA, but the true apparent power is
10 MVA, giving an error of 7.7%. The power factor will also appear to be 92.8% of its actual
value.
Example 2:
An all-fiber optic current sensor with a noise floor of 1 Arms monitors the same power line
described above. In this case, THDV 5 1%, THDI 5 1/50 5 2%, and the apparent power reported
by the meter will be 10.0025 MVA, or an error of 0.25%. The reported power factor will be
within 0.02% of its actual value.
Example 3: 243
As a final example, an all-fiber optic current sensor with a noise floor of 1 Arms is used to
meter an undistorted primary current of I1 5 1 Arms. An optical voltage sensor monitors the

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
200 kVrms primary voltage with no additional noise. Here, THDI 5 1/1 5 100% and
THDV 5 0%.
The reported apparent power will be 282 kVA, as compared with the true apparent power of
200 kVA.

As can be seen by these three examples, depending on the algorithm used in the meter, even very
high performance optical sensors may create metering errors. Since new electronic meter designs,
algorithms, and features are constantly being introduced, the best course of action for an optical
system user is to request the optical sensor system manufacturer to furnish type test results when the
optical sensor is operating with the user’s meter of choice. The tests should be conducted over the
full range of metered currents. If harmonic content is needed for power quality measurements, then
type test results for harmonic content should also be requested. Often, only the optical current sensor
needs to be verified with a particular meter, since optical voltage sensors have very small noise contri-
butions at rated primary voltage and metering usually does not occur when the primary voltage differs
appreciably (.20%) from nominal values. Alternatively, if resources are available, these type tests can
be performed at the user’s meter testing facilities.

EFFECTS OF POLLUTION, ICE, AND CONDENSATION ON RCF

Pollution class requirements for high voltage switchgear are normally specified to ensure dielectric
integrity of the equipment over prolonged exposure to a polluting environment. The principle effect of
pollution is a time-dependent fluctuation in the electric field distribution along an insulating, polluted
surface, even within a single power frequency cycle. The field re-distributions can lead to large field
enhancements and local or line-to-ground dielectric breakdown. However, the RCFs of well-designed
iron-core current and voltage transformers are completely immune to pollution effects, and no
requirements are specified in IEEE C57.13 for testing RCF under polluted conditions.
The situation is different for one type of optical voltage sensor. The distributed optical voltage
sensor is sensitive to electric field distributions along the insulating column. Use of this type of
optical voltage sensor for metering applications should be certified for operation under the pollution
class selected by the user. The certification must include verification of RCF under clean and polluted
conditions.
Furthermore, the lowest pollution class still allows for continuous layers of ice (frozen solid or
having a melted surface) or condensed fog on the outer insulator surface (this differs from the salt-
fog conditions found in some coastal climates). Here again, the electric field distribution along the
insulator can vary dramatically over time. Type tests must be performed on distributed optical voltage
sensors to verify that the RCF remains within the accuracy class claimed while exposed to clean fog
and iced conditions. The user should request that the manufacturer to provide this type test report.

LONG-TERM DRIFT AND CALIBRATION REQUIREMENTS

Nearly 100 years of experience with conventional wound iron-core instrument transformers have
provided a level of comfort that the RCF of a particular piece of conventional equipment will remain
accurate over the operating life of the unit. This can amount to many decades of service with virtually
no required maintenance. Some of the comfort level originates in the physical sensing mechanism
used in the transformer. Once assembled, the transformer turns ratio, burden capability, internal
impedance, and core losses remain virtually unchanged. Internal dielectric failure can result in shorted
turns in a voltage transformer, but the rate of occurrence is small.
The reliability (i.e., the accuracy over a period of time) of a metering installation then falls to the
characteristics of the meter. While electromechanical meters have provided decades of service with
acceptable accuracy, almost all substation installations use electronic meters to provide additional
functionality and communications capability. Carefully designed and manufactured electronic meters
can provide reliable metering operation over more than 20 years of service. Usually, however, meter
accuracy is verified on a routine basis every 1 to 16 years, depending on location, accuracy class, and
revenue flow through the meter. Government certification requirements can play a major role in defin-
ing the time period between verifications.
 244 A similar situation exists with optical sensors. An optical link provides dielectric isolation between
high voltage and an interface electronics package, which then interfaces with an electronic meter. The
most desirable situation is one in which the sensor head has a proven track record of maintaining RCF
over decades of service. This eliminates the need to routinely verify the RCF of the equipment con-
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

nected to the high voltage line.

Unfortunately, optical sensor technologies are too new to provide a sufficient installed base in
equipment-years to warrant the same level of comfort enjoyed by conventional iron-core instrument
transformers. The oldest commercial optical sensor systems are bulk optic current sensors, some of
which have been in service since 1986. Although these units presumably continue to provide accurate
metering performance, their number is not sufficient to claim long-term stability of a particular
sensor head design. This lack of comfort is exacerbated by a number of factors that can influence the
RCF of an optical sensor, although manufacturers have engineered optical sensors to minimize these
influences.
Equipment-years of installed optical systems are rapidly accumulating due to the large number
of bulk optic current and voltage sensor systems installed between 1997 and 2001. Once long-term
accuracy data is reported, routine field calibration may no longer be required to ensure revenue class
accuracy of optical voltage and current sensors. Field calibration is common with capacitive voltage
transformers (CVT) or coupling capacitor voltage transformer (CCVT) used for relaying and protection
applications. For CVT, CCVT, and optical voltage sensors, this normally involves taking the unit out
of service, energizing the sensor with a portable test set, and measuring the RCF at the output of the
interface electronics as compared with an accepted standard such as a precision potential transformer.
Indeed, several government agencies currently insist on frequent (every one or two years) calibration
verification of optical sensors to certify use in revenue metering, although efforts are underway to
relax or eliminate this requirement.
Another consideration with optical sensors is the interplay that exists between the sensor head
and the interface electronics. Manufacturing tolerances prevent sensor heads from having precisely the
same RCF. This is due to variations in materials properties in the sensor head, as well as variations in
the optical source used for each sensor head. Two sensor heads may have RCFs that differ by .0.3%
when connected to the same interface electronics board. Likewise, two interface electronics connected
to the same sensor head may provide RCF differences of .0.3%. Given the more likely situation that
the interface electronics fail long before the sensor head, replacement of the interface electronics
without removing or replacing the sensor head is a desirable feature for optical sensors.
Three scenarios are possible. In the first two, the interface electronics can fail while the sensor
head remains functional, or the sensor head can fail while the interface electronics remains func-
tional. In either case, two responses are currently in use by manufacturers. In the direct approach, the
sensor head and interface electronics are both replaced with a new, calibrated set. This involves replac-
ing the sensor head from the high voltage line. Serial numbers are used to maintain matching of an
optical sensor head with a particular set of interface electronics.
A second approach provides a programmable set of calibration factors in each electronics inter-
face. The calibration factors provide information about the sensor head and the interface electronics.
Replacing the interface electronics can then be accomplished by loading the calibration factors of the
existing sensor head into new interface electronics. The sensor head does not need to be removed from
the high voltage line. Likewise, the sensor head can be replaced and its calibration coefficients loaded
into the existing interface electronics.
A third scenario is possible in which the fiber cable breaks while the interface electronics and the
sensor head both remain intact. In almost all cases, the cable can be replaced without changing the
sensor head or the interface electronics. Verification of the RCF is usually not required. If a single fiber
breaks within the cable, the system can usually be repaired using one of the spare fibers that have been
included within the cable.
Calibration of optical sensors presents some new metrology challenges for the utility metering
community. Optical current and voltage sensors must meet all of the accuracy requirements for con-
ventional current and voltage transformers. Standard calibration techniques are suitable for calibrating
the 1 Arms output of an optical current sensor, or the 69 or 120 Vrms output of an optical voltage
sensor. However, the low voltage analog outputs of these sensor systems are not compatible with
most of the traditional calibration equipment. Many alternative methods have been proposed and/or
employed, but no standard technique has yet been selected. IEC 60044-8, standard for non-conven-
tional current transducers, provides suggestions for calibrating low voltage analog output signals.
 One company offers a digital bridge for calibrating optical sensor systems with IEC 61850-9-2 245
outputs. The test methodology is similar to what is done with conventional analog bridge devices.

FIBER OPTIC CABLING

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Although usually considered a mundane component of a measurement system, the fiber optic cabling
between the sensor head and the interface electronics is crucial to long term reliability of an optical
sensor system. Cabling usually involves the fiber optic run between the control house and the location
in the substation where the optical sensor is installed, the fiber run up to the sensor elements, and
the connectors or splicing techniques used to connect the cable into the sensor head and the interface
electronics. Manufacturers usually supply the optical cable as part of the total system.
The telecommunications industry has provided very strict standards (known as Bellcore standards)
that, if followed, will ensure trouble-free fiber cable service. Some of the issues involved with fiber
cabling include:
1. Over long-term exposure to water and under tension, an optical fiber develops surface micro-
cracks that eventually cleave the fiber. Manufacturers usually recommend a fiber cable that can
be directly buried. This applies even when running fiber cable in conduit, as conduit cannot be
made waterproof.
2. A Kevlar®-armored fiber cable that is crush resistant and rodent proof is preferable for direct
bury applications.
3. Some commercial offerings include fiber cable cut to a user-specified length with the cable
pre-terminated with connectors. The connectors are protected by ­pulling sleeves. While being
handled, the ends of the fiber cable are extremely fragile. Training of installation personnel is
usually advisable to avoid costly time delays due to accidents (e.g., fiber cables can be pulled
through conduit much more easily if the connectors are snipped off first).
4. Some companies recommend splicing all outdoor fiber connections to avoid issues with con-
tamination over the life of the installation.
5. If the cable must be installed above ground, a metal conduit is highly preferred to provide
ultraviolet light shielding.
6. Fiber optic connectors must be kept meticulously clean. Cleaning kits are available from many
fiber optic supplies stores and are highly recommended.
7. Ports into which fiber connectors are inserted must be kept meticulously clean. If contaminated,
they are very difficult to clean without disassembling the equipment. To avoid this, a metal
conduit is recommended.
8. Optical sensor manufacturers use several different fiber sizes. In general, standard singlemode
fiber is the least expensive, followed by multimode fiber and polarization maintaining single
mode fiber. Multimode fiber is much more tolerant to mechanical misalignments than single
mode fiber.
9. Some manufacturers supply fiber that cannot be fusion spliced. For this type of fiber, one
manufacturer uses mechanical splices for field repairs.
 Chapter 11
The Watthour Meter

A wattmeter and a watthour meter have roughly the same relationship to each other as do the
speedometer and the odometer of an automobile. A speedometer indicates miles per hour and an
odometer shows the total number of miles traveled. Similarly, a wattmeter indicates the instantaneous
consumption of watts and a watthour meter measures the total watthours that have been used. For
example, a watthour meter will indicate 1,000 watthours if connected for two hours in a circuit using
500 watts. Consumer loads may be constantly changing, so, to accurately measure watthours, it is
necessary to have a meter that will accumulate the instantaneous watts over time. Monthly energy
consumed is determined by subtracting the watthour reading at the end of the previous billing period
from the reading at the end of the current billing period. In the United States, meters are read on a
monthly basis at a minimum through an Automated Meter Reading (AMR) or Advanced Metering
Infrastructure (AMI) system and a monthly bill produced. At the time of installation, a new meter
starts with a register read of zero. Likewise, a previously used meter can be reset to zero, and at the
time of installation the installation form records the install read as zero. The meter continues to
increase in kilowatt hours (kWh) registered over time, and, once the maximum register read is accu-
mulated, the meter will roll over and return to all zeroes. This is determined by the number of digits
within the register of the meter. For example, a register with five digits would record to 99,999 kWh
and then roll over to zero.

The Generic Watthour Meter

There are a number of ways to implement a watthour meter, but all approaches require power to be
measured and accumulated and the results stored and displayed. As such, voltage and current for each
electrical phase must be sensed (or approximated), voltage and current for each electrical phase must
be multiplied, the resultant power must be accumulated, and the accumulated watthours must be
stored and displayed. For the electricity provider, the electricity meter (the watthour meter) is the cash
register. As such, the meter must be accurate and reliable over a variety of environmental conditions,
and the meter performance must be certifiable to the energy provider, consumer, and any involved
regulatory agencies. A major challenge for the watthour meter manufacturer is to perform these
functions economically. Each watthour meter approach has tradeoffs that are balanced by the meter
manufacturer to meet the perceived market needs. The best approach depends on how the user values
the tradeoffs.
Due to the care taken in their design and manufacture, and because of the long-wearing quali-
ties of the materials used in them, modern watthour meters normally remain accurate for extended
periods of time without periodic maintenance.

247
 248 The Two-Wire Single-Phase Meter
The two-wire meter is the simplest watthour meter and forms the basis for all other meters. The
service this meter is used to measure has one voltage which supplies the load and one current being
Handbook for Electricity Metering

used by the load. As such, the meter has one voltage sensor and one current sensor. Since the voltage
and current are changing with load conditions in real time, the voltage and current must be measured
in real time. Regardless of direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), or distorted waveforms, at
each instant in time the following equation is true:
Wattsi 5 Vi 3 Ii
If all of these instances watts are collected over time and watthours are computed. The equation for
this is:
i5T
Watthours 5 V 3I
i50
i i

The real quantities in the electrical system are current, voltage, and (real) power, and can be
defined for each instance in time. Most other quantities reflect some average effect or are a math-
ematical convenience to more easily understand what is happening on a macro scale. For example,
it is common to speak of meters in terms of root-mean-square (rms) voltages, rms currents, and
phase angles between these. However, in a real electrical system, the waveforms may be distorted
and dynamically changing as loads are switched in and out of the service. At one extreme, consider
an electricity meter on an oil pump. During the up stroke of the pump, significant power is drawn
from the service, and, during the down stroke, the pump motor turns into a generator. In between,
there are significant current distortions. If a revenue meter attempted to compute watts from the rms
voltage, rms current, and phase angle between these, the meter would not be very accurate. Therefore,
revenue meters measure watts in real-time and accumulate their effect to produce watthours. This
can be accomplished with magnetic fluxes within an electromechanical meter disk or with electronic
components.

The Three-Wire Single-Phase Meter

The three-wire meter has a voltage sensor connected across the two line wires of a single-phase service,
and two phase currents of the service usually passing through a single current sensor with a magnetic
circuit. Each current passes through the magnetic circuit in such a way that the magnetic fluxes
produced are additive. In an electromechanical meter, the number of turns in each of the two cur-
rent coils is one half as many as used in the current coil of a two-wire meter. According to Blondel’s
Theorem, two elements (stators) are required for accurate registration of energy flowing through a
three-wire circuit. If the voltages between each line wire and the neutral are single phase and exactly
equal, the single-stator, three-wire meter is accurate. An imbalance in the voltage will cause accuracy
proportional to one half the difference between voltages. Because modern systems are normally very
closely balanced, any errors, usually less than 0.2%, are considered negligible.

Multi-Element (Multi-Stator) Meters

Information on multi-stator watthour meters relies on single-stator meter data for its basic meter
theory since a multi-stator meter is essentially a combination of single-stator meters on a common
base. The differences are in a few special features and in the various applications to polyphase power
circuits.

Polyphase Metering Today

Most U.S. meter manufacturers supply meters with maximum currents (meter classes) of 100, 200,
320, 400, and 480 amperes for direct connection to the electrical service. These meters are referred to
as self-contained meters. Most manufacturers also supply meters with maximum currents of 10 and
20 amperes for use with instrument transformers. These meters are referred to as transformer-rated
meters. Most polyphase meter manufacturers can furnish their meters with potential indicators that
show the reduction of a phase voltage below some threshold. In electronic meters, light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) or indicators on the meter’s display are typically used to indicate the voltage present on
each phase. In addition, many electronic meters provide a number of additional measurement, secu-
rity, instrumentation, and power quality functions.
 Multi-element (multi-stator) meters are made in S(socket)-type bases. Older installations that 249
originally had A-base meters now require A-base adapters. A-base meters are normally connected
to the line and load by means of a test block installed at the site. One disadvantage of the A-base
is that full Class 200 capacity is difficult to obtain due to the limitation placed on the size of the

the watthour meter

terminal connections defined by standardization of meter base dimensions. The use of the Class 200
S-base meter is the standard in the United States. Its advantages include quick and easy insertion
and removal of the meter in a compact meter socket and full Class 200 and 320 capacity. To test the
meter, the meter is removed and a socket test jack is used or the meter is exchanged and tested offsite.
Newer electronic meters provide numerous meter and installation diagnostics. The socket can be
furnished with a manual or automatic bypass to short the secondary of any external current trans-
formers. The manual switches are often referred to as test switches, for they are used in the testing
process and typically located just below the meter. These devices also assist with removing or changing
the meter. Meter sockets can also be equipped with manual bypass handles which may have a red
rubber coating covering the tip of the handle. These switches are not designed or rated for load break,
but, rather, to remove or install meters. Improper use of this switch will result in damaged equipment
and possible injury.
Multi-stator Class 10 and 20 meters are also furnished for switchboard use in semi-flush or
surface-mounted cases, with or without draw-out features. Draw-out cases provide a means to either
test the meter in place or to withdraw it safely from the case without danger of opening the current-
transformer secondary circuits.

Blondel’s Theorem
The theory of polyphase watthour metering was first set forth on a scientific basis in 1893 by engineer
and mathematician Andre E. Blondel. Blondel’s Theorem applies to the measurement of real power in
a polyphase system of any number of wires. The theorem is as follows:
If energy is supplied to any system of conductors through N wires, the total power in the system is given
by the algebraic sum of the readings of N wattmeters, so arranged that each of the N wires contains
one current coil, the corresponding voltage coil being connected between that wire and some common
point. If this common point is on one of the N wires, the measurement may be made by the use of N-1
wattmeters.
The receiving and generating circuits may be arranged in any desired manner and there are no restric-
tions as to balance among the voltages, currents, or power-factor values.
From this theorem it follows that a meter containing two elements or stators is necessary for a
three-wire, two- or three-phase circuit, and a meter with three stators for a four-wire, three-phase
circuit. Some deviations from this rule are commercially possible, but resultant metering accuracy,
which may be decreased, is dependent upon circuit conditions that are not under the control of the
meter technician. An example of such a deviation is the three-wire, single-stator meter.
The circuit shown in Figure 11-1 may be used to prove Blondel’s Theorem. Three watthour meters,
or wattmeters, have their voltage sensors connected to a common point D, which may differ in voltage
from the neutral point N of the load, by an amount equal to EN. The true instantaneous load power is:
WattsLoad 5 EAIA 1 EBIB 1 ECIC
Inspection of the circuit shows:
EA 5 E9A 1 EN
EB 5 E9B 1 EN
EC 5 E9C 1 EN
Substituting in the equation for total load power:
WattsLoad 5 (E9A 1 EN)IA 1 (E9B 1 EN)IB 1 (E9C 1 EN)IC
WattsLoad 5 E9AIA 1 E9BIB 1 E9CIC 1 EN(IA 1 IB 1 IC)
From Kirchhoff’s Law, IA 1 IB 1 IC 5 0, the last term in the preceding equation becomes zero, leaving
WattsLoad 5 E9AIA 1 E9BIB 1 E9CIC 5 W1 1 W2 1 W3
Thus, the three watthour meters correctly measure the true load power. If, instead of connecting the
three voltage coils at a common point removed from the supply system, the common point is placed
 250
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-1. Diagram Used in Proof of Blondel’s Theorem.

on any one line, the voltage becomes zero on the meter connected in that line. If, for example, the
common point is on line C, E9C becomes zero and the preceding formula simplifies to:
WattsLoad 5 E9AIA 1 E9BIB 5 W1 1 W2
proving that one less metering unit than the number of lines will provide correct metering regardless
of load conditions.

THREE-WIRE NETWORK SERVICE

Two-Stator Meter
Three-wire network service is obtained from two of the phase wires and the neutral of a three-phase,
four-wire wye system, as shown in Figure 11-2. It is, in reality, two two-wire, single-phase circuits with
a common return circuit and it has voltages that have a phase difference of 120 electrical degrees
between them. The voltage is commonly 120 volts line-to-neutral/208 volts line-to-line.
The normal method of metering a network service is with a two-element (two-stator) meter
connected as shown in Figure 11-2. With this connection, which follows Blondel’s Theorem, each
stator sees the voltage of one phase of the load. The phasors representing the load phase currents, IAN
and IBN, are shown in the diagram lagging their respective phase voltages. The meter current conduc-
tors carry the line currents, IAN and IBN, and inspection of the circuit shows that these currents are
identical to the load phase currents. Hence, the meter correctly measures the total load power. Any
loads connected line-to-line, between A and B in Figure 11-2, will also be metered properly. With this
type of meter there are no metering errors with imbalanced load voltages or varying load currents and
power factors.
Single-element (single-stator) meters for measuring network loads have been developed and may
be used with reasonable accuracy under particular load conditions.
The conventional three-wire, single-element (single-stator), single-phase meter cannot be used for
network metering. It will, of course, measure the 208-volt load correctly; but the two 120-volt loads
are metered at 104-volts rather than at 120 volts and at a phase angle which is 30 degrees different
from the actual. Therefore, for 120-volt balanced loads, meter registration will be close to 75% of
the true value; but with imbalanced loads, the resulting meter error varies, rendering such metering
useless.
 251

the watthour meter

Figure 11-2. Two-Stator Meter on Three-Wire Network Service.

THREE-WIRE, THREE-PHASE DELTA SERVICE

Two-Element (Two-Stator) Meter
The three-wire, three-phase delta service is usually metered with a two-stator meter in accordance with
Blondel’s Theorem. The meter used has internal components identical to those of network meters, but
may differ slightly in base construction. Typical meter connections are shown in Figure 11-3. In the
top element (stator) of the meter, the current sensor carries the current in line 1A and the voltage
sensor has load voltage AB impressed on it. The bottom element (stator) current sensor carries line
current 3C and its corresponding voltage sensor has load voltage CB impressed. Line 2B is used as the
common line for the common voltage sensor connections.
The phasor diagram of Figure 11-3 is drawn for balanced load conditions. The phasors representing
the load phase currents IAB, IBC, and ICA are shown in the diagram lagging their respective phase volt-
ages by a small angle . By definition, this is the load power-factor angle. The meter current coils have
line currents flowing through them, which differ from the phase currents. To determine line currents,
Kirchhoff’s Current Law is used at junction points A and C in the circuit diagram. Applying this law,
the following two equations are obtained for the required line currents:
I1A 5 IAB 2 ICA
I3C 5 ICA 2 IBC
 252
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-3. Two-Stator Meter on Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Service.

The operations indicated in these equations have been performed in the phasor diagrams to obtain
I1A and I3C. Examination of the phasor diagram shows that for balanced loads the magnitude of the
line currents is equal to the magnitude of the phase currents times the  3.
The top element (stator) in Figure 11-3 has voltage EAB impressed and carries current I1A. These
two quantities have been circled in the phasor diagram and inspection of the diagram shows that for
the general case the angle between them is equal to 30° 1 . Therefore, the power measured by the
top element (stator) is EABI1Acos(30° 1 ) for any balanced-load power factor. Similarly, the bottom
element (stator) uses voltage ECB and current I3C. These phasors have also been circled on the diagram
and in this case the angle between them is 30° 2 . The bottom element (stator) power is then
ECBI3Ccos(30° 2 ) for balanced loads. The sum of these two expressions is the total metered power.
 Total Meter Power = EABI1Acos(30°  )  ECBI3Ccos(30°  ) 253
Examination of the two expressions for power shows that even with a unity power factor load, the
meter currents are not in phase with their respective voltages. With a balanced unity power factor load

the watthour meter

the current lags by 30° in the top element (stator) and leads by 30° in the bottom element (stator).
However, this is correct metering. Consider an actual load of 15 amperes at the unity power factor in
each phase with a 240-volt delta supply. The total power in this load is:
3 3 EPhase 3 IPhase 3 cos  5 3 3 240 3 15 3 1 5 10,800 watts
Each element (stator) of the meter measures:
Top Element 5 EABI1Acos(30° 1 )

Since I1A 5 
3 IPhase
Top Element 5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 cos(30° 1 0°)
5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 0.866 5 5,400 watts
Bottom Element 5 ECBI3Ccos(30° 2 °)
Since I3C 5 
3 IPhase
Bottom Element 5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 cos(30° 2 0°)
5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 0.866 5 5,400 watts
Total Meter Power 5 Top Element 1 Bottom Element 5 5,400 1 5,400
   5 10,800 watts 5 Total Load Power
When the balanced load power factor lags, the phase angles in the meter vary in accordance with
the 30° 6  expressions. When the load power factor reaches 50%, the magnitude of  is 60°. The top
stator phase angle becomes 30° 1  5 90° and, since the cosine of 90° is zero, the torque from this
stator becomes zero at this load power factor. To illustrate, assume the same load current and voltage
used in the preceding example with 50% load power factor.
Total Load Power 5 3 3 240 3 15 3 0.5 5 5,400 watts
Top Element 5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 cos(30° 1 60°)
5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 0 5 0 watts
Bottom Element 5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 cos(30° 2 60°)
5 240 3 
3 3 15 3 0.866 5 5,400 watts
Total Meter Power 5 0 1 5,400 5 5,400 watts 5 Total Load Power
With lagging load power factors below 50%, the top element power reverses direction and the
resultant action of the two elements (stators) becomes a differential one, such that the power direc-
tion is that of the stronger element (stator). Since the bottom element (stator) power is always larger
than that of the top element (stator), the meter power is always in the forward direction, but with
proportionately lower power at power factors under 50%. Actually, on a balanced load the two ele-
ments (stators) operate over the following ranges of power factor angles when the system power factor
varies from unity to zero: the leading element (stator) from 30° lead to 60° lag, the lagging element
(stator) from 30° lag to 120° lag.

FOUR-WIRE, THREE-PHASE WYE SERVICE

Three-Element (Three-Stator) Meter
Figure 11-4 shows the usual meter connections for a three-stator meter on a four-wire wye service
in accordance with Blondel’s Theorem. The neutral conductor is used for the common meter voltage
connection.
The connection diagram shows three line-to-neutral loads and the phasor diagram shows the
metering quantities. The diagram is drawn for balanced line-to-neutral loads, which have a lagging
power factor angle.
 254
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-4. Three-Stator Meter on a Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service.

The expression for total meter power can be written as follows by inspection of the phasor
diagram:
Total Meter Power 5 EANIANcos 1 1 EBNIBNcos 2 1 ECNICNcos 3
which is the total power developed by the load.
If the loads are connected line-to-line, instead of line-to-neutral, the total load power will still
be the same as the total meter power, because it can be proven that any delta-connected load may be
replaced by an equivalent wye-connected load. Hence, there are no metering errors with imbalanced
load voltages of varying load currents or power factors.
Two-Element (Two-Stator), Three-Current Sensor Meter
For years, metering personnel have struggled with the cost of metering. Trade-offs can be made among
the accuracy of the metering, the assumptions about the service ­voltages and currents, and the cost of
the meter or the number of instrument transformers required. The two-element (two-stator), three-
current sensor meter is an example of a trade-off that many metering engineers have found accept-
able. This meter employs two elements (stators) with two voltage sensors and three current sensors. 255
Historically, an electromechanical meter of this type was less expensive than one with three voltage
sensors. In addition, in a service requiring external voltage instrument transformers, two voltage
transformers could be used instead of three. This could represent a significant equipment cost savings.

the watthour meter

This meter does not fulfill Blondel’s Theorem, resulting in possible metering errors. Since this
meter has three current circuits and only two voltage circuits, it is often called a 2½-element
­(2½-stator) meter, although this is technically incorrect.
The assumption is made that in this meter the phasor sum of the two line-to-neutral voltages is
exactly equal and opposite in phase to the third line-to-neutral voltage. When this condition exists,
the metering is correct regardless of current or power-factor imbalance. The assumption is correct only
if the phase voltages are balanced. If the voltages are not balanced, metering errors are present, and
the magnitudes depend on the degree of voltage imbalance.
The phasor diagram of Figure 11-5 shows the metering quantities. The diagram is drawn for bal-
anced line-to-neutral loads which have a lagging power factor angle.
With a balanced load, the angle between IB2 and EAN is 60° 1  while the angle between IB2 and
ECN is 60° 2 .

Figure 11-5. Two-Stator, Three-Current-Coil Meter on Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service.

 256 The expression for total meter power can be written as follows by inspection of the phasor
diagram:
Total Meter Power 5 EANI1Acos[] 1 ECNI3Ccos [] 1 EANIB2cos(60° 1 []) 1 ECNIB2cos(60° 2 [])
Handbook for Electricity Metering

As an example, with a balanced line-to-neutral load from each of 15 amperes at 120 volts with a
lagging power factor of 86.6% the true load power is:
True Power 5 3 EPhaseIPhasecos [] 5 3 3 120 3 15 3 0.866 5 4676.4 watts
For 86.6% power factor the phase angle  is 30°.
Metered Power 5 120 3 15 3 0.866 1 120 3 15 3 0.866 1 120 3 15 3
cos(60° 1 30°) 1 120 3 15cos(60° 2 30°)
5 2 3 120 3 15 3 0.866 1 120 3 15cos90° 1 120 3 15cos30°
5 2 3 120 3 15 3 0.866 1 120 3 15 3 0 1 120 3 15 3 0.866
5 3 3 120 3 15 3 0.866
5 4676.4 watts
A similar proof of correct metering may be developed for a polyphase power load connected to lines A,
B, and C.
A 2½-element (2½-stator) meter is in error when the voltages are not balanced in magnitude or
phase position. With imbalanced voltages, the amounts of any current imbalance and power-factor
values also have a bearing on the amount of metering error as well as where the voltage imbalance
occurs relative to the connection of the Z coil. The curves of Figure 11-6 are drawn for an assumed
equal voltage and current imbalance in one load phase and for the three possible locations of the
Z coil. Using the curves for an assumed voltage and current imbalance of 2% in Phase 1, the following
tabulation shows the variations in metering errors as the Z coil is moved.
However, if the voltages remain balanced, the 2½-element (2½-stator) meter will meter correctly
with current and power factor imbalance.
While this method of metering does not follow Blondel’s Theorem and is less accurate than
a three-element meter in cases of imbalanced voltages, many users find it acceptable for energy
measurement.
Since this service can be more accurately metered with a wide-voltage-range, electronic, three-
element meter, today’s electronic meter manufacturers do not offer this type of meter.
Two-Element (Two-Stator) Meter Used with
Three Current Transformers or Two Window Current Transformers
This method of metering a four-wire wye service uses a conventional two-element (two-stator), two-
current sensor meter with three-current transformers in the circuit. The circuit connections are shown
in Figure 11-7.
The component currents in each current sensor are indicated by the arrows on the circuit diagram.
In both elements (stators), the third line transformer current, I2B, is in opposition to the other line
transformer current. The phasor diagram shows how these components add to produce the total cur-
rent in each current sensor, IX and IY.
Before the component currents are added, the phasor diagram for this connection is similar to
that shown in Figure 11-5 for the 2½-element meter, showing that this method is electrically equiva-
lent to the 2½-element meter. The difference is that the third line current flows through an external
transformer and its current is combined in the meter’s two-current sensors rather than processing the
third line current in the meter directly.
An alternate to this approach is to use two current transformers with window openings through
the transformer cores. The window current transformers allow the line currents to be combined in
these external transformers rather than in the meter current sensors. In this approach, one service line
passes through one current transformer window and the second service line passes through the second
current transformer window. The third service line passes through each of the current transformer
windows in the opposite direction from the first two service lines.
These methods have the same accuracy limitations and errors as the 2½-element meter.
 257

the watthour meter

Figure 11-6. Error Curves for Equal Voltage and Current Imbalance in One Phase and for
Three Possible Locations of Z Coil.

FOUR-WIRE, THREE-PHASE DELTA SERVICE

Three-Element (Three-Stator) Meter
The four-wire delta service is used to supply both power and lighting loads from a delta source. The
lighting supply is obtained by taking a fourth line from the centertap of one of the transformers in
the delta source. Correct metering according to Blondel’s Theorem requires a three-element (three-
stator) meter. Figure 11-8 shows the circuit and metering connections. Since the mid-tap neutral wire
is usually grounded, this line is used for the common meter voltage connection. The diagram shows
the nominal voltage impressed on each voltage sensor in the meter for a 240-volt delta source. As
such, the watt metering formula for any instant in time is:
Watts 5 (Ean 3 Ia) 1 (Ebn 3 Ib) 1 (Ecn 3 Ic)
where EAN and EBN are nominally 120 VAC, and ECN is nominally 208 VAC. Accumulating the watts
over time allows the metering of watthours.
Today’s wide-voltage-range, three-element electronic meters are ideally suited for this service since
a mixture of line voltages must be metered. In an electromechanical meter, the top stator voltage
sensor is commonly rated at 240 volts, although in service it operates at 208 volts. Because the torque
of each stator must be equal for the same measured watts, it is necessary that the calibrating watts,
or test constant, be the same for each stator. This necessitates that the current coils in the 120-volt
stators have double the rating of the current coil in the 240-volt stator.
 258
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-7. Two-Stator Meter Used with Three-Current Transformers on a

Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Service.
 259

the watthour meter

Figure 11-8. Three-Stator Meter on a Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Service.

The phasor diagram of Figure 11-8 is drawn for a combined power and lighting load. To simplify
the diagram, the current phasors for the individual loads are not shown. Since this method follows
Blondel’s Theorem, it provides correct metering under any condition of voltage or load imbalance.
The advantages of using a three-element (three-stator) meter for this application are correct
registration under all conditions of voltage and increased meter capacity in lighting phases, an impor-
tant advantage when the load in these phases greatly exceeds that in the power phase. A disadvantage
of this metering is that to verify a meter’s accuracy in this service, polyphase test stations that can
apply different voltages to different elements are required. These were not readily available in the past,
and still may not be the common test station within today’s meter shop. Additionally, electromechani-
cal meters for this metering are difficult to produce. However, with today’s three-element electronic
meters and polyphase test stations, there really are no disadvantages to providing three-element elec-
tronic meters for this service. Most wide-voltage-range, three-­element, electronic meter designs can be
qualified to work on this service using a polyphase test station, and then individual meter calibration
can be verified with 120 volts applied to all elements with no concern that the meter will not perform
accurately when the third element is powered at 208 volts.
 260 TWO-ELEMENT (TWO-STATOR), THREE-CURRENT SENSOR METER
It is possible, as with the four-wire wye service, to meter a four-wire delta service with a two-element
(two-stator), three current sensor meter. This is shown in Figure 11-9. It is a compromise with
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Blondel’s Theorem which allows possible metering errors. Since this service can be more accurately
metered with a wide-voltage-range, electronic, three-element meter, today’s electronic meter manufac-
turers do not offer this type of meter.

MULTI-ELEMENT (MULTI-STATOR) METER APPLICATIONS

WITH VOLTAGE INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
The usual customer metering of polyphase services does not normally present major problems. With
metering at the higher distribution voltages (either of distribution lines or customers at these volt-
ages), voltage instrument transformers are required. In many cases the actual circuit conditions are

Figure 11-9. Two-Stator, Three-Current-Coil Meter on a Four-Wire Delta Service.

hard to determine, which in itself presents a metering problem. Required ground connections may not 261
be present or of sufficiently low impedence, or there may be unintended ground connections. These
considerations are of particular concern with wye circuits.

the watthour meter

Wye-Circuit Metering with Voltage Instrument Tranformers
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11-10a. A four-wire wye circuit is derived from a delta-wye
transformer bank. With this circuit there is no question that a three-stator meter, or its equivalent, is

(a)

(b)

(C)

Figure 11-10. Wye-Circuit Voltage Transformer Connections.

 262 required to correctly meter any connected load. Three voltage transformers would be connected wye-
wye as shown, with their primary neutral connected to the circuit neutral. When voltage transformers
are connected in wye-wye there is a third-harmonic voltage generated in each primary winding. The
neutral connection between voltage transformer neutral and system neutral provides a path for a
Handbook for Electricity Metering

third-harmonic current flow, thereby keeping the third-harmonic voltages at low values. If this path
were not present, the transformer voltages would be highly distorted by the excessive third-harmonic
voltages, potentially causing metering errors. Also, serious hazards to voltage transformer insulation
exist because of large increases in exciting current due to harmonic voltages. The four-wire wye circuit
may also be derived from a wye-wye distribution bank, wye auto-transformer, wye grounding bank, or
zig-zag transformer connections.
The circuit of Figure 11-10b is a delta-wye transformer bank with a three-wire secondary without
ground. If it is known that there is no possibility of an actual or ­unintended phantom ground in the
secondary circuit, it may be metered (as in any three-wire circuit) by a two-stator meter. Two voltage
transformers would be connected as shown using one of the lines for the common connection.
The three-wire wye secondary circuit with neutral grounded as shown in Figure 11-10c presents
a major metering problem. Since the secondary circuit is three-wire, it is possible to use a two-stator
meter. However, it is possible that this may not yield correct metering, since loads may be connected
from the unmetered line to ground and thereby fail to be metered. Also, loads connected from
metered lines to ground will not be measured correctly. For correct metering under all load conditions,
a three-stator meter or equivalent must be used. In this case, three voltage transformers connected
wye-wye would be used as shown. To limit third-harmonic effects, the neutral of the voltage trans-
formers must be connected to the neutral of the distribution bank by a low-­impedance connection.
If the meter is located at the same substation as the distribution bank, a ground connection to the
station grounding grid may be sufficient or the two neutrals may be directly connected. If the metering
location is at a considerable distance from the distribution bank, it may not be possible to establish
a firm common ground. When the metering transformer neutral is left floating, the harmonic prob-
lem is again very serious. Harmonic voltages as large as 30% have been found in some instances. If
the voltage transformer neutral is grounded at the metering location to an isolated ground, other
problems exist. Differences in ground voltage under certain conditions can cause extremely hazardous
conditions at the meter and a high-resistance ground may not eliminate the harmonic errors. Because
of these conditions, many companies require that a neutral conductor be run between the distribution
and instrument voltage transformers.
Many other problems can arise in wye-circuit metering and the presence of harmonics and their
potential effects on the metering should always be considered. In metering transmission and distribu-
tion circuits, a thorough understanding of circuit connections is necessary. For example, the three-wire
wye connection with neutral ground is frequently encountered. With voltages in the order of 24,000
volts the designer is reasonably certain that customer loads will not be connected line-to-ground and
two-stator metering will be correct. However, this may not always be the case.

Electromechanical Metering
The electromechanical watthour meter consists of a motor whose torque is proportional to the active
power flowing through it, a magnetic brake to retard the speed of the motor in such a way that it is
proportional to power (by making the braking effect proportional to the speed of the rotor), and a
register that converts the number of revolutions of the motor through the gearing of the register and
displays these revolutions as kilowatthours (Figure 11-11). If the speed of the motor is proportional to
the power, the number of revolutions will be proportional to the energy.

THE MOTOR IN AN ELECTROMECHANICAL SINGLE-STATOR AC METER

The motor is made up of a stator sensing the phase voltage and current with electrical connections,
as shown in Figure 11-12, and a rotor, which provides the function of multiplication. The stator is an
electromagnet energized by the line voltage and load current. The portion of the stator energized by
the line voltage is known as the voltage coil and serves the function of voltage sensor. For meters built
after 1960, the voltage coil consists of approximately 2,400 turns of No. 29 AWG wire for a 120 volt
coil to more than 9,600 turns of No. 35 AWG wire for a 480 volt coil. These coils are so compensated
that the meter can be used within the range of 50 to 120% of nominal voltage. Due to the large
number of turns, the voltage coil is highly reactive.
 263
Coil Leads
Retarding Brazed to Gasket
Magnets Die Blades
Cast in Frame

the watthour meter

Cover Register Magnetic Molded
Suspension Potential
Coil

Full-Load Light-Load Molded Base

Rotor Adjustment Adjustment
Lower Molded Surge Gap
Guide Current Ground Stud
Bearing Coils

Figure 11-11. Basic Parts of a Watthour Meter.

The portion of the stator energized by the load current is known as the current coil and serves
the function of current sensor. For a Class 200 meter, the current coil usually consists of two or four
turns of wire equivalent to approximately 30,000 circular mils in size. The current coils are wound in
reverse directions on the two current poles for correct meter operation.
In 1884 Dr. Galileo Ferraris proved that torque could be produced electromagnetically by two
alternating-current fluxes which have a time displacement and a space displacement in the direc-
tion of proposed motion. The voltage coil is highly inductive, so the current through the voltage coil
(and hence the flux from it) lags almost 90° behind the line voltage. In modern meters, this angle is
between 80° and 85°. Although the current
coil has very few turns, it is wound on iron
and is therefore inductive. However, it is not
as inductive as the voltage coil. The power
factor of a modern meter current coil may be
0.5 to 0.7 or an angle of lag between 60° and
45°. The meter current coils have negligible
effect on the phase angle of the current
flowing through them as the current coil
impedance is extremely small in comparison
to the load impedance, which is connected in
series. The load voltage and load impedance
determine the phase position of the current
through the meter. With a unity-power-factor
load, the meter current will be in phase with
the meter voltage. Since current through the
voltage coil lags behind current through the
current coil, flux from the voltage coil reaches
the rotor after flux from the current coil and
a time displacement of fluxes exists. The sta-
tor is designed so that the current and voltage
windings supply fluxes that are displaced in
space. These two features combine to give the
time and space displacement that Dr. Ferraris
showed could be used to produce torque. Figure 11-12. Basic Electromagnet (for Two-Wire Meter).
 264
Handbook for Electricity Metering

(a) (b) (C)

Figure 11-13. Effect of a Current-Carrying Conductor in an External Magnetic Field.

In order to understand why torque is produced, certain fundamental laws must be remembered.
They are:
1. A magnetic field exists around a current-carrying conductor.
2. Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
3. An electromotive force (EMF) is induced in a conductor by electromagnetic action. This EMF is
proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts magnetic lines of force. The induced EMF
lags 90° behind the flux that produces it.
4. If a conducting material lies in an alternating-current magnetic field, the constantly changing
or alternating magnetic lines of force induce EMFs in this material. Because of these EMFs,
eddy currents circulate through the material and produce magnetic fields of their own.
5. When a current is caused to flow through a conductor lying within a magnet ic field, a
mechanical force is set up which tends to move the current-carrying conductor out of the
magnetic field.
The reason for this effect can be seen
from Figure 11-12. In Figure 11-13a, a con-
ductor is indicated as carrying current from
above into the plane of the paper, which
establishes a magnetic field that is clockwise
in direction. Figure 11-13b indicates an
external magnetic field. When the current-
carrying conductor is moved into the external
field, as in Figure 11-13c, it reacts with the
external field and causes a crowding of the
flux lines on the left where the two fields are
additive. On the right, where the fields are
in opposition, the flux lines move apart. The
flux lines may be considered as elastic bands
acting on the conductor, causing a force that
tends to move the conductor to the right.
The rotor of the meter is an electrical
conductor in the form of a disk that is placed
between the pole faces of the stator as indi-
cated in Figure 11-14. The magnetic fluxes
Figure 11-14. Schematic Diagram of a Three-Wire,
from the stator pass through a portion of the
disk and, as the magnetic fields alternately
Single-Phase Induction Watthour Meter.
build up and collapse, induced EMFs in the
disk cause eddy currents that react with the alternating magnetic field, causing torque on the disk. The 265
disk is free to turn, so it rotates.
Figure 11-15 shows the flux relationships and disk eddy currents in a meter at various instants of
time during one cycle of supply voltage. It also indicates the space displacement that exists between

the watthour meter

the magnetic poles of the current coils and the voltage coil. The four conditions in Figure 11-15 corre-
spond to the similarly marked time points on the voltage and current flux waveforms of Figure 11-16.
This illustration also shows the time displacement existing between current and voltage coil fluxes. In
relating the fluxes and eddy currents shown in Figure 11-15 to the waveforms of Figure 11-16, it must
be remembered that when the flux waveforms cross the zero axis there is no magnetic field generated

Time 1 Time 2

Time 3 Time 4

Figure 11-15. Flux Relationships and Disk Eddy Currents.

 266 at this instant in time. However, it is at this particular instant that the rate of change of flux is great-
est, giving the maximum induced voltage in the disk and maximum resulting disk eddy currents. Thus,
at Time 1, the voltage flux is at its maximum (negative) value as shown, but it causes no disk eddy
currents because at this instant its rate of change is zero. At the same time the current flux is zero, but
Handbook for Electricity Metering

its rate of change is at maximum, giving the greatest disk eddy currents. Consideration in Figure 11-15
of the directions of the fluxes created by the disk eddy currents and the air-gap fluxes from the voltage
and current coils shows that, in accordance with Figure 11-13, a force is developed with direction of
the resultant torque as shown to the left.
In Figure 11-16, below the flux waveforms are enlarged views of the current and voltage poles and
disk, which show more clearly the flux interactions that produce disk torque. It is assumed that an
exact 90° phase relationship has been obtained between the two fluxes.
Time 1. The current coils are at the zero point of their flux curve and the rate of change of cur-
rent flux is maximum, giving disk eddy currents as shown for the two current poles. The voltage-coil
flux curve lags that of the current coil by 90°. Since this curve is below the zero line, the voltage coil
develops a south magnetic pole. Interaction of the disk eddy-current flux (in the central portion of the
disk) and the voltage-coil flux develops a force to the left in the disk according to the principle shown
in Figure 11-13. The return paths of the disk eddy currents shown in the outer portions of the disk are
too far removed from the voltage flux to have an appreciable effect on disk force.
Time 2. At this time, 90° after Time 1, the voltage-coil flux has reached zero. Its rate of change
is maximum, causing disk eddy currents as shown. The current-coil flux has reached its maximum.
North and south current poles are produced as indicated because the current coils are wound in
reverse directions on the two poles. Again, the interaction of flux produced by the disk eddy currents
with the current-coil flux creates disk force to the left.
Time 3. This point is similar to that at Time 1 and occurs 180° later. Here, the voltage flux curve
is above the zero line, producing a north pole. The current-coil flux has again reached zero, but its rate
of change is in the opposite direction so that the direction of disk eddy-current flow is reversed from
that shown at Time 2. Since both the voltage flux and disk eddy-current flux are reversed in direction,
the resultant disk force is still to the left.
Time 4. This point, 270° after Time 1, is similar to that at Time 2. Again, the direction of both
current-coil flux and disk eddy-current flux are reversed, giving resultant disk force to the left.
Time 5. At this time the cycle of change is completed, producing the identical conditions of
Time 1 360° later.

Figure 11-16. Voltage and Current Flux Wave Forms.

 Summarizing the results, it is found that first a south pole, then a north pole, and then a south 267
pole moves across the disk. At any position, the torque which causes the disk to turn is caused by
interaction between flux from current in one coil and disk eddy currents caused by the changing flux
from current through the other coil.

the watthour meter

Because we want to measure watts, or active power, the force driving the disk must be propor-
tional not only to the voltage and current, but also to the power factor of the load being metered.
This means that, for a given voltage and current, the torque must be maximum when the load being
metered is non-inductive and that it will be less as the power factor decreases.
When the successive values of the flux of a magnetic field follow a sine curve, the rate of flux
change is greatest, as previously stated, at the instant of crossing the zero line and the induced elec-
tromotive force is greatest at this instant. The magnetic field is greatest at the maximum point in the
curve, but at this peak the rate of change is zero, so the induced EMF is zero. With two fields differ-
ing in phase relation, in order for one field to be at zero value while the other is at maximum, the
phase difference must be 90°, as in the curves of Figure 11-16. Since the torque on the disk depends
on the interaction between the magnetic field and the disk eddy currents, the greatest torque occurs
when the phase difference between the fields is 90°. This is true at any instant throughout the cycle.
When the two fields are in phase with each other, the disk eddy current produced by one field will
be in a definite direction, which will not change while the field changes from a maximum negative
to a maximum positive value. The other field, in changing during the same period from a negative to
a positive value and reacting with the disk eddy currents, tends to change the direction of rotation
because direction of the torque changes. The change occurs every one-fourth cycle and the resultant
average torque is zero. This is also true if the fields are 180° apart.
If one field is proportional to the current in a power circuit and the other to the voltage across
the circuit, the torque produced will be proportional to the product of these values. If an initial
phase difference between the two fields is exactly 90° when the line current and voltage are in phase,
the torque produced on the rotating element when the current and voltage are not in phase will be
proportional to the cosine of the angle of phase difference, which is the power factor. When the
correct phase difference is obtained between the current and voltage flux (when the meter is properly
lagged), the meter can be used to measure the active power in the circuit since the power is equal to
the product of the voltage, current, and power factor.

THE PERMANENT MAGNET OR MAGNETIC BRAKE

Another essential part of the electromechanical meter is a magnetic brake. Torque on the disk caused
by interaction of fluxes tends to cause constant acceleration. Without a brake, the speed of rotation
would only be limited by the supply frequency, friction, and certain counter-torques at higher speeds.
Therefore, some method of limiting the rotor speed and making it proportional to power is needed. A
permanent magnet performs these functions. As the disk moves through the field of the permanent
magnet, eddy currents result in much the same manner as though the magnetic field were changing
as previously described. These eddy currents remain fixed in space with respect to the magnet pole face
as the rotor turns. Again, as in the case of eddy currents caused by fluxes from the voltage and current
coils, the eddy currents are maximum when the rate of cutting flux lines is greatest. In this case the
cutting of flux lines is caused by the motion of the disk, so the eddy currents are proportional to the
rotational speed of the disk. They react with the permanent-magnet flux, causing a retarding torque
which is also proportional to the speed of the disk. This balances the driving torque from the stator
so that the speed of the disk is proportional to the driving torque, which in turn is proportional to
the power flowing through the meter. The number of revolutions made by the disk in any given time
is proportional to the total energy flowing through the meter during that time interval. The strength
of the permanent magnet is chosen so that the retarding torque will balance the driving torque at
a certain speed. In this way the number of watthours represented by each revolution of the disk is
established. This is known as the watthour constant (Kh) of the meter.

ADJUSTMENTS
On modern electromechanical, single-stator watthour meters there are two adjustments available for
utility testers to make the speed of the rotor agree with the watthour constant of the meter. They are
the full-load adjustment and the light-load adjustment.
 268 Full-Load Adjustment
The eddy currents in the disk caused by the permanent magnets produce a retarding force on the
disk. In order to adjust the rotor speed to the proper number of revolutions per minute at a given (or
“rated”) voltage and current at unity power factor, the full-load adjustment is used.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

There are two methods of making the full-load adjustment. One is to change the position of the
permanent magnet. As the magnet moves further away from the center of the disk, the lever arm
becomes longer, increasing the retarding force. The rate at which the disk cuts the lines of flux from
the permanent magnet increases and this also increases the retarding force.
In modern electromechanical meters, the method of making the full-load adjustment is by varying
the amount of flux by means of a shunt, as flux tends to travel through the path of least reluctance.
Reluctance in a magnetic circuit is resistance to magnetic lines of force, or flux. By changing the
reluctance of the shunt, it is possible to vary the amount of flux that cuts the disk. This can be done
with a soft iron yoke used as a flux shunt, in which there is a movable iron screw. As the screw is
moved into the yoke, the reluctance of this path decreases and more lines of flux from the permanent
magnet flow through the yoke and less through the disk, so the disk is subject to less retarding force
and turns faster.
In either case, the retarding force is varied by the full-load adjustment and the rotor speed is
varied until it is correct. Normally the full-load adjustment is made at unity power factor and at the
voltage and test current (TA) shown on the nameplate of the watthour meter, but the effect of adjust-
ment is the same, in terms of percent, at all loads within the class range of the meter.
Light-Load Adjustment
With no current in the current coil, any lack of symmetry in the voltage coil flux could produce a
torque that might be either forward or reverse. Because electrical steels are not perfect conductors of
magnetic flux, the flux produced by the current coils is not exactly proportional to the current, so that
when a meter is carrying a small portion of its rated load it tends to run slower. A certain amount
of friction is caused by the disk shaft bearings and the register, which also tends to make the disk
rotate at a slower speed than it should with small load currents. To compensate for these tendencies,
a controlled driving torque, which is dependent upon the voltage, is added to the disk. This is done by
means of a plate (or shading pole loop) mounted close to the voltage pole in the path of the voltage
flux. As this plate is moved circumferentially with respect to the disk, the net driving torque is varied
and the disk rotation speed changes accordingly. The plate is so designed that it can be adjusted to
provide the necessary additional driving torque to make the disk revolve at the correct speed at 10%
of the TA current marked on the nameplate of the meter. This torque is present under all conditions
of loading. Since it is constant as long as applied voltage does not change, a change in the light-load
adjustment at 10% of test amperes will also change full-load registration, but will change it only one-
tenth as much as light-load registration is changed.
Inductive-Load or Power-Factor Adjustment
Modern meters use a fixed lag plate operating on voltage flux with the compensation permanently
made by the manufacturer at the factory. Such plates may be located on the voltage coil pole or may
form a single loop around both current poles. All modern meters leave the factories properly adjusted
and, once calibrated, this lag or power-factor adjustment seldom requires change regardless of the
method used.
Once the proper phase relationship between the load-current flux and the voltage flux is attained,
there will be no appreciable error at any power factor. If this adjustment is improperly made, an error
will be present at all power factors other than unity and it will increase as the power factor decreases.
This is calculated as follows:
Meter watts
% error 5 100 1 2 —————————
True watts  
This can be developed into a formula which may be resolved into the following:


cos  2 cos ( 6 )
5 100 ——————————————
cos  
where  is the angle between the line current and voltage and  is the angle of error between the line-
current flux and the voltage flux due to improper relation within the meter. This error is computed
without reference to errors of calibration at full load. Full-load errors are independent of those just 269
calculated and add to or subtract from them dependent upon their relative signs. The errors indicated,
while computed for lagging power factor, are also applicable for leading power factor. The sign of the
effect will change when going from a lagging power factor to a leading power factor. An improper lag

the watthour meter

adjustment, which causes the meter to run slow on lagging power factor, will cause it to run fast on
leading power factor.

COMPENSATIONS
Several factors must be compensated to make the meter accurate for the variety of field conditions in
which it must operate. These compensations are built into the meter and provide corrections needed
to make the meter register accurately under conditions of overload, temperature variation, frequency
error, and voltage fluctuation.
Overload Compensation
The meter may be adjusted to record correctly at its nominal load. However, the current sensing
approach used in electromechanical meters is not perfect and, unless it is compensated, it will not
record correctly as loads increase up to the maximum load of the meter (class current). Because
electromagnetic steels are not perfect conductors of flux, the speed of rotation of the disk will tend
to be proportionately less at higher loads. Also, as load currents increase, the damping caused by the
interaction of the disk eddy currents with the fluxes that produce them also increases. This effect
becomes more visible at the higher overload currents of the meter. The voltage coil produces eddy cur-
rents which interact with the current-coil flux to drive the disk, but the interaction of the voltage-coil
eddy currents with the voltage-coil flux retards the disk. The voltage-coil flux is practically constant
regardless of load, so its retarding effect can be calibrated out of the meter. The fluxes produced by the
current coil will act with the current-coil eddy currents to retard rotation of the disk. At rated load
these self-damping effects are in the order of only 0.5% of the total damping. However, the retarding
action increases as the square of the current flux. This is true because the retarding force is a function
of the eddy currents multiplied by the flux and the eddy currents increase as the flux increases, so the
retarding force increases as the flux multiplied by itself.
Figure 11-17 shows the factors of accuracy for a meter with the typical load curve (6) of a model
compensated meter. To negate the retarding or dropping accuracy shown as curve 4, which would
result without overload compensation, a magnetic shunt is placed between but not touching the poles
of the current electromagnet and is held in place by non-magnetic spacers (see Figure 11-18). This
shunt has little effect below the point at which the accuracy curve of the meter would otherwise start
to drop, but as the load increases the shunt approaches saturation causing the current flux which cuts
the disk to increase at a greater ratio than the current. This causes an added increase in torque, which
counteracts the drop in the accuracy curve up to the point at which the shunt is saturated. Beyond
this point, which is usually beyond the maximum rated load of the meter, the accuracy curve drops
very rapidly.

Figure 11-17. Factors of Accuracy.

 270
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-18. Simplified Diagram of Magnetic Circuit of Current Element for Overload Compensation

Figure 11-19 shows another diagram of the magnetic circuit for overload compensation on the
current element. Other ways of minimizing the retarding effect are: (1) proper proportioning of
the voltage and current fluxes, so that the effective voltage-coil flux (about 4% of the total damping
flux) is proportionately higher than the effective current-coil flux; (2) by use of stronger permanent
magnets and lower disk speed; and (3) a design which gives the greatest driving torque while getting
the least damping effect from the electromagnets. Present-day meters will accurately register loads up
to 667% of the meter’s nominal rating. Figure 11-20 shows comparisons of the accuracy of modern
meters with that of those manufactured in 1920, 1940, and 1955.
At the same time that these improvements were being made, similar improvements were effected
in light-load performance as can be seen from the curves in Figure 11-21.
Voltage Compensation
Inaccuracies of registration in modern electromechanical meters over the usual range of voltage varia-
tions are very small. In a meter without voltage compensation, errors resulting from voltage change
are caused by:
1. The damping effect of the voltage flux;
2. Changes in the electromagnet characteristics due to changes in voltage; and
3. Changes in the effect of the light-load adjustment due to changes in voltage.
The damping effect of the voltage flux is similar to that of the current flux, with changes in effect
being proportional to the square of the voltage.
The errors caused by the characteristics of electromagnets are due to the failure of the magnetic
circuit to be linear under all conditions of flux density. In an electromagnet, the effective flux is not
equal to the total flux. The ratio between the effective and the total flux determines many of the
characteristics of the electromagnet. Improvements in the metals used have permitted a much closer
approach to the desired straightline properties of the magnetic circuit. Through use of saturable
 271

the watthour meter

Figure 11-19. Overload, Voltage, and Class 2 Temperature Compensations.

magnetic shunts similar to those used in the current magnetic circuit, voltage flux is controlled and
the errors due to normal voltage variations are reduced to a negligible amount.
Since the light-load compensation is dependent only on voltage, a voltage change varies the
magnitude of this compensation and tends to cause error. Increasing voltage increases light-load driv-
ing torque so that a meter tends to over-register at light-load current under over-voltage conditions.
Good meter design, which maintains a high ratio of driving torque to light-load compensating torque,
reduces these errors to very small values.

Figure 11-20. Heavy-Load Accuracy Curves.

 272
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-21. Light-Load Performance Curves.

The reduction of voltage errors in some electromechanical meters of recent manufacture is to

a degree that such a meter designed for use on 240 volts may (in most cases) be used on 120-volt
services without appreciable error. Figure 11-22 shows a voltage characteristic curve for one of the
modern meters.
Temperature Compensation
Watthour meters are subjected to wide variations in ambient temperature which can cause large errors
in metering accuracy unless the meter design provides the necessary compensation. Temperature
changes can effect the strength of the retarding magnets, the resistance of the voltage and lag coils,
the characteristics of the steels, the disk resistance, and other quantities that have a bearing on
accuracy. Temperature errors are usually divided into two classes. Class 1 errors are those temperature
errors which are independent of the load power factor, while Class 2 errors are those which are
negligible at unity power factor, but have large values at other test points.
Class 1 temperature errors are caused by a number of factors which produce a similar effect;
namely, that the meter tends to run fast with increasing temperature. Since this is the effect caused
by weakening the permanent magnet, the compensation for this class of error is to place a shunt
between the poles of the permanent magnet to bypass part of the flux from the disk. This shunt is

Figure 11-22. Voltage Characteristic Curves.

made of a magnetic alloy that exhibits increasing reluctance with increasing temperature. With proper 273
design, the shunt will bypass less flux from the disk with increasing temperature so that the braking
flux increases in the proper amount to maintain high accuracy at unity power factor over the entire
temperature range.

the watthour meter

Class 2 temperature errors increase rapidly with decreasing power factor and are primarily due to
changes in the effective resistance of the voltage and lag circuits which, in turn, cause a shift in the
phase position of the total voltage flux. Improved design has reduced these errors and various forms
of compensation have further minimized them. One compensation method consists of placing a small
piece of material with a negative permeability temperature characteristic around one end of the lag
plate (or a small amount of the alloy in the magnetic circuit of a lag coil) to vary the reactance of the
lag circuit so that the lag compensation remains correct with temperature change. Another method
is to over-lag the voltage flux with a low-temperature-coefficient resistor in the lag circuit and adjust
the current flux with a lag circuit that contains a high-temperature-coefficient resistor. With proper
design, changes in one lag circuit due to temperature are counterbalanced by changes in the other lag
circuit.
Some of the temperature effects tend to offset one another. An example of this is the change in
disk resistance with temperature. An increase in disk resistance reduces electromagnet eddy-current
flow, which reduces driving torque. However, the same effect occurs with the eddy currents set up by
the braking magnets, so braking torque decreases with driving torque and disk speed tends to remain
constant.
Figure 11-19 shows the Class 2 temperature compensation of a three-wire meter and Figure 11-23
shows the temperature characteristic curves of modern watthour meters, indicating the high degree of
temperature compensation which has been secured by the methods previously outlined.

ANTI-CREEP HOLES
Without anti-creep holes, the interaction of the voltage coil and the light-load adjustment might
provide enough torque to cause the disk to rotate very slowly when the meter was energized, but no
current flowing. This creep would generally be in a forward direction, because the light-load adjust-
ment is so designed that it helps overcome the effects of friction and compensates for imperfections
of the electromagnet steels. In order to prevent the disk from rotating continuously, two diametrically
opposed holes are cut into the disk, adding resistance to the flow of eddy currents caused by the
voltage flux. Earnshaw’s Theorem explains that a conductor in a flux field tends to move to a position
of least coupling between the conductor and the source of the flux field. As a result, the disk will tend
to stop at a position in which the anti-creep hole causes the greatest reduction in the eddy currents
(sometimes moving backward a portion of a revolution in order to stop in this position). A laminated
disk or one of varying thickness will also tend to stop in a position of least coupling.

FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS
Due to frequency stability of modern systems, variations in meter accuracy as a result of frequency
variations are negligible. As frequency is increased, the shunt coil reactance increases and its excit-
ing current decreases. The reactance of the eddy current paths in the disk is raised, thus limiting

Figure 11-23. Temperature Characteristic Curves.

 274 and shifting the phase of the eddy currents. Also, an increase in frequency raises the proportion of
reactance to resistance in the shunt coil and the meter tends to become over-lagged. Any increase in
reactance of the quadrature adjuster shifts its phase angle so that its action is to increasingly reduce
the flux, thus decreasing torque. Watthour meters are therefore slow on high frequencies and the per-
Handbook for Electricity Metering

cent registration at 50% power factor lagging will be higher than that for unity power factor. Because
of the stability of modern systems, specific frequency compensation is not required and in modern
meters frequency variation errors are kept to a minimum by proper design.
Figure 11-24 shows the effect of frequency variations on modern meters.

WAVEFORM
In determining the effects of harmonics on an electromechanical watthour meter’s performance, the
following facts are relevant:
1. An harmonic is a current or a voltage of a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fun-
damental frequency. For example, the third harmonic has a frequency of 180 hertz (Hz) in a
60 Hz system.
2. A distorted wave is a combination of fundamental and harmonic frequencies which, by analysis,
may be broken down into such frequencies.
3. Currents and voltages of different frequencies do not interact to produce torque. An harmonic
in the voltage wave will react only with the same harmonic in the current wave to produce
torque.
4. To produce torque, two fluxes with time and space displacement are necessary.
5. An harmonic present only in the voltage circuit may have a small effect on meter performance
due to the torque component produced by the light-load adjustment.
6. Minor damping effects of harmonics in either voltage or current elements are possible.
The magnetic shunt used for overload compensation can introduce harmonics in the current flux
which are not necessarily present in the load current, particularly at high loads. To a lesser extent,
this is also possible in the voltage flux. Unless extreme distortion of waveform exists, the errors due to
harmonics will not degrade meter accuracy beyond normal commercial limits. However, when working
with high accuracy watthour standards, the errors due to harmonics may be bothersome. All meters,
even when of the same manufacture and type, do not exhibit identical reactions to the same degree of
harmonics.
Waveform distortion and resulting meter inaccuracies may be caused by over-excited distribution
transformers and open-delta transformer banks. Some types of equipment, such as rectifiers and fluo-
rescent lamps, may also cause distortion of the waveform. Welders cause poor waveform and present a
continuing metering problem, but other factors may have greater influence on meter errors.
In extreme cases of distortion a separate analysis is necessary because each waveform has different
characteristics. The distorted wave should be resolved into the fundamental and the various harmonic
sine waves and then calculations can be made.

Figure 11-24. Frequency Curve of Modern Meter.

METER REGISTERS 275
The register is a means of recording
revolutions of the rotor through gear-

the watthour meter

ing to the disk shaft. Either a clock
(pointer-type) or a cyclometer-type
register may be used.
Figure 11-25 shows a clock-type
register and a cyclometer register.
Both perform the same function, but
the pointer-type has numbered dials
on its face and the pointers turn to
indicate a proportion of the number
of revolutions the disk has made. In
the cyclometer-type registers, numbers
are printed on cylinders that turn to
indicate a proportion of the number
of revolutions of the disk. Since the
purpose of the register is to show the
number of kilowatthours used, the
reading is proportional rather than
direct. The necessary gearing is provided
so that the revolutions of the disk will
move the first (or right-side) pointer
or cylinder one full revolution (360°)
each time the rotor revolves the number
of times equal to ten kilowatthours of
usage. This is known as the gear ratio
(Rg). The register ratio (Rr) is the
number of revolutions of the wheel Figure 11-25. Clock-Type (Top) and Cyclometer-Type
which meshes with the pinion or worm Meter Registers.
on the disk shaft for one revolution of
the first dial pointer.

METER ROTOR BEARINGS

In order to support the shaft on which the rotor is mounted, magnetic bearings are used as they
provide a minimum amount of friction. The weight of the rotor disk and shaft is 16 to 17 grams.
Modern meters have magnetic bearings consisting of two magnets that support the shaft and disk.
The rotor is held in position by mutual attraction when the bearing magnets are located at the top of
the disk shaft and by repulsion of the magnets when they are located at the bottom of the shaft. One
magnet is fastened to the meter frame and the other magnet is mounted on the disk shaft. Vertical
alignment is provided by guide pins mounted on the meter frame at the top and bottom of the disk
shaft, which has bushings mounted in each end. The only bearing pressures in this type of rotor sup-
port are slight side thrusts on the guide pins, since the shaft does not otherwise touch either the top
or bottom supports, making the system subject to less wear. No part of this system requires lubrica-
tion. Additional advantages of this type of bearing system are reduced maintenance, less tilt error, and
better ability to withstand rough handling.
With the meter properly adjusted, the disk will revolve at a specified speed at full load. This speed
and the rating of the meter determine the watthour constant, or Kh, which is the number of watt­
hours represented by one revolution of the disk. The watthour constant, Kh, may be found by use of
the formula:
Kh 5 Rated Voltage 3 Rated Current /(Full-Load RPM 3 60)

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE METER

The basic parts of the meter are assembled on a frame, mounted on a base, and enclosed with a glass
cover. The cover encloses the entire meter and is sealed to the base. The base and cover are so designed
that it is almost impossible to tamper with the adjustments of the meter without leaving evidence.
 276 Meters are weathertight due to the design of the cover, base, and dust guard. The meter is allowed
to breathe by providing an opening at the bottom of the base. This opening also allows any condensa-
tion that may form on the inside of the cover to drain out. The chief aid in allowing meters to operate
outdoors and under varying humidity conditions is the self-heat generated in the meter, as this causes
Handbook for Electricity Metering

the cooler cover to act as the condenser under high-humidity operation. Therefore, meters should not
be stored outdoors without being energized.
The materials and coatings used to prevent corrosion are the best materials economically avail-
able during that period of manufacture. Present-day meters are made from high corrosion-resistant
aluminum, which has minimum contact with copper or brass materials. The steel laminations are
coated with paint. A plastic base, glass, or plastic cover, and stainless-steel (or other material) cover-
ing provide the meter with corrosion resistance. In the application of corrosion-resistant finishes,
consideration must be given to the particular function of the part in question, such as exposure to the
elements, wear resistance, and use as a current-carrying part.
There are a variety of processes that can be used to protect the metals within a meter. Iridite is
a chromate-dip finish that may be used on cadmium-plated steel parts. This process applies an oxide
coating and seals at the same time. One of the finishes applied to aluminum is anodizing. This finish
converts the surface to aluminum oxide, which is a very hard, corrosion-resistant finish. This protec-
tion may be further improved by applying a sealer that closes the pores in the oxide and prevents
the entrance of moisture. Another finish for aluminum is alodine, which is a complex chromate gel
applied to the surface and that seals the metal in one operation. When applied to aluminum, the
parts take on an iridescent finish. It may be used on parts such as the grid, register plates, and others
not subject to wear or abrasion.
The copper and copper-bearing alloys that carry current are tin-plated on contact surfaces, e.g.,
socket-meter bayonets. This not only gives protection against corrosion, but also improves contact
resistance.
Brass screws may be protected by a heavy nickel plating. Steel parts, such as register screws, may
also be nickel-plated.
For the protection of ferrous metals, such as voltage and current electromagnet laminations, these
parts may be immersed in a hot solution of phosphoric acid. This converts the surface to a hard iron
phosphite that is further hardened by a sealer, usually paint. The voltage and current laminations may
be sealed with several coats of paint.
Lightning and surge protection are provided by a combination of high insulation and surge levels
built into the voltage coil and current coil and the provision of a ground pin in calibrated proximity
to the current leads on the line side so that a lightning surge will jump the spark gap prior to enter-
ing the coils. The ground-pin gap is such as to cause a spark over at some voltage between 4,000
and 6,000 volts. The ground pin is attached to a strap in contact with the socket enclosure, which is
grounded. The factory testing consists of hi-potting of both voltage coils and current coils at about
7,000 volts. The voltage coil is exposed to a 10,000 volt surge of a 1.2 3 50 (crests in 1.2 micro­
seconds, decays in 50 microseconds) wave shape to pick out any shorted turns in the windings. This
combination has proved very successful in allowing meters to withstand repeated lightning surges and
still allow continued accurate meter operation.
Present-day meters are built with permanent magnets that are practically unaffected by lightning
surges.
Two- or Three-Wire Electromechanical Meters
Some single-stator electromechanical meters are made so that by means of a very simple rearrange-
ment of internal connections the meter can be converted from the connections used on 120 volt
circuits to those needed for use on 240 volt circuits. Coil ends are brought to terminal boards and
usually the connections can be changed with a screwdriver. The basic theory, inherent accuracy, stabil-
ity of calibration, insulation, and other desirable features of modern watthour meters are unaffected
by the minor changes of internal connections. This meter has the advantage of not becoming obsolete
if the customer changes from 120 volt to 240 volt service.
The voltage coils are wound to give uniform flux distribution whether connected for 120 volt or
240 volt usage. A constant resistance-to-reactance ratio is maintained as the change is made; therefore
a constant phase-angle relationship exists and no readjustment of the lag compensation is necessary.
The Kh constant is the same for either connection, since one current coil is used for 120 volt
operation and two are used when the meter is connected for 240 volt operation. These meters are
of standard dimensions so they are interchangeable with other single-phase, 120 volt or 240 volt 277
standard-size meters. In general, changing internal connections has so little effect on calibration of
the meter that it may be considered negligible.

the watthour meter

Electromechanical Multi-Stator Meters
The single-stator, two-wire meter is the most accurate form of the induction meter under all load
conditions. To measure a four-wire service, three two-wire meters may be used with their registrations
added to obtain total energy. From the point of view of accuracy this is the ideal method of measure-
ment. It is awkward, however, and introduces difficulties when measurement of demand is required.
The polyphase meter is a combination of two or more single-phase stators in one case, usually
with a common moving element with such modifications as are necessary to balance torques and meet
mechanical limitations. However, when single-phase stators are combined in the polyphase meter,
the performance under imbalanced conditions does not always follow the independent single-phase
characteristics. After compensation for interference and proper adjustments for balance, the accuracy
of the multi-stator meter closely approaches that of the two-wire, single-stator meter.
The modern electromechanical polyphase meter is essentially a multi-element motor, with a
magnetic braking system, a register, a means for balancing the torques of all stators, and all the
various adjustments and compensating devices found in single-stator meters. Most of the modern
design features developed for single-stator meters are being applied to the multi-stator meter. These
components are assembled on a frame and mounted on a base that also contains the terminals. The
base, the cover, and the terminals vary in their design according to the installation requirements of
the meter. Magnetic-type bearings are being used on all meters of current manufacture for use in the
United States.

POLYPHASE ELECTROMECHANICAL METER CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPENSATIONS

Multi-stator polyphase electromechanical meters have, in general, temperature, overload, voltage, and
frequency characteristics similar to those of the single-stator meter and they are compensated in the
same manner to improve these characteristics.

DRIVING AND DAMPING TORQUES

For a single-stator, two-wire meter, the driving torque is directly proportional to voltage and load cur-
rent and the cosine of the angle between them except for a slight non-linearity due to the magnetizing
characteristics of the steel. Damping torque should also be proportional to load. The overall damping
flux has three separate components; namely, permanent-magnet damping, voltage-flux damping, and
current-flux damping. Permanent-magnet damping is relatively constant and provides damping torque
directly proportional to speed. Voltage damping flux is also relatively constant since line voltage varia-
tions are normally small. Current damping flux varies with the square of the current and therefore
causes a divergence between torque and speed curves as the current load increases. This cannot be
eliminated, but can be influenced during design by changing the ratio of the current or variable flux to
the constant flux produced by the voltage coil and the permanent magnet.
In a typical modern single-stator meter at rated test-amperes and normal voltage, the damping
torque from the permanent magnet is 96.7% of the total. The voltage flux furnishes 2.8% and the
remaining 0.5% comes from the current flux. Since the current-damping component increases with
the square of the current, the speed curve will obviously be below the torque curve as the load current
increases. An uncompensated meter having 0.5% current damping at rated test amperes would be 2%
slow at 200% test-amperes.
These underlying principles also apply to polyphase meters. However, the combining of two or
more stators to drive a common moving element introduces factors in performance that are not
apparent from the performance of independent single-stator meters.

INDIVIDUAL-STATOR PERFORMANCE
In the simplest form of the polyphase meter with two stators driving a common moving element, the
meter performs as a single-phase meter if both elements are connected together on single-phase, e.g.,
with the current coils connected in series and the voltage coils in parallel. With this connection it
is, for all intents and purposes, a single-phase meter and has all the characteristics of a single-phase
meter. The fact that the two stators are coupled together on a single shaft makes no difference except
to average the characteristics of the individual stators.
 278 The same will be true, with the exception of interference errors, when the meter is connected in a
polyphase circuit and the load is completely balanced. When the loads are not balanced, the polyphase
meter no longer performs as a single-phase meter. If only one stator is loaded, the polyphase meter
will tend to register fast. This is best illustrated by putting balanced loads on the two stators, checking
Handbook for Electricity Metering

the calibration, and then removing the load from one stator. The meter will register fast along the
load curve as compared to the speed curve on combined stators. This is due to the variation of the
overall damping torque caused by the change in the current damping component.

CURRENT DAMPING
Assume that a polyphase meter when operating at rated test-amperes has its damping components
in the following typical relationships: 96.7% from a permanent magnet, 2.8% from voltage at rated
voltage, and 0.5% from current at rated test-amperes.
When the load is taken off one stator, the driving torque drops 50%, but the total damping drops
more than 50% since the current damping on the unloaded stator is eliminated, whereas it was a part
of the total damping torque when both stators were loaded.
This characteristic changes with increasing load. For example, in a two-stator meter that runs
0.4% fast on a single stator at rated test-amperes as compared to the registration with balanced load
on both stators at rated test-amperes, the difference in registration between single and combined
stators may be as much as 3% at 300% rated test-amperes. This can be seen from the fact that the
current-damping component from the stator that is not loaded would be nine times as great at 300%
rated test-amperes as at 100% rated test-amperes. Therefore its elimination at 300% rated test-amperes
takes away 9 3 0.4 or about 3.6% from the total damping.

IMBALANCED LOADS
Due to the effect of current damping, if the stators are unequally loaded the registration will differ
from when the load is equally balanced or when the total load is carried by one stator. This is because
the overload compensation causes the torque curve to go up in direct proportion to the increase in
current damping on balanced loads. The departure from balanced-load performance, particularly for
heavy loads, will be in proportion to the amount of overload compensation in the meter.
For a five ampere, two-stator, polyphase meter with five amperes applied to each stator, the total
current damping will be proportional to (5 amperes)2 plus (5 amperes)2 or 50 current-damping
units. On the other hand, if 10 amperes is applied to one stator only, current damping will then be
proportional to (10 amperes)2 or 100 current-damping units. This is the same total energy and total
flux, but they are divided differently in the stators and consequently produce different current damp-
ing. The current-squared damping law applies only to current flux produced in a single stator and not
to the total currents in separate stators. In this case, the current damping of the single stator with
10 amperes is twice that of two elements with five amperes each.
If the load is imbalanced (eight amperes on one stator and two amperes on the other), the total
current damping is proportional to 82 plus 22 or 68 current-damping units as compared to 50 units
with 5 amperes on each stator.

INTERFERENCE BETWEEN STATORS

Polyphase meters must have a high degree of independence between the stators. Lack of this inde-
pendence is commonly known as interference and can be responsible for large errors in the various
measurements of polyphase power.
Major interference errors are due to the mutual reaction in a meter disk between the eddy cur-
rents caused by current or voltage fluxes of one stator and any interlinking fluxes that may be due to
currents or voltages associated with one or more other stators. Specifically, these mutual reactions fall
into three groups: voltage-voltage, current-current, and current-voltage or voltage-current.
Voltage-Voltage Interference
Voltage-voltage interference is due to the interlinkage of flux in the disk set up by the voltage coil of
one stator with eddy currents caused by flux from the voltage coil of another stator. The magnitude of
the interference torque resulting from this reaction depends on the relative position of the two voltage
coils with respect to the center of the disk (for coils displaced exactly 180° this torque is zero), and on
the phase angle between the two voltage fluxes. This torque could be very high unless these factors are
thoroughly considered in proper design.
Current-Current Interference 279
Current-current interference is due to interlinkage of flux set up by the current coil of one stator with
eddy currents in the disk caused by flux from the current coil of another stator. The magnitude of this
second reaction again depends on the relative position of the two stators (zero if at 180°) and on the

the watthour meter

magnitude of and the phase angle between the two current fluxes.
Current-Voltage or Voltage-Current Interference
Current-voltage or voltage-current is due to the interlinkage of flux set up by the voltage or current
circuits of one stator and the eddy currents in the disk caused by the current flux from one stator
and the voltage fluxes from another stator. The magnitude of this third type of reaction depends on
the relative geometrical position of the stators and the power factor of the circuit. The effect on the
registration is a constant, which is independent of the current load on the meter.

INTERFERENCE TESTS
Comparative tests to evaluate interference effects in a watthour meter have been established within
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C12 standard.
Interference tests are not part of the usual meter calibration procedure and are not performed
in the meter shop. Since such tests are made to evaluate the manufacturer’s design of a particular
polyphase meter type, they are usually performed in the meter laboratory.
The specialized interference tests require the use of a two-phase power source with two-stator
meters and a three-phase source with three-stator meters. The test results do not give the specific
interference errors that will be obtained in actual service, but if the results are within the established
tolerances, assurance is obtained that the interference effects will not be excessive.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS TO REDUCE INTERFERENCE

Interference in a single-disk meter is reduced by proper design, which includes control of the shape of
the eddy current paths in the disk and the most favorable relative positioning of the coils and stators.
One of the common methods of reducing interference includes positioning two stators symmetrically
about the disk shaft exactly 180° from each other. This eliminates two of the three possible forms of
interference.
Another method of reducing all types of interference is to laminate the disk. A number of separate
laminations are used. Each lamination is slotted radially to form several sectors and the laminations
are insulated electrically from each other. Because of the radial slots, the eddy currents in the disk are
confined to the area around the stator which causes them, and they cannot flow to a portion of the
disk where they could react with fluxes from another stator to create interference torques. The lamina-
tion slots are usually staggered during manufacturing to provide sufficient mechanical strength and
smoother driving torque during each disk revolution.
A third method of reducing interference is to provide magnetic shielding around the voltage or
current coil of each stator to keep the spread of flux to a minimum. Combinations of the preceding
methods are also employed.
Meters with stators operating on separate disks or completely separate rotors are inherently free
from the various effects listed before. Proper design and spacing are still required to prevent voltage
or current flux from one electromagnet reacting with eddy currents produced by flux from a second
electromagnet.

MULTI-STATOR METER ADJUSTMENTS

Most polyphase electromechanical meters contain two or three separate stators so mounted that their
combined torque turns a single rotor shaft. As in single-phase meters, the adjustments provided for
polyphase meters are the usual full-load, power factor, and light-load adjustments. In addition to these
adjustments, polyphase meters have a fourth adjustment, torque balance, designed to allow equaliza-
tion of individual stator torques with equal applied wattage for accurate registration. There is no
requirement for torque balance in a single-phase meter.
Each stator in a multi-stator meter may contain a light-load adjustment, or a single light-load
adjustment of sufficient range may be provided on one stator. All stators must contain power-factor
compensation so that the phase relationships are correct in each stator. The power-factor compensa-
tion is adjustable on most meters, but some manufacturers make a fixed power-factor compensation
at the factory which is not readily changed in the field. Only one full-load adjustment is provided on
 280 most modern polyphase meters, even though more than one braking magnet may be used. Torque-
balance adjustments may be provided on all stators, on only one stator in two-stator meters, or on
two stators of a three-stator meter. In all cases it is possible to equalize stator torques.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Torque-Balance Adjustment
For correct registration, the torque produced by each stator in a multi-stator electromechanical meter
must be the same when equal wattage is applied. A two-stator meter with one stator 5% fast and the
other stator 5% slow would show good performance with both stators connected in series-parallel for
a calibration test on single-phase loading. However, if this meter were used to measure polyphase loads
involving either low power factor or imbalance, the registration would be incorrect. To correct for this,
each stator should be calibrated and adjusted separately to ensure that each produces the same driving
torque. The full-load adjustment cannot be used because it has an equal effect on the performance
of all stators, so the torque-balance adjustment is provided for independently adjusting the torque of
each stator.
Since the torque developed by a single stator is dependent upon the amount of flux produced
by the electromagnet that passes through the disk, it follows that the torque for a given load can be
varied by any method that will change the flux through the disk. A convenient way to change this is
by providing a magnetic shunt in the air gap of the voltage-coil poles in the electromagnet. Moving
this shunt into or out of the air gap bypasses a greater or a lesser portion of the voltage flux from the
disk. This changes the disk driving torque through a narrow range. The adjustment obtained this way
is sufficient to equalize the torques of the individual stators in a polyphase meter.
Two methods used for torque balancing are shown in Figure 11-26. The first uses two steel screws
which can be turned into or out of the gaps in the voltage-coil iron just below the coil windings. The
second method uses a U-shaped soft iron wire that is inserted in the air gaps. This wire is attached to
a yoke carried on threaded studs which permits the magnetic shunt to be moved in and out of the air
gap. After these adjustments have been set so that the torques of all stators are alike, the other meter
adjustments can be made as for single-phase meters.
Interdependence of Adjustments
Another characteristic of the polyphase meter is that any change in a full-load or light-load adjust-
ment affects all stators alike. This does not apply to the power factor or torque balance adjustments.
The torques of the stators can be balanced at any unity power factor load value, but it is custom-
ary to make the balance adjustment at the rated test-ampere load. The balance of the individual stator
torques at other unity power factor load points will depend on how well the stator characteristics are
matched. Any divergence that may exist cannot be corrected or minimized by the light-load adjust-
ment or otherwise, except by attempting to select stators of the same characteristics. This is neither
practical nor important.

(a) (b)

Figure 11-26. Methods of Shunting Voltage-Coil Air Gap for

Torque-Balancing Adjustment in Multi-Stator Meters.
 In calibrating a polyphase meter at light-load, it is proper to excite all voltage circuits at the 281
rated voltage. Under such conditions, the overall accuracy is the same regardless of whether a single
light-load adjuster is used for the complete calibration or whether, where more than one adjuster is
provided, each is moved a corresponding amount. In the latter case, when a considerable amount of

the watthour meter

adjustment is necessary, it is the usual practice to move the adjusters of all stators about the same
amount to assure a sufficient range of adjustment and to avoid changes in torque balance at the 50%
power factor test load.

Solid-State Meters
All watthour metering approaches require power to be measured and accumulated, and the results
stored and displayed. All approaches require that the voltage and current for each electrical phase
be sensed (or approximated) and for voltage and current for each electrical phase be multiplied, the
resultant power must be accumulated, and the accumulated watthours stored and displayed. Electro-
mechanical meters have evolved and all manufacturers use very similar approaches. The same cannot
be said for totally electronic meters.
Significant design variations occur in every electronic meter on the market. These variations even
occur within a given manufacturer’s product line. Ultimately, users or regulatory agencies determine if
design trade-offs are appropriate as determined by evaluation and qualification testing of each design.

EVOLUTION OF SOLID-STATE METERING

The Watt/Watthour Transducer
Solid-state metering was introduced in the early 1970s in the form of a watt/watthour transducer
(Figure 11-27). The advantages of solid-state electronic circuitry produced increased stability and accu-
racy surpassing the capabilities of the conventional electromechanical watthour meter. Consequently,
the watt/watthour transducer was most suitable to
energy interchange billing and special applications
where analog watt and digital watthour outputs
were required. They are used in these applications
today, although multi-function electronic meters
are starting to replace them.
A watt/watthour transducer provides an analog
(watt) output signal in the form of a DC cur-
rent as well as a pulse (watthour) output from a
form C mercury-wetted relay or solid-state relay.
The analog output may be used to drive a panel
meter, or telemetered to a supervisory control
system.
The Electronic Register
In the 1970s, the register function for solid-state
transducers began to be provided with electronic
components. In 1979, the first microprocessor-
based electronic register was introduced as an
addition to the electromechanical meter. This
combination was referred to as a hybrid meter or
as an electronic meter. Compared with mechanical Figure 11-27. Solid-State Watt/Watthour
registers, electronic registers were more reliable Transducer.
when performing complex functions (demand)
and could be provided at lower cost. In addition,
electronic registers provided features not feasible with mechanical registers, such as time-of-use
measurements, sliding demand intervals, switchable registers, tamper detectors, and self-tests.
Today, automatic or remote meter reading is the most common application of electronic registers
on electromechanical meters. These registers typically detect the disk rotation using some form of
optical detector and communicate the energy consumption to a nearby meter reader or central system.
Communication may be by radio frequency, powerline carrier, telephone, cable, or other appropriate
media.
 282 Commercial Solid-State Meters
Totally electronic meters were originally used in high cost, high precision metering applications. In the
early 1980s, there were a number of field tests to provide ­economical solid-state metering. By the mid-
1980s, one manufacturer was providing a totally electronic meter replacement for the electromechani-
Handbook for Electricity Metering

cal, four-wire, wye meter. By the late 1980s, multiple manufacturers had totally electronic replacement
meters for all electromechanical polyphase meter services. These still tended to be more expensive than
the electromechanical meters, but provided more accuracy and greater functionality.
In 1992, polyphase metering changed dramatically with the introduction of a totally electronic
meter that was highly accurate and cost competitive with the electromechanical demand meter. In
addition, multiple service voltages and multiple service wirings could be handled with the same physi-
cal meter. In the mid-1990s, additional functionality, such as instrumentation and site diagnostics,
was added to the basic solid-state polyphase meter. Today, these features are the norm for polyphase
metering.
Also in the mid-1990s, a practical single-phase solid-state meter was introduced for practical time-
of-use and demand applications. By the late 1990s, other manufacturers had introduced more cost
effective solid-state meters for lower-end single-phase applications.
The Solid-State Watthour Meter Principle of Operation
A functional block diagram of an early watt/watthour transducer is shown in Figure 11-28. The watt
section is an electronic multiplier which uses the time-division-multiplier (TDM) principle to produce
a pulse train which combines pulse-width and pulse-amplitude modulation. The pulse initiator section
receives a DC current signal proportional to power from the watt section. Output pulses, propor-
tional to a convenient watthour-per-pulse rate, are fed from the KYZ output circuit to a register, tape
recorder, electronic pulse counter, or other pulse-operated device.
Solid-State Watthour Meter
A typical meter consists of two sections: the multiplier and the register. In an electromechanical meter
the multiplier consists of the voltage and current coils and the meter disk; the register consists of the

Figure 11-28. Functional Block Diagram Watt/Watthour Transducer.

gears and dial indicators which count, store, and display the results of the multiplier. A multiplier 283
produces the product of a given voltage and current, a register counts and displays the results of the
multiplier, and a meter includes a multiplier and a register.
All solid-state meters must convert analog voltage and current signals into digital data. The digital

the watthour meter

data is sent to the register as serial or parallel data. Serial data is a series of pulses where each pulse
has a predetermined value, such as 0.6 watthours per pulse. Parallel data is typically in bytes and
represents a new value.
To implement an electronic multiplier, meter manufacturers use one of these four approaches:
time-division multiplication, Hall Effect technology, transconductance amplifiers, or digital sampling
techniques. Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and some manufacturers offer more than
one type of electronic multiplier.
Characteristics common to all electronic multipliers are that the original input signals are scaled
down to lower voltages to be compatible with solid-state components, analog signals are converted to
digital equivalents within the multiplier, and the phase angles between voltage and current are not
measured directly.

CURRENT SENSING
All currents must be reduced to a signal level that the electronics can process. The current sensor
needs to accurately reflect the current magnitude and phase angle over the expected environmental
and service variations. Because the current sensor measures the currents on lines that are at line
voltage, current sensors must be isolated from each other on systems with multiple line voltages. The
current sensor must also provide protection from power transients.
The most common current sensor circuits are typically current transformers. Transformers allow
the line voltages to be isolated from each other. A current transformer’s linearity is defined by the
magnetic material used for its core. Typically, a high permeability material is used to ensure a linear
performance, minimal phase shift, and immunity to external magnetic fields. Care must be taken
to ensure the material does not saturate under normal conditions. High permeability materials will
saturate with DC currents, but these are not normally present on an AC electrical system.
A current sensor similar to the current transformer is the mutual inductance current sensor. This
sensor uses air or a very low permeability material for the core because these materials are generally
inexpensive and will not saturate (as is the case with air) or require very high magnetic fluxes to cause
the material to saturate. They also tend to have acceptable DC immunity. The drawback to this sensor
is that it is more susceptible to external magnetic fields, it often has stability issues with time and
temperature, and it cannot supply much current. As such, it tends to have large phase shifts that vary
with sensor loading. Typically, a voltage is measured from the sensor instead of a current.
A common sensor used in two-wire meters (particularly in Europe) is the current shunt. This
sensor defines a geometry in the meter’s current conductor that causes part of the total current to
pass through a resistance so that a voltage will be developed that is proportional to the load current.
This voltage is then measured and represents the current. Because copper has a low resistance and a
very large temperature coefficient, a special material is used for the shunt. The main disadvantages of
this sensor are that it is not isolated from the line voltage and it is difficult to control the sensor’s
performance over a wide temperature range.
A current sensor can be produced using the Hall Effect. When a current flows through a material
which is in a magnetic field, a voltage appears across the material proportional to the product of the
current and the strength of the magnetic field (Figure 11-29). In Figure 11-29a there is no magnetic
field and no voltage appears across the material. In Figure 11-29b, the magnetic field perpendicular
to the path of the electrons displaces electrons toward the right side of the material. This produces
a voltage difference side-to-side across the material. The voltage is proportional to the strength of
the magnetic field and the amount of current flowing in the material. The Hall Effect device is usu-
ally inserted in a gap in a toroidal-shaped magnetic core. Because it measures the magnetic field of
the current through a conductor, there is electrical isolation in the current sensor. The Hall Effect
device can also be used for multiplication with the line voltage. Depending on the voltage measure-
ment approach, isolation may be lost. Historically, phase shift and temperature and frequency output
­variations have been problems for Hall Effect devices, but there have been significant improvements in
the performance of meters using these sensors.
There are numerous variations of the above current sensors. Shunts can be combined with cur-
rent transformers. Compensating wirings can be used on a current transformer made with a low
 284
Handbook for Electricity Metering

(a) (b)

Figure 11-29. Hall Effect.

permeability material. Generally, most of the performance issues related to a particular current sensor
technology can be compensated in the associated electronics. How these issues are addressed will be
unique to each meter design.

VOLTAGE SENSING
All voltages must be reduced to a signal level that the electronics can process. Like current sensing, the
reduced voltage needs to accurately reflect the voltage magnitude and phase angle over the expected
environmental and service variations. It must also provide protection from power transients.
Historically, the voltage reduction circuits were transformers. Transformers allow the line volt-
ages to be isolated from each other, but often have a limited operating range, have an intrinsic phase
shift that varies with frequency, and are relatively expensive. Most of today’s solid-state meters use
a resistor-divider network because of the reduced cost and a very wide dynamic operating range with
accurate reproduction of magnitude and phase angle. A drawback of this approach is that the designer
must use great care to ensure the meter operates properly over all defined services. Another is that the
electronics of the meter may have line voltage present in some services, which can represent a safety
and equipment issue for the meter technician.

MULTIPLICATION
Time-Division Multiplication
Time-division multiplication (TDM), also called mark-space-amplitude multiplication, is used in the
earliest commercial solid-state meters and many metering transducers and standards. It computes
power by using the common calculation of length times width to measure the area of a rectangle. The
TDM multiplier develops a series of pulses where the width of each pulse is proportional to input volt-
age and the height of each pulse is proportional to input current, or vise versa. The area of each pulse
is proportional to power. Power can be integrated over time to develop an output signal for energy.
Figure 11-30 is a block diagram of a TDM multiplier and the waveforms within the multiplier.
The signal from the voltage (or current) sensor is compared with a triangular wave with a mag-
nitude greater than the maximum of the input voltage signal. The frequency of the triangular wave
varies with each manufacturer, with values typically between 800 Hz and 10 kHz. The comparator
compares the input voltage with the reference ­voltage. For the positive half of the input voltage cycle,
if the reference voltage is greater than the input signal, the comparator output is negative; if the refer-
ence voltage is less than the input signal, the comparator output is positive. For the negative half of
the input voltage cycle, if the reference voltage is more negative than the input signal, the comparator
output is negative; if the reference voltage is less negative than the input signal, the comparator output
is positive. Figure 11-30b, graph C, illustrates these comparisons. Graph D shows the output from the
comparator, a signal with a fixed amplitude and a pulse width proportional to the input voltage.
The output from the comparator controls an electronic switch. When the comparator output is
positive, the switch is set to input 1. When comparator output is negative, the switch is set to input 2.
Signal from the current sensor (or voltage sensor) is applied to switch input 1, and the inverse of
that input is applied to switch input 2.
The output of the switch is shown on Figure 11-30b, graph F. The width of each shaded area is
proportional to the width of the switch control signal, which is ­proportional to the input voltage.
 285

the watthour meter

(a) (b)

Figure 11-30. Time-Division Multiplication Waveforms.

The height of each shaded area is proportional to the input current. The area of each shaded area is
proportional to power for that period of time. While there appears to be positive as well as negative
areas in the graph, the negative areas do not indicate power flow in the reverse direction.
The integrator and pulse generator convert power into energy measurements and the analog
information into digital data. The integrator sums individual areas, both positive and negative. When
the accumulated total exceeds a predetermined value, the predetermined value is subtracted from
the accumulated total and a pulse output is generated. The output of the pulse generator is sent to a
register for storage and display.
By passing output signal F through an electronic filter, a signal proportional to instantaneous
power can be produced. This waveform is labeled as signal H, and can be transmitted to a Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system for monitoring and control purposes.
A comparison of Figure 11-29 with Figure 11-30 shows that while several years have passed since
the watt/watthour transducer of Figure 11-29 was designed, the basic principles of TDM remain
unchanged. The significant changes in the two designs result from the trend toward smaller lower cost
components. In modern TDM multipliers, design variations among manufacturers include the fre-
quency used by the triangular reference waveform; the rate at which integrated data is converted into
pulses; the electronic components selected for the comparator, switch, and integrator; calibration and
adjustments made available; method for scaling down voltage and current inputs; power supplies; and
the technology used for the display.
Hall Effect Multiplication
The Hall Effect device can be used for current measurement and it can also be used for the multiplica-
tion of the voltage with the current signal. Figure 11-31 illustrates application of the Hall Effect to
metering. Current flows in the Hall Effect device based on line voltage across the device after a reduc-
ing resistor. Current in a conductor looped around the magnetic core creates a magnetic field. The
magnetic field flows around the core and through the Hall Effect device, perpendicular to the flow of
current.
The Hall Effect voltage is sensed by a differential amplifier and supplied to an integrator and pulse
generator. The integrator and pulse generator convert the power measured to an energy measurement,
 286
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-31. Hall Effect Applied to Metering.

and convert analog information into digital data. The ­integrator calculates the area under the power
curve and stores accumulated data. When the accumulated total exceeds a predetermined value, the
predetermined value is subtracted from the accumulated total and a pulse output is sent to a register
for counting, storing, and displaying the measured data.
Transconductance Multiplier
The transconductance multiplier uses a differential amplifier, where bias current varies with an input
signal. The circuit is illustrated in Figure 11-32. In a metering application, input current is applied
to the emitter of both transistors through
resistor R1. Input voltage is applied across the
base of both transistors causing one transistor
to conduct more than the other transistor.
The current flow difference causes different
voltage drops across resistors R2 and R3.
Output voltage VOUT, is proportional to the
bias current multiplied by the input voltage.
Figure 11-33 illustrates application of
a transconductance amplifier for metering
purposes. Bias current is developed from
resistors R1, R2, and R3 connected across the
power line. Input voltage VIN is developed
from a secondary winding on a transformer
(in this example a toroid core), where the
primary winding carries line current. The
output signal is fed to an integrator and pulse
generator.
The integrator calculates the area beneath
Figure 11-32. Transconductance Multiplier the power curve. When the sum of several
areas exceeds a predetermined value, the
predetermined value is subtracted from the
integrated total and an output pulse generated. Output pulses are sent to a register for counting, stor-
ing, and display of the measured data.
Digital Multiplier
For all three multipliers described above, the analog voltage and current signals are multiplied and
the results are converted to digital format. With the digital multiplier, the voltage and current analog
inputs are immediately converted to digital equivalents, then multiplied using digital circuits.
An analog-to-digital converter measures the instantaneous value of the waveform and converts
each value to an equivalent digital word. An input sine wave, for example, can be sampled many
times within one cycle and a digital equivalent of each instantaneous value can be stored in memory.
Important specifications for analog-to-digital converters are: conversion time, the number of bits of
resolution, and linearity.
Modern analog-to-digital conversion times are typically in the range of 20 to 50 microseconds.
When the conversion time is short, changes to the input signal during the measuring window are
 287

the watthour meter

Figure 11-33. Transconductance Multiplier Applied to Metering.

small, increasing the accuracy of the measurement. When the time for each conversion is short, more
samples can be taken during each cycle of the analog input, making the data collection process more
accurate.
When sampling a voltage or current signal, the sampling rate determines the accuracy with which
the signal is measured. The Nyquist Theorem states: when sampling an analog signal, to capture
sufficient information about that signal, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency
of interest in the analog signal. For example, if the highest frequency of interest in a signal is 60 Hz,
the signal must be sampled at least 120 times per second to get a valid representation of that signal. If
higher frequencies are of interest, a higher sampling rate must be used. For example, if measuring the
seventh harmonic which has a frequency of 420 Hz is of interest, the signal must be sampled at least
twice 420 or 840 times per second. Unfortunately, Nyquist is dealing with the presence of a frequency
in a stable waveform. The load currents may be considered stable over short time periods, but this is
very application dependent. To accurately reflect a changing current signal, a much higher sample rate
is required. The performance of a meter under these conditions is difficult to measure, because most
test equipment uses stable current signals for the test and is limited in its ability to deal with frequen-
cies other than the fundamental.
The sampling rate of solid-state meters varies by model and by manufacturer. Typical rates are 10s
to 100s of samples per 60 Hz cycle and per phase. Because two parameters, voltage and current, must
be measured, often multiple analog-to-digital converters are used. Because multiple phases must be
measured, the digital multiplier must process information at two to three times these sampling rates.
A three-phase meter taking two readings for each of three phases processes information at speeds over
15,000 new readings each second.
The number of bits of resolution determines the granularity of the measurement. For example, if a
2-bit analog-to-digital converter is used to convert an analog signal which varies from 0 to 110 volts,
the converter can output only four different digital values representing the input, or steps of 2.5 volts
each. If a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter is used to convert a signal varying from 0 to 110 volts,
the converter can output 4,096 different digital values, or steps of 2.44 millivolts each. In the second
example, a change of only 2.44 millivolts at the analog input will cause a one-bit change in the output
digital value. The resolution of analog-to-digital converters used in solid-state meters varies by model
and by manufacturer, depending on the accuracy of the application. Typical resolutions are 12 to 21
bits.
A block diagram of a digital multiplier in a power meter is shown in Figure 11-34. This example
shows two analog-to-digital converters although more could be used, especially in polyphase meters.
The input voltage and current signals are scaled down by their respective reduction circuits, then
applied to the analog-to-digital converters. The converter outputs are multiplied by the microprocessor,
with the results stored in memory along with an accumulating total of the results. When the accumu-
lated total reaches a predetermined value, that predetermined value is subtracted from the total and
one output pulse is generated. The output pulse indicates that one predetermined increment of power
has been measured. The pulse is sent to an electronic register for storage and display.
 288
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 11-34. Digital Multiplier Block Diagram.

Variations of digital multiplier designs are shown in Figure 11-35. The sample-andhold amplifiers
shown in Figure 11-35a allow the meter to measure voltage and current at the same instant, thus
eliminating time skew in taking two readings. The multiplexer shown in Figure 11-35b allows the
meter to switch one analog input at a time to one analog-to-digital converter. This approach elimi-
nates the cost of another analog-to-digital converter.

Figure 11-35. Variations on Digital Multiplier Designs.

 Today, most digital solid-state meters use a special type of analog-to-digital converter, known as a 289
delta-sigma converter, or 1-bit converter. These converters use very high sample rates to over-sample
the signal and process multiple over-samples to produce a single reported sample. The benefit of this
type of converter is that it takes very little silicon space and overcomes the issues of linearity for high

the watthour meter

resolution samples.
The digital multiplier calculates instantaneous power by multiplying digitized equivalents of the
voltage and current signals and can calculate other values as well. By summing the products of a
number of multiplications, then dividing by that same number, the result is average power consumed
during the period. Increments of average power can be summed over time to determine energy. To
determine Vrms and Irms, instantaneous values for voltage and current can be squared, their square roots
computed, and the result is rms values of voltage and current. If Vrms and Irms are multiplied and inte-
grated over a period of time, the result is an arithmetic apparent power and energy (VA and VAhrs).
There are a number of approaches used to compute reactive power. Two approaches are very
similar. In these, reactive power (VAR) can be computed by multiplying the current and the voltage
shifted 90° in phase. This can be accomplished by integrating or differentiating the voltage or current,
and applying the appropriate sign for the desired result. The problem with these approaches is that any
harmonics will have the wrong magnitude.
A third approach is to use a time delay equivalent to a 90° phase shift at the fundamental. In the
digital meter this is accomplished by fixing the sampling rate for the digital multiplier at four or a
multiple of four, times the fundamental frequency of the voltage and current, so current and voltage
are sampled every 90°. To compute VAR, multiply the digitized values for current and the correspond-
ing digitized values for voltage, which were sampled 90° apart. The problem with this approach is that
a 90° time delay is dependent on the frequency of the fundamental, and it is difficult to change the
sample rate based on the frequency of the fundamental. A second problem is that any harmonics are
not handled correctly.
A fourth approach is to compute the VARs from the VA and Watts calculation using the formula:
VAR 5 
VA 2

2 
Watt s2
The problem with this approach is that the sign of the VAR is lost in the conversion and must be
supplied by some other means. Also, if harmonics are present, harmonic VAR and harmonic distortion
power is included in the reported VAR value.
Figure 11-36 is a simplified block diagram of a typical three-function meter. Voltage and current
inputs from instrument transformers are first reduced to low values by the input voltage resistive
dividers and current transformers. These signals are then fed to appropriate analog-to-digital convert-
ers and digital multiplier where they are converted to power and accumulated for energy. The energy
is converted to a pulse train that is passed to an electronic register for further processing, storage, and
display.

Figure 11-36. Solid-State Three-Function Meter Block Diagram.

 Chapter 12
Electricity Meter
Testing and Maintenance
BECAUSE ENERGY METERS are used for billing purposes, it is important that their accuracy be vali-
dated and established. This validation requires that a true accuracy test be performed so this accuracy
becomes a matter of record. It is also desirable to extend this accuracy by detecting and removing any
variables that might effect it. A test of an energy meter consists of determining whether the registra-
tion of the meter is correct for a given amount of energy as compared to the registration of a reference
standard.
This test might be performed as an acceptance test at the receipt of new meters, as an in-service
accuracy test to detect the wear-out of the population, or as verification that maintenance on the
meter did not effect accuracy. The results of the accuracy tests are stored in a data collection system
for comparison to future testing and to analyze trends in the performance of populations of meters.
Many utilities receive the manufacturers’ as-left test data with new shipments of meters and, by
analyzing the statistics of that test, have eliminated performing incoming accuracy testing. Other types
of watthour testing are qualification tests when new products are first introduced to the utility and
reliability tests to ensure the product will perform its intended functions.
In this chapter, a test of a watthour meter will only determine the accuracy of the measuring
element, not the register functions. Meters may be tested on the customer’s premises with a portable
test kit, in a mobile test unit (such as a van or trailer) equipped with watthour meter test fixtures,
or brought into a meter shop for testing. They may be tested in groups or as individual units, with
manual or automated controls. Regardless of the test location and method, the principles are the same
and consist of applying the same voltage, current, and phase angle to the reference standard and to
the meter under test for a defined period of time. After the test is completed, the error is determined
by making a comparison between the reference standard and the meter under test.
To test the performance of an energy meter, the following items are required:
1. A reference standard as a basis for comparison
2. A current source to supply the test current
3. A voltage source to supply the test voltage
4. Sensors, counters, and controls

Reference Standard
The reference standard is also known as a watthour standard, an energy standard, or a standard meter.
The standard is actually a very accurate energy meter of substantially greater accuracy than the rev-
enue billing meter being tested (typically five times greater in accuracy). The standard is also extremely
stable with a known calibration history and accuracy that is traceable to the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) or some other nationally recognized metrology laboratory.

291
 292
Sensor Port to Connect Pickups
4 Line x 16 Character
Back-lit LCD
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Autoranging Potential Input

Display Gating Input
Programmable Pulse Output
Autoranging Auxiliary Power 3-Phase Synchronization or Analog Sense Input
RS-232 PC Connection
Clamp-on Current
Transformer Input

Autoranging Current Inputs 5-Button Keypad

Figure 12-1. The Radian Research Model RD-21 Standard.

There are different classifications of standards that relate to accuracy and application. Four types
of standards relate to the different generations of standards technology: rotating standards, single
function manual ranging standards, single function autoranging standards, and simultaneous multi-
function autoranging standards.

Simultaneous Multifunction Autoranging Standards

These standards, which first appeared in 2000, can be referred to as third generation electronic stan-
dards. The RD-20 and RD-21 from Radian Research are the most common standards in this category.
The RD-20 and RD-21 utilize a Radian-designed integrating analog to digital signal converter as the
heart of their measurement approach.
This advanced analog to digital (A/D) converter is combined with electronically compensated volt-
age, current autoranging input transformers, and a hermetically sealed reference set to provide a high
degree of accuracy, stability, repeatability, and versatility.
The RD-21 has a worst case accuracy of 60.02% that applies to all measurement functions
across the entire operating range of the product and includes the variables of stability, power factor,
traceability uncertainty, and test system errors. The custom A/D circuit greatly improves short-term
repeatability over the pulse width modulation measurement approach used in previous electronic
standards, allowing for much shorter test times down to the minimal time allowed by the meter
under test. The RD-21 provides four quadrant simultaneous measurements of watthours, VARhours,
Q-hours, VAhours, volts, amps, watts, VARs, VA, phase angle, power factor, volt-squared-hours, amp-
squared-hours, milli-volt-hours, milli-amp-hours, and frequency. Multiple function testing allows for
a complete test of the energy meter for all billable measurement functions. The auto-ranging inputs
for potential, current, and auxiliary power make it impossible to damage the unit by applying a signal
to the wrong tap. The RD-21 can be used for laboratory applications as a reference standard or it can
be used as a portable field standard whenever a higher level of accuracy is required. In the field, the
RD-21 can be used with a controlled current load, or it can be used to perform customer load tests
where it can analyze current and voltage waveforms through the 50th harmonic order. In addition,
the RD-21 can automatically calculate and display the error of the meter under test. The RD-21 also
provides a serial communication port for connection to a personal computer.

Single-Function Autoranging Standards

These standards can be referred to as second generation electronic standards that first appeared in
1985. The most common models are the RM-10 and RM-11 by Radian Research.
 293

AUXILIARY INTERNAL

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

POWER VOLTAGE
REFERENCE

ELECTRONICALLY
INTEGRATING A/D
COMPENSATED POTENTIAL
CONVERTER FOR
TRANSFORMER WITH
VOLTAGE
AUTORANGING CURCUIT

ELECTRONICALLY
COMPENSATED CURRENT INTEGRATING A/D DIGITAL
TRANSFORMER WITH CONVERTER FOR SIGNAL REGISTER / LCO
AUTORANGING CURCUIT CURRENT PROCESSOR

INTERNAL GATE PULSE

CURRENT ARRAY OUTPUT
REFERENCE
(Vref / Rref)

INTERNAL
FREQUENCY
REFERENCE

Figure 12-2. Block Diagram of the RD-21 Standard.

The RM-10 and RM-11 standards use a pulse width modulation approach to measuring energy.
These second-generation electronic standards introduced a multitude of new features to the metering
industry.
Providing totally autoranging inputs for potential, current, and auxiliary power eliminated the
need for tap settings. A true watthour display with a Kh of one allows for easier calculations. A high-
resolution pulse output allows for shorter
test times. A display-gating feature greatly
improves safety by eliminating the need
for potential gating while also improving
accuracy. These standards also provide the
accuracy and stability required to conduct
a true test of an electronic meter. Although
still widely used, these standards do not
provide all of the functions required to
thoroughly test the new electronic revenue
billing meters.

Single-Function Manual
Ranging Standards
This can be referred to as first generation
electronic standards with the first products
appearing in the late 1970s. The most
common model is the SC-10 by Scientific
Columbus.
The SC-10 standard utilizes pulse
width modulation to calculate energy, thus
eliminating the induction-measuring ele-
ment of the rotating standard. The SC-10 Figure 12-3. The Radian Research Model RM-10 Standard.
is packaged to resemble rotating standards
 294
AUXILARY AUXILARY
POWER POWER
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Vrff Rref

POTENTIAL POTENTIAL
INPUT RANGING

WATT I/F OUTPUT DISPLAY

CONVERTER CONVERTER RANGING OUTPUT

CURRENT CURRENT
INPUT RANGING

Fref

Figure 12-4. Block Diagram of the RM-10 and RM-11 Standards.

for interchangeability while providing improvements over the rotating standards. The lack of moving
parts makes the need for leveling the standard unnecessary. The digital display reads in revolutions
while providing better resolution. It maintains manual voltage taps and current taps that simulate the
rotating standard. For testing operation, as with the Rotating Standard, tests are started and stopped by
closing and opening the voltage circuit with a snap switch. These standards are not widely used today
due to advancements in electronic revenue
billing meters. The revolution reading
display is not easily compatible with testing
an electronic meter and the accuracy and
stability are similar to the electronic meter
under test, not allowing for a true test of
accuracy.

Rotating Standards
Rotating standards have a rotating disk and
are also referred to as induction standards
or mechanical standards because the
measurement principle is based upon the
electromagnet. The most common model is
the IB-10 by General Electric.
Rotating standards have voltage taps
and current taps where the appropriate tap
to be used is based upon the amplitude of
the voltage and current test signals. Gener-
ally there are two voltage taps, rated at 120
and 240 volts, and four current taps with
Figure 12-5. The Scientific Columbus SC-10 Standard the most common rated at 1, 5, 15, and 50
amperes. The watthour constant (Kh) varies
depending upon which taps are used.
The normal procedure for using a rotating standard to test meters is to start and stop the standard
by applying and removing the test voltage by means of a snap switch.
By the nature of its design, a rotating standard requires proper handling when transporting and
in use to avoid damage. Although strong magnetic fields have little effect on rotating standards, they
 295
Anti-Glare Window
Potential Terminals
Pointer Resetting Knob

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Current Terminals
Voltage Selector Switch
Auxiliary Pointers

Terminal Block Main Pointer

Retarding Magnet with

Anti-Creep Brake Full-Load Adjustment

Power Factor Adjustment Frame

Light-Load Adjustment

Potential Coil

Figure 12-6. The General Electric IB-10 Standard.

should be kept away from heavy current carrying conductors, motors, transformers, or other like
apparatus. In addition, a rotating standard should be level if accuracy is to be maintained.
Rotating standards are not widely used due to their dated design relating to deficiencies in the
areas of accuracy, stability, functionality, and maintenance costs combined with parts availability.

Test Loading Methods

An AC current signal is needed as a test current in order to test an energy meter. The same test cur-
rent should be used in series between the standard and the meter under test. Any one of the following
methods may be considered.

CUSTOMER’S LOAD
When testing meters in service, the customer’s load itself may be used. Utilizing the customer’s load
while performing field meter tests eliminates the need for a loading device. This test procedure requires
less time as only one test at the available load current is performed. In addition, artificial registration
and or pulse counts do not have to be considered.
This type of testing has its limitations. The absence of load current will prohibit a test from being
performed. In addition, most metering standard procedures and manufacturers’ information recom-
mend meter testing be performed using three controlled load test points: full-load, light-load, and
power factor load. The full-load test point is identified as the meter’s test amp (TA) rating or can be
the associated current transformer secondary current rating. The light-load test point would then be
10% of the selected full-load current value. The customer’s loading does not satisfy these test points.
Other disadvantages include the fact that stable test conditions cannot be controlled or duplicated.
However, under certain conditions the test can still be valuable. For example, a standard such as the
Radian RD-20 or RD-21 can be used not only to test accuracy of the meter, but also to do harmonic
analysis of the customer’s load. This test also has the ability to test the accuracy of the meter under
customer load conditions if a true reference standard is being used to conduct such a test.

SYNTHESIZED LOADING
Synthesis is the latest technology applied to loading designs and is the most common and preferred
source for a majority of applications. Synthesized loading is actually a type of phantom loading
 296 because it does not dissipate the full wattage of the test load. Synthesized loading is computer
controlled and allows for very precise conditions of current amplitude, frequency, phase angle, and
harmonics to be created and maintained throughout the test period. Imperfections associated with the
other loading approaches generally do not exist in a well-designed synthesized load.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

PHANTOM LOADING
Phantom loading reduces the power in the current circuit by reducing the voltage across the load
connection. A phantom load is a small power transformer and an adjustable loading resistance. Test
connections apply service voltage, 120 or 240 volts, to the voltage coils of the meter and the stan-
dard. The current circuits of the standard and meter, which are isolated from the voltage circuit by
transformer action, are placed in the secondary of the low-voltage, phantom-load transformer, whose
primary is connected across the line. The regulating resistance of the phantom load is also in series
with the meter and standard current coils.
In this type of loading, although the current value is proper for the test being made, the voltage at
which this current is supplied is low and, hence, the power has been reduced below that necessary for
resistance testing. Assuming the phantom-load transformer is rated 240 to 12 volts and the ­regulating
resistor is adjusted to provide 15 amperes to the test circuit, the power of the secondary circuit would
be 15 3 12 5 180 watts. The current drawn from the secondary circuit is 15 amperes, but from the
source is: 15 3 ——12 5 0.75 amperes. With the low power requirements, a phantom load can be
240
constructed as a portable device.
The term phantom load is usually applied to the portable device that is used, particularly for
testing on customer premises. The same principle of a loading transformer with low-voltage resistance
units has been used in some test table designs. When the output voltage is lowered, the size of the
current regulating resistors in the secondary circuit is also reduced while still maintaining the desired
current magnitude.
When using phantom loads, the phase angle of the test circuit should not be ignored. Meter and
standard current coils have inductive reactance as well as resistance. Normally, the regulating resis-
tance is large enough to overcome any lagging effect caused by the reactance of the current coils and
loading transformer. However, if the regulating resistance is small, the current through the current

Figure 12-7a. Schematic Connections for Phantom Loading.

Figure 12-7b. Typical Wiring Diagram for Phantom Load.

 297

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Figure 12-8. Dial Switch, Phantom-Load Circuits.

coils will lag the source voltage by some small angle. This change in phase angle may not be significant
at unity power factor tests, but may be of importance at 50% power factor tests. This occurs because
of the difference in values of cosines near zero and 60° angles. As an example, at 60° the cosine is
0.5 and at 61° it is 0.4848; at zero degrees the cosine is 1 and at 1° the cosine is 0.9998. A small
change in phase angle at unity power factor causes a much smaller change in cosine than a similar
phase angle change at 50% power factor. The phantom-load phase angle shift will increase rapidly
with increasing secondary burden above rated burden capacity. Furthermore, when a phantom-load
transformer is overloaded, the waveform of the output current may be seriously distorted. On the best
modern test boards, the loading transformers are designed to avoid these shortcomings.
When using a phantom load for testing a three-wire, single-stator meter, one end of the voltage
coil must be disconnected from the incoming current lead by means of the voltage link due to the
tying together of the current coils on the load side. If this is not done, the current test circuit will be
connected across full voltage, with resulting damage to meter coils and phantom load. The discon-
nected end of the voltage coil is connected to the correct voltage source in order to energize the coil at
full voltage.

RESISTANCE LOAD
Resistance load is adjustable to provide the various test currents desired. In the resistance-loading
method, the current coils of the meter under test, the standard, and the loading resistance are con-
nected in series. Thus, the current that is permitted to flow by the resistance passes through both the
meter and the standard.
The resistance type of loading device usually consists of a group of fixed resistances of various
values which can be connected in any one of several series-parallel networks to give the total resis-
tance which will allow the current flow required for the test. These loading devices are calibrated for
 298 specified voltages and the switches
are generally marked to indicate the
current each allows to flow so that
currents can be obtained in steps from
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

zero to the maximum rating of the

device.
A difficulty in this type of test load
lies in the problem of dissipating the
energy consumed by the I2R loss at
high currents. If the source is 240 volts
and a 15-ampere meter is to be tested
at the full-load point, a total of 15 3
Figure 12-9. Schematic Connections for Resistance Loading. 240 5 3,600 watts must be dissipated
in the loading resistance. The source
also must be of sufficient capacity to
furnish the full 3,600 watts. Furthermore, the weight and bulk of a resistance-loading bank may limit
its usefulness as a portable device. Although resistive loading devices may have limitations, they are
generally less expensive than phantom loading devices.

Voltage Source
A steady voltage source is required, particularly when indicating instruments are used as reference
standards. When a standard is the reference, with the current circuits of the standard and of the
meter being tested in series and their voltage coils in parallel, minor fluctuations in voltage or current
have no significant effect on the test results. In this case, minor changes in source or load effects both
reference standard and meter in the same manner. This does not mean that wide and rapid changes in
source voltage should be tolerated. Harmonics do not have the same effect on all meters and wave-
form distortion should be avoided.
Early meter test boards required a three-wire, three-phase voltage source. The three-phase feature
provided a convenient way to obtain a 50% power factor, single-phase test load. The connections are
fundamental and in some form are used for all meter testing.
The preferred source connection is a closed-delta transformer bank. Both open-delta and wye con-
nections may contain unduly large harmonics and will not provide a waveform as close to a pure sine

Figure 12-10. Fundamental Meter Test Circuit.

wave as may be obtained from a closed-delta transformer bank. The closed-delta bank also provides 299
better voltage regulation than the other two types of connections.
The source transformer bank and conductors must be of such size that the test load does not
cause any material voltage drop from the source to the test equipment. Heavy loads, particularly motor

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

loads such as elevators which cause excessive voltage fluctuations, should not be connected to the
meter-test transformer bank.
Late-model electronic test boards are usually powered by 120-volt single-phase sources. Using
electronic instruments, a variety of test waveforms are generated. These manufactured waveforms
include harmonics, a variety of power factors, and three-phase waveforms.
In field testing applications, the service voltage can be used as the test voltage signal. In this
application, the true voltage as seen by the meter is used as the test signal or a synthesized voltage
signal can be used to provide a clean, consistent voltage test signal.

Sensors, Counters, and Controls

Sensors are used to sense disk rotation, infrared calibration pulses, visible calibration pulses, KYZ
contact closures, or analog calibration signals. Generally, these sensors detect signals and send pulses
to a counter. The counter actually controls the test.
With rotating disk meters, it is possible to conduct a manual test where the disk revolutions are
manually counted and a switch is used to control the test by starting, stopping, and resetting the
display of the standard. This switch is normally referred to as a snap switch or a reset switch.
As described earlier, this switch gates (starts and stops) the display of the standard while voltage
and current circuits remain closed. Although the manual method is still used, often there are sensors,
or pickups, along with counters that can be used to automate the testing of rotating disk meters. The
disk sensor can perform an edge test where it senses the black flag as the disk rotates. As the disk
sensor detects the black flag, it sends a pulse to the counter. When the preset number of pulses has
been counted, the test is automatically stopped. An error calculation can then be made based upon the
reading on the display of the standard in association with other test variables. Some counters have the
ability to automatically calculate and display the error of the meter under test.
When testing electronic meters it is necessary to have a sensor to detect the infrared (or visible)
calibration pulse that emits from the meter. Generally, this calibration pulse sensor will send a pulse
to a counter as it detects a calibration pulse from the meter under test. When the preset number of

POTENTIAL
SOURCE
RM-15
REMOTE
RESET
OPEN SWITCH
POTENTIAL
FORM 2S LINK
240V
3-WIRE

PHASE
CONTROL
JUMPER

AUXILIARY
POWER
80–600 VAC

CURRENT
SOURCE

Figure 12-11. Open Link Manual Testing with a Reset Switch.

 300
POTENTIAL
SOURCE
RM-15
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

REMOTE
RESET
CLOSED SWITCH
POTENTIAL
LINK

PHASE
CONTROL

AUXILIARY
POWER
80–600 VAC

CURRENT
SOURCE
(Isolated Outputs)

Figure 12-12. Closed Link Manual Testing with a Reset Switch.

pulses has been counted the test is automatically stopped. An error calculation can then be made
based upon the reading on the display of the standard in association with other test variables. Some
counters, such as the Radian Research RM-110, have the ability to automatically calculate and display
the error of the meter under test.
Meters can also be tested from their KYZ output, and some meters emit an analog calibration
signal. These meters can generally be tested using the Scientific Columbus MicroJoule Standard or the
Radian Research RD-21 Standard.

Basic Induction-Type Watthour Meter Test, Single-Stator

The practices common to all types of test include:

STEP 1
Check meter number and meter rating. Record this data.

STEP 2
Check for creep. Creep may occur either backward or forward. When all load is removed, a meter disk
may rotate for part of a revolution before coming to rest. This is not creep. All measurements of the
amount of creep should be based upon at least one complete revolution for electromechanical meters
and a change of more than 61 least significant digit in 24 hours. Although only an unusually rapid
rate of creeping will result in an appreciable registration, as a matter of principle no meter in service
should be allowed to remain creeping or with a tendency to creep.
In most induction meters, creeping is prevented by two holes or slots cut in the disk on opposite
sides of the shaft. When either hole is near the pole of the voltage coil, forces set up by the alternat-
ing field tend to hold the disk in this position.

STEP 3
Connect the meter and take “as found” readings. The connections for testing are the current circuit
of the standard is connected in series with the loading device and current coil of the meter under test,
and the voltage circuit of the standard is connected in parallel with the voltage coil of the meter under
test. When setting up a standard for making a test, the place selected should be reasonably free from
 301

RM-DS/f

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

To AC Adapter

RM-1N

RM-1S

Figure 12-13. Automated Testing with a Disk Sensor and Counter.

RM-1H

RM-1N

RM-1S

Figure 12-14. Automated Testing with an Optical Sensor and Counter.

 302 vibration and magnetic influence. The meter should be plumb, without tilt, and the standard should
be level ­during the test. The standard must always be reset to zero before starting a test. A reading of
the standard is taken at the end of the test, which gives the number of revolutions of the standard
pointer. If no correction is to be applied to the standard readings, the percent registration of the
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

watthour meter under test is obtained as follows:

let r 5 revolutions of meter under test
R 5 reading registered by the standard
kh 5 watthour constant of meter under test
Kh 5 watthour constant of standard
then, Percent Registration 5 kh 3 —— r­3 R 3 100
Kh
The method may be facilitated by introducing an additional symbol, values for which may be given
to the tester in tabular form.
Let RO 5 the reading the standard should register when the meter under test is correct.
The revolutions of two watthour meters on a given load vary inversely as their disk constants.
RO kh
—— 5 ——
­
r Kh
Substituting RO in the equation for percent registration:
RO
Percent Registration 5 —— 3 100
r
In testing, the number of watthour meter disk revolutions should be sufficient to permit reading
whole divisions of the standard register to the degree of accuracy required.
When the watthour meter under test and the standard have the following constants:
meter kh 5 0.6
standard Kh 5 0.12
number of revolutions of the meter under test, r 5 2
0.6 3 2
then, RO 5 ——————— 5 10
1.12
That is, for two revolutions of the meter under test, the standard registration should equal ten
revolutions. Assume the standard actually registered 10.16 revolutions.
10
then, Percent Registration = ———— 3 100 5 98.4
10.16
When a correction is to be applied to the readings of the standard, the percent registration is
determined as follows:
let A 5 percent registration of standard
kh 3 r 3 A RO
then Percent Registration 5 ———————— 5 —— 3A
Kh 3 R R

STEP 4
Examine the original condition of meter. The principal features are:
a. Check that the disk is centered in both the permanent magnet gap and electromagnet gap.
b. Check that the magnet gap is clean.
c. Examine the mesh of the first register gear with the shaft worm or pinion. This mesh should
be between one-third and one-half the depth of the teeth. A deeper mesh may cause binding.
A slight amount of play is necessary. Where the pinion or worm is short, or where the worm is
cut concave to match the curvature of the worm wheel, the vertical position of the moving ele-
ment must be such that the center of the pinion or worm is level with the register wheel which
it engages.
STEP 5 303
Check the register ratio as marked on the register to determine if this ratio is correct for the type and
capacity of the meter. Also check the watthour constant (kh) for the meter type and rating with the

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

correct constant from manufacturers’ tables and kilowatthour constant (register multiplier). Kilowatt­
hour constant
kh 3 R r 3 R s
5 ————————
10,000
where: kh 5 watthour constant of meter under test
Rr 5 register ratio
Rs 5 shaft reduction ratio

STEP 6
Make adjustments. Since the full-load adjustment effects all loads equally, this adjustment should be
made first. If, after adjustment at full-load, light-load performance is more than 1% slow, a cause
other than maladjustment of the light-load should be investigated. Such cause may be unusual friction
or dirt. If the meter is clean and the register mesh is correct, the meter bearings should be suspected.
Reference the bearing maintenance for suggestions.
Power factor adjustment of single-stator meters is usually limited to shop testing.

STEP 7
Record final readings.

STEP 8
Seal meter and return it to service or stock.

Induction-Type Meter Adjustments, Single-Stator

FULL-LOAD ADJUSTMENT
This adjustment is made at nameplate rating of voltage and rated amperes or test amperes. The adjust-
ment is made in most meters by varying the effect of the damping flux passing through the disk. This
is done in older meters by changing the position of the damping magnets. Similar results are secured
in newer meters by varying the amount of flux passing through the disk by means of a shunt, some
times called a keeper. The change produced in the percent registration is practically the same on all
loads; that is, if the registration is 98% at both full-load and light-load, shifting the full-load adjust-
ment so as to increase the speed 2% will make the meter correct at both loads.
Moving the magnets toward the disk shaft causes the disk to cut the damping flux more slowly
and the meter runs faster. Moving the shunt closer to the damping magnet poles causes more flux to
pass through the shunt and less through the air gap in which the disk turns, thereby increasing the
disk speed.

LIGHT-LOAD ADJUSTMENT
This adjustment is normally made at the nameplate rating of voltage and 10% of rated amperes or test
amperes. It is accomplished by varying the amount of light-load compensating torque.
This adjustment is changed by shifting a coil so that its position with respect to the voltage-coil
is changed. No torque is produced on the disk as long as the light-load coil is symmetrical with the
voltage-coil pole. When the light-load coil is shifted, a torque is produced in the disk that will tend to
turn the disk in the direction of the shift. The coil is essentially a short-circuited turn of large cross
section placed in the air gap above or below the disk so as to embrace part of the voltage-coil flux.
Maladjustment of this coil may result in creep. Effect of this torque on meter percentage registration
is inversely proportional to the test load, one-tenth as much effect is produced at heavy load as at 10%
load.
When a meter, after adjustment at full-load, is found inaccurate at light-load, the cause may be
some condition in the meter that should be removed rather than compensated for. In such cases the
tester should locate the trouble, making no adjustments unless the meter is still inaccurate after going
over all the parts and restoring them to proper condition.
 304 LAG ADJUSTMENT
This adjustment is ordinarily made only in the shop. The flux established by the voltage coil of a meter
should lag the flux of the current coil by exactly 90° with unity power factor conditions for proper
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

metering accuracy with any load power factor. This flux relationship does not exist because of the
inherent resistance of the voltage coil. Compensation to obtain the correct relationship is by means of
a lag coil or plate on the voltage pole acting with another lag coil on the current poles.
If the compensation is obtained by means of a coil, the adjustment is made by soldering the
exposed pigtail ends of the coil so as to lengthen or shorten the overall length of the coil conductor to
change the resistance of the coil. If a lag plate is used, the adjustment consists of shifting the position
of the plate under the voltage pole radially with respect to the disk by means of an adjusting screw.
On some meters the lag adjustment is made by punching a lag plate during the manufacturers’ testing
and cannot readily be changed in the field.
The test to determine the lag or phase adjustment is generally made at 50% lagging power factor
with rated amperes and voltage applied. A 50% power factor is used because it can be obtained readily
from a polyphase circuit without auxiliary equipment.

Multi-Stator, Induction-Type Meter Tests and Adjustments

Multi-stator meter tests follow a procedure similar to that used for single-stator meters. With the
multi-stator meter voltage coils connected in parallel and all current coils in series, the procedure is
identical to single-stator tests, but additional tests may be made with each individual stator energized.
Each separate stator in a multi-stator meter must provide the same disk-driving torque with equal
wattage applied to the individual stators for the meter to provide accurate registration when in service.
Since the individual stator torques must be balanced, individual stator tests and the additional torque-
balance adjustment on multi-stator meters are necessary. Individual stator tests are also useful in
determining correct internal wiring of the voltage and current coils of each stator.
The torque-balance adjustment commonly consists of a magnetic shunt in the stator iron, the
position of which may be changed to vary the effective stator air-gap flux and, hence, the disk torque
produced by the stator. This adjustment varies the driving torque produced by the individual stators,
thereby allowing the torque of one stator to be made equal to that produced by a second stator. The
usual practice is to make the adjustment at unity power factor with rated meter voltage and test
amperes. The adjustment may be provided on all stators of a multi-stator meter or, as on some mod-
ern meters, it may be omitted on one stator, in which case the torque of the other stator(s) would be
adjusted to match the first.
All stators in a multi-stator meter must have a lagging power factor adjustment to provide the
proper flux relationships in each unit. The importance in meter testing of proper balancing of lag
adjustments among meter stators is not generally recognized, for not only must the torque-balance
adjustment be correct at unity power factor, but also the lag adjustments of each individual stator
must agree to provide best meter accuracy under all service conditions.
An example of improper lag balance will illustrate the possible meter errors. Assume a two-stator
meter is found running 1.5% fast on a series-parallel, lagging power factor test caused by a faulty lag
adjustment on stator 2. This error is equivalent to a 1° phase-angle error in the lag adjustment, as
shown in Figure 12-15a. If instead of correcting the faulty lag adjustment on stator 2 the adjustment
on stator 1 is changed, the end result at 100% meter accuracy with series-parallel connection will be a
1° lead error in the lag adjustment on stator 2 and a 1° lag error in the lag adjustment on stator 1, as
shown in Figure 12-15b.
With the meter connected to a three-wire delta service, consider its operation on a balanced, unity
power factor load. Figure 12-16 shows the circuit diagram and metering phasors. In stator 1 the cur-
rent lags the voltage by 30° and in stator 2 the current leads by 30°. With a maladjusted meter that
has power factor errors of 1° lead and lag, one possible circuit connection would, in effect, have both
stators registering at a 29° angle instead of the proper 30°, or the other circuit connection would
cause an effective angle of 31°. In either case, the meter performance error in this application would
be ­approximately 1% even though the meter was adjusted to 100% performance in the usual series-
parallel, single-phase test procedure.
Light-load adjusters may be provided on all stators or only one stator in multi-stator meters.
Since the light-load adjustment provides additional disk torque dependent on voltage, it is immaterial
whether the torque comes from one stator only or all stators as long as all voltage coils are energized.
 305

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Figure 12-15. Incorrect Adjustment with Lagging Power Factor.

In some meters, there is interdependence between the light-load and lagging power factor adjustments
so that a change in light-load in one stator may effect the lagging power factor performance of the
same stator. If more than one light-load adjuster is provided, it is good test practice when light-load
adjustment is required in a series-parallel test, particularly in field tests, to make equal changes with
each light-load adjuster.
The full-load adjustment on multi-stator meters, operating on the braking magnets, has an identi-
cal effect on all stators. Hence, it cannot be used for torque balance. One or more full-load adjusters
may be provided on multi-stator meters.

Electronic Meter Testing

Electronic or solid-state meters require testing to confirm their accuracy but do not normally have
calibration adjustments. These meters are calibrated in the factory by running a succession of tests and
finding an internal register constant that produces 100% registration. This constant is then burned

Figure 12-16. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Circuit and Metering Phasors.

 306 into the meter to prevent it from accidentally being changed. This is a calibration process that is best
left to the manufacturer.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Meter Test Circuits

Over the years, many arrangements of test circuits have been devised and many forms of test fixtures
are available. Modern test fixtures show major improvements over many of the older test benches
or test tables. Figures 12-7 and 12-10 show fundamental schematic diagrams for meter test circuits.
Although the circuit arrangements, equipment, and methods of counting revolutions may differ in test
fixtures, fundamentally all the circuits are based on that shown in Figure 12-10.

METER TIMING AND SPEED MEASUREMENT METHODS

Before reviewing more complicated meter test fixtures, consideration should be given to the automatic
timing methods used in various test fixtures. Two general methods are used: the photoelectric disk
revolution counters for disk revolutions and the optical coupler.

PHOTOELECTRIC COUNTERS
Modern test fixtures do not use a manual voltage switch for applying voltage to the standard meter. A
photoelectric counter that contains photoelectric devices and associated equipment for automatically
starting and stopping the standard watthour meter controls voltage. For this test method, a light beam
is directed through the anti-creep holes or reflected from the flag of the disk of the watthour meter
under test and illuminates a photodiode or transistor. This illumination causes pulses to be transmit-
ted to the control equipment where they are amplified and used to operate digital displays, which, in
turn, operate relays controlling the voltage circuit of the standard watthour meter. This is done in
accordance with a predetermined number of revolutions of the watthour meter disk.
It is important that the start/stop relays have exact or symmetrical reaction times. For this reason,
some designs use two relays for the start and stop functions, arranged in such a way that they both
pull-in to perform their function. Other designs use a single symmetrical reed relay controlled by zero
crossing switching circuits to close the relay at zero voltage and open it at zero current. This method of
zero crossing switching eliminates the need for arc suppression components used in standard designs
that, with time, can cause testing errors.

OPTICAL COUPLER
An optic coupler can either sense revolutions of a meter disk by sensing the black mark on the edge of
the disk or by sensing infrared light-emitting diode (LED) test pulses in a solid state meter.
These methods of shop testing and counting watthours eliminates the necessity of manually
counting the revolutions of a meter disk or solid state disk emulator and, since the starting and stop-
ping of the watthour standard is automatic, human errors are eliminated.

Electricity Meter Test Fixtures

Meter manufacturers build meters of superb quality and extensive functionality. In the United States,
the polyphase meter market is dominated by electronic or solid-state meters. With technology ever
increasing along with improvements in price and dependability, more and more solid-state single-
phase meters are being seen in the marketplace and from a variety of manufacturers. The capability
and functionality of present solid-state meters create challenges for the meter tester and meter test
equipment.
Electric meter test equipment has changed over the years. Currently, all meter test equipment
produced is solid-state. The technology that has propelled the solid-state meter development has done
the same for meter test equipment. With the increased accuracy of the newer solid-state meters, it
quickly became apparent that the conventional rotating type standards and associated phantom-
loading designs were inadequate. The accuracy levels of the new solid-state meters were not only better
than the conventional electromechanical meter but also better than the test equipment commonly
used by most utilities.
Another problem of solid-state meters is that they don’t have a disk. They normally have an infra-
red LED on the meter which pulses at a rate corresponding to watthours of energy. This is similar to
the Kh of a conventional electromechanical meter, but is normally termed Ke in the solid-state meter.
Most of the earlier conventional meter test equipment had no means to trigger this new infrared LED.
 307

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Figure 12-17. Dual Test Fixture.

The ability to test the watthour accuracy of the solid-state meter is not the only concern. Solid-
state meters have functionality that far exceeds simply watthours. A single solid-state meter can record
forward and reverse power, forward and reverse reactive power, forward and reverse VAhours, voltage,
current, and more. A single meter can now take the place of many meters at certain customer loca-
tions. In addition to having better accuracy, this, of course, reduces the quantity of meters necessary to
install and maintain, translating into cost savings.
With new electronic test equipment, quality and accurate testing that provide flexibility and
convenience became available. New electronic test equipment has reasonably low power requirements.
It is no longer necessary to have a three-phase source to run the test equipment. Since the test equip-
ment is electronic, even true three-phase testing can be easily accomplished by simply plugging the test
equipment into a conventional 120VAC outlet. With this low power requirement, the test equipment
can be easily operated from a power inverter. Some utilities now make use of vans as mobile testing
laboratories.
Many utilities desire to conduct testing which is outside the normal American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) testing requirements for the utility. There are available standard production models of
electronic meter test equipment that will allow testing from 10 milliamps to 225 amps and with true
three-phase capability. The utility can run tests that previously were only able to be run by the meter
manufacturer.
Cost is obviously a big concern for most utilities. New electronic test equipment for shop, van,
and field-testing must provide not only quality and flexibility but also features which relate to savings
for the utility. Electronic test equipment is available that can have multiple test stations. Using one
computer, a single tester can operate more than one test station. The test stations are independent,
allowing the tester to test different meter forms at the same time, which increases throughput.

AVO Optima WECO 2350

Figure 12-18. Watthour Meter Test Fixtures.

 308 Present electronic test equipment, from manufacturers such as Megger and WECO is becoming
smaller and increasing in convenience and functionality. The newest models of test equipment utilize
laser optics for detecting the disk revolution for electromechanical meters. The test equipment has
the convenience of a built in Opticom™ probe that can pick up the test LED as well as be used for
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

programming the meter.

Even total test time can be reduced with today’s technology. On many solid-state meters, an
accelerated test, called Turbo-Test™ by WECO, can be run that is different from the normal test using
the test LED pulse output. Software allows the internal DSP of the meter under test to be read during
the test. This allows simultaneous testing of the series test as well as separate elements. For polyphase
electronic meters, this can reduce the total test time by a factor of five or six.
As technology continues to advance, other demands for meter test equipment will arise. Utilities
may wish to test most or all of a meter’s capability at one time, in one location, and with one piece
of test equipment. Functions that have normally been outside the meter shop’s area of responsibility
are routinely tested. Currently, modem verification, Automated Meter Reading (AMR), and Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) testing has found its way into equipment that was previously the
domain of a rotating watthour standard.
Today’s test equipment can generate harmonics so utilities can understand how various meters
perform under these conditions. VAR and VA testing under various approved calculations can be
obtained.

Shop Test Procedure

Electronic meters have gained a substantial and increasing share of the meter market, as they can
provide a great number of advanced functions at a modest cost. Unlike electromechanical meters,
most electronic meters do not have user adjustments.

PROCEDURE VARIATIONS
Variations should be made based on the age and condition of the meters under test.
With manufacturers’ certified accuracy tests, new meters may not be tested at all before being
placed in service, or they may be sample tested, or completely tested. However, tests of new meters
seldom go beyond the step of taking the “as found” test if they are found to be within the established
accuracy limits.
Meters from service that are to be tested and returned to service are usually subjected to the entire
test procedure. Under certain conditions, it may be deemed advisable to take no further tests if the “as
found” test shows that the meter is operating satisfactorily.
Meters from service which are to be retired may have an “as found” test if local requirements
require it or the utility chooses to do so.

SINGLE-STATOR METERS
The following procedure for single-stator meters is typical for a complete shop test. All companies
may not use all of the steps listed, and the order given may be varied. Utilities that have an electronic
meter records system will reduce or eliminate the need to record meter data and initial set up of the
meter test. For most solid-state meters, Steps 3 and 5 are not required.
Step 1
a. Check nameplate for wire, phase, volts, and amperes.
b. Connect standard on proper voltage and current coils.
c. Open meter voltage link, if necessary.
d. Visually inspect the meter for any physical damage, overheating, or over voltage and current
damage.
e. Connect meter.
f. Check for creep by applying voltage only.

Step 2
a. Start “as found” test.
b. Record meter number, nameplate data, and reading.
c. Record “as found” test results. “As found” test load points are suggested as follows:
— Full-load at 100% of the current rating or test amperes of the meter; 100% power factor;
 — Light-load at 10% of the current rating or test amperes of the meter; 100% power factor; 309
— Lagging power factor (if required) at 100% of the current rating or test amperes of the
meter; 50% power factor with lagging current.

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Step 3
If the meter is to be placed back in service:
a. Remove and clean cover.
b. Clean meter with compressed air.
c. Check magnet gaps for iron filings or other dirt.
d. Check position of disk in air gap.
Step 4
Check insulation by high-voltage test.
Step 5
a. Make all necessary adjustments to bring meter accuracy within established company limits.
b. Check for creep after making adjustments.
c. Test and record “as left” results.
Step 6
a. Close voltage link if necessary.
b. Replace cover and seal.

MULTI-STATOR METERS
Multi-stator meters usually have two or three separate stators. Each stator should exhibit accurate
performance by itself as well as having good accuracy with all stators combined. This is evident with a
three-wire, three-phase circuit metered with a two-stator meter. With a balanced-load power factor of
86.6% lagging current, one meter stator is operating at unity power factor and the other at 50% power
factor, lagging current. This leads to the additional test adjustment of polyphase meters, balancing the
performance of the stators to provide the necessary separate stator accuracy.
The balance test is made by connecting all voltage coils in parallel and applying 100% of rated cur-
rent or test amperes of the meter to each current circuit, first at unity power factor and then at 50%
power factor, lagging current. Calibration of each stator is checked for both currents. In meters which
have current circuits which are common to more than one stator, such as the Z-circuit in two-stator,
four-wire wye circuit meters, the common current circuit is not energized during the balance test.
Accuracy limitations for this test are established in accordance with local requirements. If the
accuracies are not within the required limits, the following adjustments are made on electromechani-
cal polyphase meters. There are no adjustments on solid-state meters.
With unity power factor, the torque balance adjusters on the individual stators are used. This
additional adjuster allows adjustment of individual stator performance without changing the perfor-
mance of any other stator. Thus, the individual stator performances may be adjusted to agree within
the specified limits at unity power factor. In meters where the torque-balance adjustment is omitted
from one stator, the performance of the other stators is adjusted to match that of the first.
With 50% power factor, the usual lag adjustment on each stator is used. If the lag adjustment is a
fixed factory-made adjustment, the meter tester cannot easily change the lag balance. In meters where
the light-load and lag adjustments are not entirely independent in their effects, the meter tester must
remember that a change in light-load adjustment after establishing lag balance may have a detrimental
effect on such balance.
After the balance adjustments are made, the “as left” calibration is made by connecting all voltage
coils in parallel and all current coils in series and making tests at the usual light, heavy, and lagging
power factor loads. If adjustment is required on heavy load, the full-load braking magnet adjuster is
used, resulting in an equal effect on the performance of all stators. If lagging power factor adjustment
is required, equal changes are made with each lag adjuster to maintain as closely as possible proper lag
balance. Similarly, required light-load adjustment would be accomplished by equal changes on each
stator. However, on meters that have a light-load adjuster on only one stator, this procedure is not
possible.
 310 MULTI-FUNCTION METERS
In addition to active energy (kWh), many solid-state meter types are capable of metering alternate
electrical quantities. The most common alternate quantities are apparent energy (kVAh) and reactive
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

energy (kVARh), also called 4 quadrant. These meters, in addition to visual indicators, usually also
have a test output signal that can be used to verify calibration. Because this test output signal can be
used for both active energy and alternate energy, there is a method for the user to select which quan-
tity will control the output signal. Common methods of control are a special command through the
optical communication port of the meter, or manually scrolling to a specific display quantity.
Like active energy, metering test points for alternate quantities are usually taken at test amperes,
light-load, and 50% power factor. When setting up to test reactive energy, power factor angles must be
changed by 90°. For example, to obtain the nameplate test output rate for kVARh, the meter must be
set for test amperes, test voltage, and a 90° angle between the voltage and current. Meter manufactur-
ers may have written documentation that states that reactive and apparent energy is as accurate as the
true power in watts as tested in the meter.

CALIBRATING CONSTANTS
In multi-coil meters, the value of one revolution of the meter disk (or equivalent disk revolution for
solid-state meters), the kh, varies with the test connections. The test kh is sometimes called the cali-
brating constant. When the same current passes through more than one full current coil (or current
sensor for a solid-state meter), the calibrating constant can be found by dividing the normal kh of the
meter by the number of current coils in the meter connected in series. Table 12-1 checks such calcula-
tions. Calibration constants for alternate energy quantities are usually the same as for active energy.
The calibrating constant will be one when using three element watthour standards such as the
Radian RM-11 when each meter element current circuit is isolated to one current circuit in the
standard.

Testing On Customers’ Premises Field Testing

Even when the normal routine testing practice is removing meters for test in the meter shop, field
testing is still of importance in connection with complaint or witness testing and with the mainte-
nance of instrument-transformer connected meters.

CUSTOMER RELATIONS
On entering a customer’s premises to perform a meter test, testers should make their presence and
purpose known to someone on the premises. As employees of the utility company, the meter testers
can request access to the premises and the company meter. They must, however, recognize that they
represent the utility so must remain courteous and respectful.
It is important, however, that the tester not interrupt the customer’s service without notification.
Every precaution should be taken to avoid damaging the property of the customer and consent should
be obtained before making use of any furniture or equipment to assist in making the test. In case of
an accident resulting in damage to the customer’s property, a prompt report should be made to the
customer and to the company.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
It is important that the tester exercise all possible care to avoid accidents. In the interest of safety and
the tester’s well-being, the prohibitions and suggestions that follow should be continually in mind.
• Beware of dogs. If bitten, immediately go to a physician and then report the injury to your
supervisor.
• Exercise care when entering customer’s’ premises. Be on the lookout for nails, tripping hazards,
low beams, or other overhead projections.
• Carefully examine ladders, boxes, and supports expected to carry your weight before making use
of them.
• If the apparatus to be worked on is in a dangerous condition, or is so located as to be hazard-
ous, a complete report should be made to your supervisor and the location should be passed
without doing work.
Table 12-1. Calibrating Constants. 311

Meter Type Connection Calibrating Constant

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Single-phase, two-wire All tests Kh
Single-phase, three-wire Current windings in series Kh
Single-phase, three-wire Individual current windings* 2Kh

Three-phase, three-wire Individual current coil Kh

1
Three-phase, three-wire Current coils in series /2 Kh

Three-phase, four-wire wye, Individual current coil Kh

1
two stator Z coil alone (a double coil) /2 Kh
1
Two individual coils in series /2 Kh
1
Three-current coils in series /4 Kh

Three-phase, four-wire delta, Two-wire coil alone Kh

two stator Three-wire coil, windings in series Kh
Three-wire coil, individual windings 2Kh
1
Three-current coils in series /2 Kh

Three-phase, four-wire wye, Individual current coils Kh

1
three stator Two coils in series /2 Kh
1
Three coils in series /3 Kh

Three-phase, four-wire delta, Individual current coils Kh

1
three stator Two 120-volt stator coils in series /2 Kh

*In a single-stator, three-wire meter the individual current windings are half coils.

• Do not attempt to make connections until proper light is arranged. A flashlight should be used
until your portable lamp is connected.
• The use of matches or open flames on a customer’s premises is prohibited.
• Attention should be concentrated on the points where the tester is working; do not attempt to
do two things at once.
• Only one jumper should be connected at a time. Before connecting a jumper or a test lead,
be sure you know where the other end is. If necessary, tape it over or tie it in a safe location.
Having connected one end of the jumper, be sure that the final connection of the free end does
not create a short circuit. Always check with your voltage tester.
• All connections must be made securely to avoid possibility of their dropping or being pulled
away from original location.
• All wires, jumpers, test leads, instruments, and other equipment should be so placed that they
may not be run into or tripped over by people passing by.
• Use your voltage indicator to determine whether or not the meter, the meter box, or conduit are
alive to ground as a result of insulation failure.
• Every tester should be familiar with his or her company’s safety rules.
• Use personal protective equipment as required (work gloves, insulating gloves, safety glasses,
face shield, flame retardant clothing, etc.).

PROCEDURE PRELIMINARY TO TEST

Before making any connections or in any way disturbing the service meter, the following routine must
be followed.
1. Check watthour meter number for agreement with the number given on the test record.
2. Record the reading of the watthour meter.
3. Enter on the test record the date, initials of the tester, and the number of the standard watt-
hour meter being used. Make neat and legible records.
 312 4. Examine all meter and equipment seals and note conditions on test record.
5. Clear the top of meter of all dust and dirt.
6. Examine the wiring and general condition of the installation for improper or unauthorized
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

connections and possible hazards. When a connection is discovered which apparently was made
by an unauthorized person and which might influence meter registration, a report should be
made with a sketch of the connections as found. Do not alter such connections. Do not test
meter. Report conditions to your supervisor at the earliest opportunity. If hazardous conditions
are found, report them to your supervisor and defer test of this meter until the hazard has been
removed.
7. Check voltage and record unusual readings.
8. Note whether or not there is a grounding conductor.
9. Make sure that the grounded or neutral conductor of a two-wire service is properly connected
to the voltage and not to the current terminals of the watthour meter.
The first purpose of all field tests is to determine the actual accuracy condition of the meter “as
found,” the exact condition the meter is in at the time of test. To meet this requirement, the meter
must not be disturbed in a manner that would alter the normal operating condition existing before
start of test. The cover of the watthour meter is not removed until after completion of the “as found”
test.

FIELD METER TEST EQUIPMENT

Field meter test equipment has evolved. Several manufacturers produce in-socket meter test equipment
that enables a test utilizing the customer’s load. Usually these test devices require removing the meter
and inserting a socket adapter device in the meter socket and then placing the meter into the adapter.
The adapter provides the connections from line voltage to the actual test equipment. It is no longer
necessary to set up a rotating standard and phantom load to perform a meter accuracy test in the field
or to be concerned with the safety precautions with using clip-on connectors.

FIELD TEST PROCEDURE, SINGLE-STATOR

General test procedures, regardless of the method of testing, include:
1. With test connections in place and the watthour meter voltage coil energized, but with no
current in the current circuit, observe whether or not the meter disk creeps. A meter is not
considered to creep unless the disk makes a full revolution in ten minutes or less. Intermittent
creep due to excessive vibration may also occur. If the meter creeps, note the apparent cause
and the time required for one revolution of meter disk.
2. Before disturbing the meter in any way, take “as found” tests at heavy load which should be
approximately 10% of test amperes. Both tests are made at 100% power factor. If the first set
of runs shows evidence of excessive errors or improper operation, both tests should include as
many runs as may be necessary to obtain a reasonable average of “as found” conditions. The
percent registration or percent error is calculated, standard corrections are applied, and cor-
rected percent registrations noted.
3. Upon completion of “as found” tests, the top of the meter is cleaned and the meter cover is
removed. The register ratio and the marked register constant are checked and noted on the test
record. The meter assembly is inspected for presence of dust, dirt, paint chips, etc. All such
foreign materials must be carefully removed. Particular attention should be given to the gap
between the drag magnet and the disk. All particles of dirt in this area must be carefully and
thoroughly removed with a non-magnetic cleaner. Check to ensure that the mesh between the
shaft worm or pinion and the first register gear is of correct depth and that it does not vary as
the disk rotates.
4. Feel each dial pointer with the finger to ensure that none are loose on their shafts and that the
shafts are not loose in their pinions.
5. Check for disk clearances. The vertical play of the shaft should be approximately 3/64 of an
inch. Reference should be made to manufacturers’ instructions for this check, particularly for
magnetic-bearing meters.
 6. If light-load tests are variable or show the meter to be more than 1% slow, no adjustment 313
should be made until a complete examination of the mechanical condition of the meter is
made to determine possible causes for excessive friction. Sources of friction might be improper
disk clearances, improper mesh between shaft worm and worm gear, faulty upper or lower bear-

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

ing, or a faulty register.
7. If light-load results are still in excess of 1% slow or show variability, the lower bearing unit
should be removed and replaced. If it is found necessary to change the lower bearing, the top
bearing should also be removed and, if possible, cleaned with pith and an orange stick. If it is
not possible to secure a bright surface on the top bearing pin, it should be replaced.
8. Adjust meter if necessary.
9. After all inspections, adjustments, and tests have been completed, “as left” results are noted
on the meter test record. Make “as left” tests with the meter in place. As a final test, the meter
must be checked for creep.
10. In the case of three-wire, single-phase meters, all tests are made with the current coils in series.
After completing the “as left” tests, the temporary connections must be removed carefully. The leads
that served to supply the phantom load and voltage circuits must be removed from the line service
terminals first. Reconnect the meter line and load conductors in their normal positions and remove
jumpers, reinsulating any section of wiring that has been bared for purpose of test. Finally, replace all
seals and verify that service has been returned to normal and that the watthour meter is functioning.
If service has been interrupted, the customer should be advised, either verbally or by printed form,
with a suggestion that their electric clocks be reset.
Before leaving, check your test records to be sure that all data has been properly entered. Make
sure that tools, jumpers, or other test equipment has not been left on site. Pick up old seals and trash
that resulted from the test.

FIELD TEST PROCEDURE, MULTI-STATOR METERS

Single-stator test procedures also apply to multi-stator meters. Before test connections are made, a
check with a voltage indicator is advisable for assurance that the meter case is not live to ground.
With load wires disconnected, a check for creep should be made.
To prepare for test, connect all voltage coils in parallel and all current coils in series. This connec-
tion changes the test constant.
With this series-parallel connection a multi-stator meter is tested at 1.0 power factor as though
it were a single-stator meter. An exception is the four-wire, three-stator delta meter that is commonly
tested by individual stators.
In addition to the unity power factor tests, multi-stator meters may be tested with 100% test
amperes at 50% lagging power factor.
For lagging power factor field tests, the portable test fixture used may have built-in switching and
controls to obtain the desired power factor. If not, the three-phase voltages at the meter installation
may be used.
When using the service supply to obtain lagging power factor, the phase sequence must be deter-
mined in order to make the proper connections. Phase sequence may be determined by means of a
phase angle meter or with any of the phase sequence indicators.
After phase sequence has been determined, connections for a lag test at 50% power factor may be
made as follows for the phasors shown in Figure 12-19.
When the sequence is 1-2-3:
Use voltage 1-2 with current 1-3, or voltage 2-3 with current 2-1.
When the sequence is 3-2-1:
Use voltage 2-1 with current 2-3, or voltage 1-3 with current 1-2,
or voltage 3-2 with current 3-1.
 314
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 12-19. Phasor Relations of Voltage and Currents in Lag Test of Multi-Stator Watthour Meter.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER METERS

The test of instrument transformer meters is similar to that of self-contained meters, since, for test
purposes, meters are usually isolated from their associated transformers. Since the meters generally
control more revenue than self-contained meters, additional tests may be required and test tolerances
may be narrower.
Meter installations having current and voltage transformers require exceptional care and caution
to safeguard personnel from injury through contact with high voltage primaries or the high voltage
developed across an accidentally opened current transformer secondary. If all safety rules are followed,
these hazards will be avoided.
Normally, for instrument transformer meters, a test switch is installed between the transformers
and the meter. It is the function of this test switch to short the current transformer secondaries before
opening the connections to the meter, and to open the voltage secondary circuit. When a test switch
is of an unfamiliar design it must be determined that such short-circuiting is effective before opening
the switch.
When test switches were not installed, other means of short-circuiting the current transformer
secondaries must be employed. The short-circuiting connections must be made secure before opening
the circuit to the meter. Clip-connection jumpers are not recommended. The use of temporary wire
jumpers presents the possibility of leaving the jumpers in place after the test is completed, thus shunt-
ing the meter.

TEST PROCEDURE
With the meter disconnected from its instrument transformer, proceed to test as a self-contained
meter, with multi-stator meters connected with current coils in series and voltage coils in parallel.
Additional individual stator tests may also be required for stator balancing. Three-stator delta meters
present special problems.
When large loads are served from a delta power bank, power factor tests may be required and
should be made while testing individual stators rather than with the series-parallel connection. Lag-
ging power factor values should match the unity power factor performance values in each individual
stator so that proper balance is obtained under all conditions of loading. Since on delta circuits errors
in power factor balance effect meter performance on unity power factor loads, the tolerance for power
factor balance should be narrow.
With unusual loads it is sometimes desirable to make a running load test, which uses the cus-
tomer’s three-phase load instead of the phantom load.
 Such tests require two standards for three-wire, three-phase meters and three standards for four- 315
wire meters, with a standard current coil in series with each meter current coil. The algebraic sum of
the standard registrations is used to determine meter performance. Figure 12-20 shows test connec-
tions for a running load test on a two-stator, three-wire meter.

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

When metering large power customers, register constants are particularly important. Primary
register constant may be calculated by the standard formula:
Secondary kh 3 Rr 3 Rs 3 CT ratio 3 VT ratio
Primary Register Constant 5 ———————————————————————————————
10,000
Register ratio and shaft reduction should be examined to make sure that they are correct for the
application.

NETWORK METERS
When meters are installed with current transformers but not with voltage trans formers, which is
often the case when customers are served from a 120/208 volt network, the test switch voltage blades
may present a hazard. The voltage supply to the meter is taken from a high-capacity power transformer
instead of from a low-capacity instrument transformer. As a result, an accidental short circuit of the
voltage conductors can result in a severe arc. Unfortunately, in many test switches the voltage switch
blades are live when open and protrude beyond the test switch barriers. When this is the case, an
insulated enclosure to cover the live switch blades will prevent accidents due to falling tools or contact
with other metallic objects.

THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE DELTA, TWO-STATOR METERS

This meter comprises one three-wire current circuit at 240 volts and one two-wire current circuit at
208 volts. Except when extreme accuracy is required, this meter may be tested with all current coils in
series and voltage coils in parallel. The error introduced by operating the 208 volt coil at 240 volts is
generally less than 0.2%.

Figure 12-20. Test Connections for Two-Stator, Three-Wire Meter Using Customer’s Load and Two Standards.
 316 THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE DELTA, THREE- STATOR METERS
This type of meter is unusual as compared with other meters, especially from a standpoint of test-
ing. Since it consists of one stator with a voltage rating of twice either of the other two stators and
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

a current rating of one-half of either of the other two stators, the usual method of series tests and
balance test cannot be used. The common practice is to calibrate each stator independently, although
the two like stators can be tested in series and also balanced against each other. Providing the correct
ratio current transformer and voltage transformer so that the higher voltage stator can be connected
essentially in series-parallel with the two lower voltage stators, a series test can be made. This requires
an accurate step-up voltage transformer and an accurate step-down current transformer. For more
detailed discussions, see manufacturers’ publications.

THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE WYE, THREE-STATOR METERS

The necessity for making separate stator tests on three-stator wye meters in the field and test loads to
be used in such tests were investigated by an Edison Electric Institute (EEI) Meter and Service Com-
mittee Task Force and the conclusions were covered in a report dated April 16, 1951.
The following recommendations were made in this report:
1. In calibrating separate stators, test loads should be based on percent rated current, rather than
percent rated speed. This is based purely on economics, in that fewer adjustments will be neces-
sary under this procedure.
2. In the field, the series test is sufficient except in cases of special investigation. Further details
may be obtained by reference to the complete report.

Mobile Shop Field Testing

In this system of testing, a large van-type truck or trailer is used to house a compact but very com-
pletely equipped meter shop. This mobile shop is moved to a convenient location near the scene
of operations and a power supply tapped to it from adjacent company lines. Meter installers then
remove meters from the services in the neighborhood, bypassing each service meter loop. The meters
are immediately delivered to the mobile shop where the test crew makes “as found” tests and high-
voltage tests, thoroughly cleans the meter, makes adjustments, and performs “as left” tests. The meter
is then returned to service in its initial location, with the same reading that existed at the time of
removal. This method of testing has many obvious advantages over the regular house-to-house testing
system. Tests are made under nearly ideal conditions, high-voltage tests are possible, and a much more
thorough job of cleaning the meter can be performed. The very considerable advantage of this system
over shop testing methods is
that no change of office or meter
reading records are involved. See
Figure 12-21.

Meter Test By
Indicating Wattmeter
Load is applied to the meter
and watthours are measured by
means of indicating instruments
and timing devices, such as
stopwatches or chronographs.
The time is usually that required
for some convenient and prede-
termined number of revolutions
of the meter under test. The time
required for an integral number
of revolutions of the meter is
measured by a stopwatch and
the power, in true watts, during
Figure 12-21. Mobile Meter Testing Facility. the same period is measured by
means of indicating instruments. The ratio between the indicated or meter watthours and the true 317
watthours, as determined by the indicating instruments, multiplied by 100 is the percent registration
of the meter under test.

ELECTRICITY METER TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

Example 1:
Let P 5 true watts (average watts by indicating instruments)
kh 5 watthour constant
r 5 number of revolutions of an indicating disk
s 5 time in seconds for r revolutions
then, meter watthours 5 kh 3 r
meter wattseconds 5 kh 3 r 3 3,600
true wattseconds 5 P3s
Percent registration of the meter may then be determined from the following equation:
kh 3 r 3 3,600 3 100
Percent Registration 5 ————————————————
P3s
A wattmeter is required to measure alternating current (AC) power. This method is generally
limited to special meter tests.

Meter Maintenance
CAUSES OF CREEPING
The causes of creeping may be classified as follows:
1. Incorrect light-load compensation
2. Vibration
3. Stray fields, either internal or external
4. Too high voltage, which has the same effect as overcompensation of light-load adjustment
5. The voltage circuit is connected on the load side of the meter
6. Short circuits in current coils
7. Mechanical disarrangement of the electromagnetic circuit of the meter. A high-resistance short
or ground in the customer’s circuit can cause a turning of the rotating element which may
be mistaken for creeping. Therefore, residence wiring should be isolated from the meter when
checking for creep.
If a short-circuit is present in the current coils it will probably be difficult to stop creeping. Volt-
ages being induced in the current coils by the voltage magnetic flux and resultant current low in the
shorted current coil turns cause the creeping, due to current coil shorts.

CAUSES OF INACCURACIES
There are multiple reasons why a meter may become inaccurate. For induction meters, this could
be caused by friction, bearing magnets, registers, and/or a failed coil. Friction can be caused by an
unleveled meter or foreign material. Proper disk position is created by the magnetic bearings, worn
parts, or foreign material. Registers in meters can become worn or misalignment can occur over time.

DEFECTIVE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE COILS

Both solid state and electromechanical meters are effected by defective coils. For induction meters,
a short-circuited turn in the current coil will reduce the effective turns and, consequently, lower the
torque of the watthour meter and its speed at or near full-load. Induction meters will generally creep
when some of the turns are short-circuited and often will be fast on light-load and slow on full-load.
A short circuit in the voltage coil will change the torque of the watthour meter, hence its speed.
Errors in coils can also be identified multiple ways in solid-state metering. If the meter is equipped
with voltage indicators, a failed potential coil would be identified on the face plate. Both a defective
current and voltage coil would be found with a meter test. In addition, both types of problems could
be identified through the use of meter software diagnostics.
 Chapter 13

Demand Meters

KILOWATT DEMAND is the kilowatt load averaged over a specified interval of time. The meaning of
demand can be understood from a typical power curve as shown in ­Figure 13-1. In any one of the
time intervals shown, the area under the dotted line labeled demand is exactly equal to the area under
the power curve. Since energy is the product of power and time, both of these two areas represents the
energy consumed in the demand interval. The equivalence of the two areas shows that the demand for
the interval is that value of power which, if held constant over the interval, will account for the same
consumption of energy as the real power. It is then the average of the real power over the demand
interval.
The demand interval during which demand is measured may be any selected period but is typi-
cally 15 or 30 minutes. The demand period is determined by the billing tariff for a given utility’s rate
schedule.
Demand is typically explained in terms of power (kilowatts), but may also be expressed in kilovolt
amperes reactive (kVAR), kilovolt amperes (kVA), or other suitable units.

Why Demand is Metered

Two classes of expenses determine the total cost of generating, transmitting, and distributing electric
energy. They are:
1. Capital investment items: depreciation, interest on notes, property taxes, and other annual
expenses arising from the electric utility’s capital investment in generating, transmitting, and
distributing equipment, as well as in land, buildings, and other assets.
2. Operation and maintenance items (O&M): fuel, payroll, renewal parts, worker’s compensation,
rent for office space, and numerous other items contributing to the cost of operating, maintain-
ing, and administering a power system.
In billing the individual consumer of electricity, the utility considers the cost of both capital and
O&M expenditures in providing its service. However, furnishing power to some consumers calls for a
large capital investment by the utility while, for other consumers, the cost may be due largely to opera-
tion and maintenance. The following two examples illustrate these two extremes of load.
1. In a certain plant, as shown in Figure 13-2a, electricity is used largely to operate pumps, which
run at rated load night and day. The power consumed by the pump motors is low and the plant
shares a utility-owned transformer with several other consumers. The amount of energy used
each month is large because the pumps are constantly running. Therefore, the cost of supplying
this consumer is largely determined by operating expenses, notably the cost of fuel. The capital
investment items are relatively unimportant.

319
 320
Power Curve
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Demand

Area Under Dotted Line =

Demand Area Under Power Curve =
Total Energy for the Interval
Power (Kilowatts)

Demand Demand Demand Demand

Interval Interval Interval Interval
Demand for Each Interval = Average Power Over the Interval

Figure 13-1. Power Curve Over Four Successive Demand Intervals.

2. Another factory (Figure 13-2b) uses the same number of kilowatt-hours of energy per month
but consumes all of it in a single eight-hour shift every day of the month. The average power is
therefore three times greater than for the pump plant and the rating (and size) of equipment
installed by the utility to furnish the factory with energy must also be about three times higher.
Costs rising from capital investment are a much greater factor in billing this consumer than in
billing the operator of the pump plant.
Demand is an indication of the capacity of equipment such as transformers, service wires, and
distribution lines required to furnish electricity to individual consumers. Kilowatt-hours or energy
per month is not a true indication of the rating of equipment the utility must install to supply a
particular maximum power requirement during the month without overheating or otherwise straining
its facilities. What is needed in this case is a measure of the maximum demand for power during the
month. The demand meter answers this need.
With the evolution of metering from a mechanical to a fully solid-state product, the manner and
methods used to measure demand have changed. When the concept of demand was first implemented,
kilowatt (kW) demand was the measure of choice, despite the fact that the true maximum stress that
utility equipment experiences is the maximum kilovolt amperes (kVA). The kVA takes into account
the real power watts, and the reactive power VARs, as one quantity. However, determining kVA in
a mechanical environment was more costly to measure as compared to kW demand, which can be
metered with a single device. With the introduction of electronic solid-state meters, the determination
of kVA demand has become more effective as it can be metered with a single device.

Maximum Average Power

A commonly used type of demand meter is essentially a watthour meter with a timing function. The
meter sums the kilowatt-hours of energy used in a specific time interval, typically 15 or 30 minute
intervals. This results in the demand meter measuring the energy per time interval, or average power.
By means of a demand function, a wattmeter is made to preserve an indication of the maximum
average power delivered to a consumer over a month or some other period. This maximum average
power is frequently referred to as the monthly peak demand.
 321
Customer
Load

Demand Meters
1000
kWhs

Rated
Load
1000 kWhs

Midnight 8 AM 4 PM Midnight Midnight 8 AM 4 PM Midnight

a. Customer 1— b. Customer 2—
Running Rated Load for 24 Hours Same Number of kWhs for 8 Hours

Figure 13-2. Load Example.

This method of measuring kW demand came about because the electromechanical meter could
only measure one quantity at a time, e.g., watthours. Measuring only real power to determine the
maximum demand the customer is using is only part of the real load. The full impact of load is actu-
ally derived from the maximum kilovoltamperes, kVA, demanded by the customer.

Maximum Average Kilovoltamperes

Another commonly used type of demand meter is a multi-function electronic solid-state meter that
can measure both kilowatthours of energy and kilovarhours of quadergy used in a specific time
interval. Solid state demand meters can measure the kVA per time interval, or average kVA (which
is expressed in kilovolt amperes). See Figure 13-3 for the determination of kVA from kW and kVar
demand values.
By means of a demand function, a multi-function solid-state meter is made to preserve an indica-
tion of the maximum kVA delivered to a consumer over a month or some other period, thus providing
a thorough picture of the customer’s impact on the utility equipment.

KVA

2 2
KVA = KW + KVAR KVAR

KW
Figure 13-3. Power Triangle.
 322 The capacity of most electrical equipment is limited by the amount of heating it can stand. Heat-
ing depends on the apparent current flowing through the equipment by two components: the real
current and the reactive current. In addition, the maximum stress on the equipment not only depends
on the size of the load or the apparent current, but also on the length of time the current is main-
Handbook for Electricity Metering

tained. A momentary overload, such as the starting surge of a motor, will not cause a temperature rise
sufficient to break down insulation or otherwise damage any utility equipment. For this reason, the
utility does not use a momentary value of maximum kVA, but maximum average kVA over an interval
as a basis for billing.

General Classes
There are three basic types of demand registering meters in use:
1. Mechanical—meter and register
• Integrating type of demand meters
i. Indicator (pointer and dial)
ii. Cumulative
2. Mechanical meter and electronic register
• Electromechanical watthour meters with electronic demand register
i. Electronic demand registers with time-of-use (TOU)
ii. Electronic demand registers with TOU and internal data recorder
3. Electronic—meter and register
• Electronic watthour meter and electronic demand registers
i. Electronic demand registers with TOU
ii. Electronic demand registers with TOU and internal data recorder

All of these meters measure power so that the registered value is a measure of the load as it effects
heating and therefore the load-carrying capacity of the electric distribution equipment. The demand
meter’s main function is to provide billing and load information for use in pricing.

Mechanical—Meter and Register

Integrating Type of Demand Meters—Overview
An integrating kilowatt demand meter is a watthour meter with added facilities for metering demand.
The watthour meter is the driving element. The watthour and demand registering functions are typi-
cally combined in a single device.
All integrating mechanical kilowatt demand meters register the average power over a fixed demand
interval that corresponds to predetermined period of time and follows each other consecutively, as
shown in Figure 13-1. This type of demand interval is referred to as a block interval, and the duration
for each interval is set for a specific block of time. As an example, an integrating demand meter with
a 30-minute block interval will measure average power over a 30-minute demand interval. Assuming
that the first demand interval begins at 12:00, its completion will be 30 minutes later, at 12:30. Utili-
ties typically bill demand on a 15- or 30-minute interval.
Integrating kilowatt demand registers are driven by watthour meters. The registering device turns
an amount proportional to the watthours of energy in the interval. A timing mechanism returns the
demand registering device to the zero point at the end of each interval. The final displacement of the
registering device just before the timing mechanism returns it to zero is proportional to the demand in
the interval. The demand in the interval is equal to the energy consumed during the interval divided
by the time, which is constant and determined by the fixed interval length of the demand period.
The register value obtained from an indicating type of demand meter represents the maximum
(or peak) demand since the meter’s last demand reset. The gears, shafting, and pointer-pusher of all
integrating demand recorders turn an amount proportional to the demand in every demand interval.
In other words, a meter which indicates only maximum demand has a pointer-pusher and a pointer
which indicates the maximum demand that has occurred during any interval since the pointer was
last reset to zero.
 All mechanical demand meters require a manual reset each month when they are read for billing 323
purposes. Failure to reset the demand may result in a peak demand value that may extend beyond a
single billing period.

Demand Meters
Integrating Type of Demand Meter
Electromechanical Watthour and Demand Meter—Design Description
The electromechanical watthour and demand meter, as its name implies, combines an electromechani-
cal watthour meter and mechanical demand meter into a single unit.
In a mechanical watthour demand meter, the watthour disk shaft drives two devices:
1. The gears and dial pointers through which the revolutions of the rotor are summed as kilowat-
thours of energy
2. The gears and shafting, which, working in conjunction with a timing motor or a clock, sum the
revolutions of the rotor during each demand interval in terms of kilowatts of demand
These two devices, after their initial gearing to the disk shaft, are independent of each other and
are comprised of two separate registers. They are commonly combined physically and are referred to as
the watthour demand register.
Two types of mechanical watthour demand meters commonly in use are:
1. The indicating type. This type indicates only the maximum average demand for each month or
other period between resettings. Indicating demand meters are further segmented into either a
pointer or a dial register type.
2. The cumulative type. This type also indicates the maximum demand during the period between
resetting, and by means of the resetting operation, the maximum demand for the period that
just ended is transmitted to dials and added to the total of previous maximums.
The gears, dials, and pointers by which the disk rotations of a mechanical watthour demand meter
are translated into kilowatthours of energy are the same, in principle, as all mechanical watthour
meter registers.
The demand pointer-pusher or dials rotates a number of degrees proportional to energy utilization
of each demand interval. At the end of every demand interval, the timing mechanism performs two
operations:
1. It releases a clutch, mechanically breaking the connection between the meter rotor and the
pointer-pusher or recording mechanism.
2. It returns the pointer-pusher to the zero point.
Then the clutch is re-engaged and the summing-up process begins again. The process of returning
the pointer-pusher to zero at the end of each interval takes only a few seconds.
The timing mechanism may be actuated by voltage from the metered circuit, by voltage from a
separate circuit, or the mechanism may even be a spring-driven device.
Indicating Type (Pointer)
The maximum demand is indicated on the graduated scale by the sweep-hand pointer. During each
demand interval, the demand pointer-pusher advances proportionally to the kilowatt demand. If the
demand for a given interval is higher than any previous demand since the pointer was last reset, the
pointer-pusher pushes the pointer upscale to indicate the new maximum demand. The pointer is held
in this position by the friction pad. See Figure 13-4.
Indicating Type (Dial)
The dial type demand register uses an indicating type demand register mechanism in much the
same manner as the pointer type demand register. However, the demand reading is in dial form versus
a sweep-hand pointer scale. The dials return to zero when the monthly reset is performed. This type of
demand display has a better resolution than the pointer type due to a longer equivalent scale length
and is easier to read. See Figure 13-5.
Cumulative Type
The cumulative watthour demand meter goes one step further than the indicating watt­hour demand
meter. A pointer, moved across a scale by a pointer-pusher mechanism, preserves the maximum
demand until the meter is reset. The principle is the same as in the indicating meter but the pointer
 324
Synchronous Timing Motor
Cam
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Plate
Geneva Reset Pin
Elapsed Time Gear to Motor Shaft 1
Indicator Kilowatt-Hour Mechanism
Gear Train Section Gear Tail
Transfer
Gear Transfer Worm Shaft 1
Gear
Clutch Spring
Clutch Lever Assembly
Sector Gear
Gear “A”
Pointer-Pusher Gear
Pointer-Pusher Screw
Shaft “A” Pointer Dog
Friction Pad
Pointer Shaft Pointer-Pusher
Clutch
Maximum Demand Pointer

Figure 13-4. Pointer Type of Indicating Watthour Demand Register.

and scale are much smaller. In addition, the cumulative type demand meter preserves a running total
of the maximum demands for consecutive months on small dials similar to watthour meter dials. The
maximum demand for each month is added to the previous maximums on the dials when the meter is
reset at the end of the month.
Except for the resetting device and the cumulative gear train, pointers, and dials, the cumulative
demand register is the same in principle and operation as the indicating demand register. See Figures
13-6 and 13-7.

Mechanical Meter and

Electronic Register
ELECTRONIC DEMAND REGISTERS
Electronic demand registers were
made practical with the development
of non-volatile electronic memory.
This type of memory can store billing
data and programming constants
and retain this information during
power interruptions without need for
a battery. When the supply voltage
drops below a minimum value, pro-
gramming constants and billing data
are transferred to the non-volatile
memory from which it is recalled
when power is restored.
The heart of the electronic register
is a microcomputer that processes
data. Figure 13-8 is a simplified block
diagram of an electronic demand reg-
ister showing the typical inputs and
Figure 13-5. Dial Type of Indicating Watthour Demand Register. outputs to/from the microcomputer.
 325
Plate
Cam

Demand Meters
Timing Motor

Reset
Clutch Pin
Lever Sector Gear
Clutch Pivot
Hollow
Shaft

Shaft A

Clutch Spring
Gear A
Pointer

Watthour Meter Disc

Sleeve

Pointer-
Friction Pad Dog Pointer-Pusher Screw

Figure 13-6. Simplified Schematic of the Interval-Resetting Mechanism

of an Indicating Watthour Demand Meter.

Timing Motor

Gear B Gear A
Dog
Gear C
Depressing Pins 2 Gear D
Pin
Pin 1
Resetting Screw
Resetting Shaft Pointer-Pusher
Knob Slots
Maximum Cork Faces
Demand
Indicator Gear E
Gear F

Cumulative
Demand Dials

Figure 13-7. Simplified Schematic of the Cumulative-Resetting Mechanism

of a Cumulative Watthour Demand Meter.
 326
Handbook for ElEctricity MEtEring

Rotating Optical Sensor

Disk or
Display
Mechanical Electronic Meter
Meter Pulse

Demand Reset Pulse Initiator

Switch Output

Display Switch
End-of-Interval/
Demand Threshold
Output
Test Switch

Clock
DC Power

Power Fail
Clock Circuits
Power Supply Detector

50 / 60 Hz
•
AC Line Power

Figure 13-8. Electronic Demand Register, Block Diagram.

Meter Disk Sensing

When used with an electromechanical meter, an electronic register must sense disk rotation. Most
electronic registers use optical sensors which produce several pulses for each disk revolution by sensing
marks on the disk, or by detecting motion of a shutter mounted on the meter disk shaft as shown in
Figure 13-9.
Digital (Pulse) Processing Microcomputer
Electronic demand registers are pulse-operated, whereby the electronic counter receives a fixed number
of pulses per disk revolution. The accuracy of electronic registers is typically expressed in terms of a
pulse-count deviation over a given period of time. With electronic registers, accuracy is always within
a few tenths of a percent and they are equally accurate throughout the entire scale range.
Electronic demand registers process incoming pulses and perform the following functions:
1. Establish accurate and precise time intervals.
2. Count and accumulate pulses, convert pulse-counts into engineering units and store and display
data.
 327

10

Demand Meters
9

11

7 13
5 14
6
3

2 VM-60 METER
1 8
4
12

15

Figure 13-9. Electromechanical Meter with Electronic Demand Register.

3. Count and accumulate pulses for successive demand intervals and detect and store the value in
which power consumption was at its peak and, at the end of each interval, reset the count to
zero in preparation for the next interval.

Programming
Electronic registers may be pre-programmed with parameters such as:
1. The energy value of each input pulse
2. Demand interval length (for fixed or rolling calculations)
3. Type of demand display (maximum, cumulative, continuously accumulative)
4. Display format (how many digits and the decimal location)
5. Items to be displayed
6. The function of the output switch (e.g., pulse initiator, end-of-interval, demand threshold alert)
Making changes in software allows one hardware design to serve a variety of applications. Program
changes are analogous to a mechanical meter manufacturer selecting different gear ratios, dial scales,
and timing motor speeds.
New Functionality
With the introduction of digital processing into the mechanical watthour meter, new capabilities
and options have become available to utility personnel which impact how the demand is determined,
provided, and verified.
 328 Rolling-Demand Capability
Rolling demand, also called sliding window, is a process by which intervals are divided into a fixed
number of subintervals. Instead of calculating demand at the completion of each interval period, the
calculation is performed at the end of each subinterval, at which time subsequent subintervals are
Handbook for Electricity Metering

totaled and averaged for the entire interval. Greater precision in determining the true peak demand
can be applied by utilizing the rolling demand capability of an electronic register. For example, in
the two curves shown in Figure 13-10, the kWh power consumption is the same, but the maximum
demand determined by the meter provides a truer picture of the customer’s peak load when the

Watts

Power

Maximum Demand

A B C Time
Interval Data (a)

Watts

Power
Maximum    Demand

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V

Subinterval Data (b)

Figure 13-10. Fixed-Demand, Rolling-Demand Calculation.

subinterval data, in Figure 13-10b, is the basis for the calculation. Notice that the interval length does 329
not change and subinterval demand calculations always use the most recent consecutive subintervals
which make up the full interval.

Demand Meters
Display Modes
Electronic demand registers display several types of information. The normal display mode presents
information needed on a regular basis such as data related to billing. An alternate mode can display
information useful to field technicians or shop personnel for verifying register program constants used
in the demand determination. A test mode provides information for testing, like demand run up.
Demand Forgiveness
Another feature that has been introduced with the advent of electronic registers is the concept of
demand forgiveness. Also referred to as power on demand delay timing, demand forgiveness is achieved
by delaying the start of the demand interval and, therefore, the demand measurement upon service
restoration after a power outage of a significant duration. Typically, when establishing this option the
utility must specify how long to wait after power is restored before beginning the demand calculation
and how long the power outage must be for the meter to trigger the demand forgiveness feature.
Output Signals
Most electronic demand registers are capable of providing output signals for communicating with
external monitoring and control equipment. These output signals are generally a relay closure activated
by the microprocessor. Outputs can include a pulse initiator output (KYZ), an end-of-interval signal,
and a demand threshold alert.
Demand Resolution
Many electronic registers provide resolution of one or more places to the right of the decimal point.
This increased resolution makes it possible to capture readings closer to the true demand. In most
cases, the improvement in resolution yields a higher reading. This is especially true with instrument
transformer rated services when billing constants are applied to all collected readings.
Improved Testability
Mechanical demand registers are tested by inputting enough meter disk revolutions, directly or from
a test board, to drive the demand pointer(s) to a point where the demand register is most accurate,
typically above 25% of full scale, within the time window of the register’s demand interval. If an
adjustment is required, the test is repeated, thereby resulting in several more demand intervals of time
to complete the test procedure.
Electronic demand registers are typically not adjusted or calibrated. If a register is defective, most
utilities simply replace the electronic module. However, if a test is required, it can be achieved by
simply injecting a few test pulses to verify the demand calculation, relying on the fact that the register
is counting pulses, and it is equally accurate across its entire scale. Registers which incorporate a test
mode may further assist in this verification.

ELECTRONIC TIME-OF-USE DEMAND METERS

Rising costs, environmental concerns, and regulatory mandates have prompted many utilities to estab-
lish load management programs. An example of one such program is time-of-use (TOU) metering.
Unlike a conventional tariff which charges the user for the quantity of energy used, a time-
differentiated rate structure also considers when the energy is used. The user is charged a higher price
for energy used during time periods when generation and delivery costs for the utility are higher.
Introducing the requirement to measure when energy is used increases the complexity of the
meter. Mechanical gear trains controlled by electronic circuits were typical of the earliest TOU
meters. These electromechanical meters have been replaced with completely electronic registers. See
Figure 13-11.
Time-of-use meters are designed with the flexibility to accommodate a variety of rate structures
defined by the utility. They are often equipped with programmable displays and rate schedules which
accommodate energy (kilowatthours) and demand (kilowatt) registration for up to four daily rate
periods. Some meters can be programmed to show the current rate of consumption or cumulative
consumption for demand intervals. Additionally, the option of enabling rolling demand, if available,
may be used in determining all demand values across all TOU periods.
 330
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 13-11. Time-of-Use Demand Meter.

The indicated demand values can be reset (zeroed) by a mechanism mounted on the meter cover
or by an accessory device, such as a portable reader programmer or internally generated self-read,
self-reset, feature.

ELECTRONIC DEMAND METERS WITH TIME-OF-USE AND INTERVAL RECORDER

Electronic demand meters incorporating sufficient memory and register capacity can be used to register
time-of-use data and store interval data for retrieval either locally by a handheld reader or remotely
via some type of remote communications mechanism. The addition of interval data to a meter will not
impact the demand determination within the meter itself. However, the availability of interval data
does provide additional options in the manner which the demand itself is determined and calculated
by the utility.

Electronic Meter and Register

Theory of Operation
The electronic meter retains all the functionality of both the mechanical meter and electronic register.
The primary difference between the electronic meter and its mechanical forebearers is within the
metrology components, resulting in the old turning disk being replaced with a newer, fully electronic
counterpart. This technology change has resulted in a single combined unit with fewer moving parts,
improved overall accuracy and stability, and providing greater functionality/capabilities than either of
its predecessors.
The electronic meter is powered by a power supply that may be either a fixed voltage source or
autoranging across a wide voltage range, typically 120 volt (V) to 480 V. Analog voltage sensing
circuits, such as high impedance resistive voltage dividers (one per phase) and analog current sensors
(one per phase), provide scaled signals to digital to analog converters. The data sample sets (such as
one current and the associated voltage signal) are then sent to a microcomputer that provides all data
processing functions, including sample processing, digital filtering, data accumulations, summations, 331
and calculation of advanced metering quantities. The microcomputer keeps the elapsed time required
to determine the demand’s subinterval and interval periods based on the utility line frequency or,
alternately, via a quartz crystal oscillator. It also provides all register and display functions for the

Demand Meters
meter. All data values and program parameters are stored in nonvolatile memory, and a battery is not
required for data storage unless TOU and/or load profile is added to the meter as an option.
Due to the advanced functionality available within an electronic meter, it may actually be four
meters in one—demand, demand load profile, TOU, and TOU load profile—depending on how it is
configured and programmed. Like the electronic register, electronic meters can be programmed and
read through the meter’s optical port with a manufacturer’s software installed on a laptop computer.
The electronic meter may also include option boards for remote communications or pulse outputs.

Kilovar or Kilovarampere Demand Meter

Electronic meters utilize digital sampling as the foundation of all of their measurements. Current
and voltage samples are captured many times over one cycle of a waveform. Straight multiplication of
these values yields watts. Storage of voltage sample values allows multiplication of a current value by
an associated voltage value from 90° earlier in time-yielding VARs. The power-factor and kVA values
can then be calculated. Unlike electromechanical meters, it is not necessary to use special wiring or
auxiliary equipment such as phase-shifting transformers. Only one meter is required and reactive
calculations can be done with any standard meter form.
Electronic meters have the capability to calculate and display many different types of power, each
expressed in units of kVA as shown in Figure 13-12.
• Phasor Power (S) is what results from calculations, shown in Figure 13-3, based on traditional
kWh and kVARh meter readings, represented by the Active Power (P) and Reactive Power (Q)
vectors, respectively, in Figure 13-12.
• Apparent Power (U) provides more of a complete picture of the cost of service by adding the
element of Distortion Power. Apparent Power (U) is a function of Active Power (P), Reactive
Power (Q), and Distortion Power (D). To calculate Polyphase Apparent Power (U), first add the
components for the phases together, then solve for U.

Vector Relationships for Various Alternative Current (AC) Powers

Phasor (S)

Reactive (Q)

Apparent (U)

Active (P)

Distortion (D)

Figure 13-12. Vector Diagram of Various Alternating Current (AC) Powers.

 332 • Arithmetic Apparent Power (a scalar quantity) uses the same elements as Apparent Power. How-
ever, to calculate Polyphase Arithmetic Apparent Power, add the Apparent Power magnitudes for
each of the individual phases.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Coincidental Demand Values

Coincidental demand is the maximum demand obtained from two or more meters when all metered
loads are summed coincidentally, i.e., on the same time basis. Since an electronic meter may be
capable of providing multiple types of demand readings within a single unit, the concept of coinciden-
tal demand may also be applied across those types of readings. When using the coincidental demand
feature, the meter is essentially providing a demand value at a specific event. An example would be
the provision of the kW demand value which was measured at the time of the monthly peak kVA
demand interval. In this example, the kW value may not necessarily be equal to the monthly peak kW
demand, since it may have occurred at some other timeframe during the monthly billing cycle. How-
ever, this kW demand would be the proper value required to determine the customer’s power factor
(PF 5 kW/kVA) occurring at the time of their peak kVA demand interval, as possibly may be defined
in a utility’s rate tariff.

Methodologies in Determining Demand

Demand can be calculated and derived through several different methods.
Traditional Demand
The meter starts the month with a maximum demand of zero. At the end of each billing period, the
utility must read the maximum or monthly peak demand from a demand meter and, in addition,
must reset the maximum demand back to zero. Resetting the maximum demand begins the billing
cycle for the next month. Under this traditional demand methodology, all of the demand calculations
are performed within the demand meter itself.
Self-Read Demand Process
With traditional demand meters, pressing the demand reset button signals the meter to end the
current billing period and begin the next billing period. When utilities read meters with some one-way
reading systems, such as Automated Meter Reading (AMR), there typically is not a method to signal
the meter to reset the demand.
One method to circumvent this limitation in a one-way AMR reading system is to utilize an
optional self-read feature available in some types of electronic meters. This self-read option is enabled
by programming a TOU/self-read calendar into the meter. The calendar is then used by the meter
to determine when to automatically perform a demand reset each month. When using this feature,
all demand meters must be converted to TOU meters and, therefore, may require a battery. Typically
the TOU/self-read calendar will contain the reading cycle reset dates for an extended period of time
into the future, possibly as long as 20 years. At the predetermined time that the self-read is to be
performed, the meter first reads all the register values, copying them into the proper register buckets,
and then resets all of its billing demand values to zero, thereby beginning the next month’s billing
cycle. The self-read data is saved within the meter and transmitted to billing as part of the current
cycle read.
Several key considerations when using the self-read option includes that the utility must maintain
an ongoing calendar for each of its monthly reading cycles for an extended period of time into the
future. Also, each meter must be programmed with the correct self-read calendar based on each service
location either prior to or as part of the meter installation. Consequently, if the utility needs to adjust
its reading cycle for efficiency reasons, the new self-read calendar must somehow be reprogrammed
into each meter impacted by the reading cycle change. Finally, the utility should arrange its meter
reading process to avoid reading the meter before any meters’ self-read reset date has passed. Since this
option only performs its self-read process steps once a month, reading the meter prior to the self-read
date will only capture the previous billing determinants, not the current month’s determinants.
Cycle Insensitive Demand
As an alternative to the self-read process utilized by some one-way AMR reading systems, a cycle
insensitive demand meter keeps track of the last 35 daily demands, dropping the oldest and adding the
newest maximum demand every day.
 At the end of each day, the meter looks through its lists of daily peaks to find the two peaks that 333
it will report for the next 24 hours. The number of days to look back at can be configured for each of
the two peaks. The first peak typically should be configured for the average number of business days
between cycle reads and is usually 25 to 30 business days. This reading will be used when the meter is

Demand Meters
read on time or late. The second peak should be configured conservatively to handle the cases when
the billing period is short either because it was read late last month and/or it is read early this month.
This is typically set to 18 or 19 days.
As an alternative to the self-read demand process, cycle insensitive demand meters provide greater
flexibility to read meters early or late without estimating bills. Meters can be moved to a different
route without reprogramming the calendar and only one calendar needs to be maintained for the
entire utility.
Demand Calculated From Interval Recording
With this optional method for determining demand, the utility collects the interval reads (15- or
30-minute intervals) either monthly or more frequently from remotely read interval recording meters.
Once the interval data has been retrieved, it can then be used (external from the meter) to calculate
the maximum demand. Meter Data Management Systems (MDMS) are often used for processing
interval data, calculating monthly peak demands. Many other determinates, such as TOU, can also be
determined using similar means. Even if 15-minute interval data is recorded and a 30-minute demand
period is required for billing, the processing engine (MDMS) can add multiple 15-minute blocks of
data into 30-minute intervals for calculating the maximum 30-minute billing demand.
Two other areas where interval data may be used in lieu of relying on the meter itself to perform
a calculation is when considering both a kVA and/or a coincidental peak demand determination. In
both cases, the raw data in the form of interval data must be available from the meter to perform the
calculation. This type of calculation is also typically performed by the utility’s MDMS or some other
internal system. In the case of kVA, interval data for both watthours and VAR hours must be avail-
able. However, in using this method for determining kVA, only the power triangle calculation may be
utilized. The arithmetic method of calculating kVA may only be utilized within the meter itself.
The primary difference between this methodology and the previous method discussed is that by
using interval data, the monthly peak demand determination is moved from the meter itself to an
external system/process. The configuration of the meter may, therefore, be simplified by just becoming
a source of the interval data and no longer be required to calculate the demand values. It also elimi-
nates the need for any type of demand reset command to be performed by the meter.
Daily Demand Readings
A hybrid approach between the traditional and interval data methods of determining demand is the
daily demand approach. This methodology requires remote communications to the specific demand
meter and primarily resolves when to send a demand reset command to the meter. All normal demand
calculations are performed within the meter. However, a demand reset is performed at the conclu-
sion of every communication session. If the communications with the meter occurs every day, then,
effectively, a series of daily demand readings are collected and stored within the utility billing process.
The billing system must then be set up to sort through all the demand values collected and choose the
highest value as the monthly peak demand for that billing period.
Accuracy Impacts in Determining Demand
Electronic watthour meters compute the product of voltage and current and integrate this product
over time to compute energy. The product of voltage and current is instantaneous power and varies
continuously with the power system AC waveform. Instantaneous power has little practical economic
value, so what is of interest is the average power supplied over some significant period of time. Elec-
tronic demand meters accomplish this function by measuring energy over a defined demand interval.
The reading provided is the average power (in watts) computed by dividing the interval energy by the
demand interval.
Although there are a number of ways to accomplish the computation of the product, at a basic
level, all methods require input signals proportional to system voltage and the delivered current. Volt-
age measurement is most commonly derived from a signal scaled through a resistive divider network.
It can also be derived from the output of a potential transformer. Voltage signals with an uncalibrated
accuracy of 2% are easily obtained. Current signals may be obtained by a number of methods and
 334 may have typical uncalibrated accuracies of 65%. Since metrology function with a required accuracy
of 60.2% is not uncommon, it is necessary to provide a mechanism for the calibration of the system.
This can be accomplished by providing adjustments for gain and phase errors in each measurement
element. The corrections can be applied either to the voltage and current, or directly to the product
Handbook for Electricity Metering

depending on the computation method. Although physical calibration adjustments may be made, it is
more economical to provide computation adjustments through the use of calibration coefficients that
are programmed into the device at the time of manufacture.
In many cases the measurement quantities are computed by the means of digital signal process-
ing techniques. In this method the input signals must first be converted to digital samples. Once
the quantities are digitized, the results may be computed in the digital domain by an embedded
microprocessor or digital signal processing element in the meter. There are a number of methods for
digitization of signals in what is referred to as an analog to digital converter circuit. These methods
require the comparison of the input signal to a known accurate reference signal. The fundamental
inaccuracies of the reference are typically on the order of the meter’s stated accuracy and must also be
compensated for in calibration.
In order to integrate power accurately to measure energy, the meter must also have an accurate
time-base. Fortunately, an electronic time-base is easily and inexpensively derived by either using the
utility’s line frequency or by using quartz crystal oscillators. The uncalibrated accuracy of an inexpen-
sive oscillator is typically better than 0.005%. Since this is orders of magnitude greater than meter
accuracy, it is not normally a source of significant error.
Calibration of the watthour meter is normally performed to compensate for component toler-
ances, and the compensation is most commonly performed digitally with the compensating factors
stored in memory where they are not subject to inadvertent change or drift. Watthour meters provide
calibration outputs proportional to watthours that may be used to verify the device accuracy. Since an
accurate watthour measurement requires the same fundamental inputs as demand measurement, the
correct calibration of watt­hours ensures that associated demand measurement is equally precise.
 Chapter 14
Demand Meter
Testing and Maintenance
There are various types of test procedures and maintenance suggestions for demand meters.

Mechanical Demand Register

A mechanical demand register is designed to replace the conventional mechanical register of a watt-
hour meter for the dual purpose of recording kilowatthours and the maximum integrated kilowatt
demand. In addition to the kilowatthour gear train and dials, it includes a gear train driven from the
first shaft to provide the demand indication and a synchronous motor driven gear train to provide
the time interval. The maximum demand may be indicated by either a sweep pointer operating over a
semi-circular scale or by dials similar to the kilowatthour dials.
Watthour meters equipped with demand registers are watthour-demand meters and, with the
exception of the register and deeper covers, are identical to watthour meters of the corresponding type.

Principle of Operation
The demand gear train drives a pusher arm which advances the demand indicator in proportion to the
speed of the meter disk, which itself is proportional to the demand.
At the end of a predetermined interval, usually 15 or 30 minutes, the pusher arm is momentarily
disengaged from its gearing and returned to zero by a motor, a spring counter torque, or a gravity-
driven mechanism. The time interval during which the pusher arm is advanced is controlled by a
synchronous motor.
A test of a mechanical demand register must satisfy these three questions:
1. Is the advance of the indicator correct?
2. Does the reset operate correctly?
3. Is the time interval correct?
To make a clear distinction between the space interval covered by the advance of the indicator and
the demand interval controlled by the timing mechanism, the latter will be referred to as the “time
interval” in this chapter.
Advancing Mechanism
Since the pusher arm which advances the demand pointer is geared to the watthour meter shaft, the
accuracy of the demand indication is dependent upon the accuracy of the watthour meter. Therefore,
the watthour meter must be calibrated correctly if the demand indication is to be right. The register
ratio of the demand register must also be correct for the application.
The register gearing must not impose a heavy or variable load on the meter. In other words,
excessive register friction due to dirt or improper gear mesh must not exist. When demand meters are

335
 336 located in areas with unusual dust, dirt, or fumes, it is standard practice to clean the demand register
thoroughly before reinstallation. It is also a good practice to ensure that all demand registers are
thoroughly cleaned as they come into the shop for routine tests.
Cleaning methods vary from the use of standard cleaning machines that utilize a cleaning solu-
Handbook for Electricity Metering

tion, a rinsing solution, and a drier, to more modern type of ultrasonic cleaner. The cleaning solu-
tions, if used, should be nontoxic and rinsing solutions should be acid free and not leave a film on the
cleaned parts. Carbon tetrachloride should never be used for cleaning purposes because of the cumula-
tive toxic effects that it may have.
After a register has been cleaned, a thorough examination should be made to detect faulty gears,
worn bearing holes, and insufficient or excessive end shake of the various shafts. Particular attention
should be given to worm gear assemblies because malformation of the gear edges can cause a jerky
advance of the succeeding gears.
Clutch
To permit reset of the pusher arm at the end of the demand interval and the reset of the maximum
demand indicator to zero at time of test, there is a clutch in the demand gear train between the meter
disk and the pusher arm.
The clutch usually consists of two flat disks with a felt washer in between which exerts the proper
amount of friction. Some registers employ a cam-operated arm to disengage the clutch during the
reset operation while others merely slip the clutch under full tension. While the adjustment of clutch
tension is not critical, it should be checked to determine that it falls within the recommended limits,
particularly if the register has been cleaned or disassembled for overhaul. Tension testing devices are
available.
The felt friction pads must be dry to ensure proper operation and should never be subjected to
cleaning fluids. If the register is to be put into a cleaning solution, the pads should be removed and
then replaced after the register is dry. In many cases, the pads can be removed without dismantling
the clutch assembly by slitting the pad radially with a very thin knife. New pads may be installed
similarly, making sure that the pads, after insertion, lie flat on the disks.
Resetting Mechanism
At the end of the demand interval, the pusher arm must be returned to zero. This requires that a
counter-torque be applied to the pusher-arm side of the clutch.
In various types of registers, the counter-torque is supplied by either a spring, a direct drive from
the timing motor, or gravity. In the spring-return type, the timing motor, in addition to driving the
interval gearing, winds up the return spring during the interval. At the end of the interval, a tripping
mechanism releases the spring energy to return the pusher arm to zero. In certain types of spring-
return mechanisms, the clutch is simultaneously disengaged, while in others the clutch is allowed
to slip but remain engaged. In the latter type, particular attention should be given to correct clutch
tension.
On direct-motor-drive reset registers, the timing motor disengages the clutch at the end of the
interval. Then, through cam and sector gear mechanisms, the pusher arm is returned to zero by the
motor.
The gravity type of return mechanism requires that either a clutch or the demand gearing be
disengaged at the end of the demand interval.
During operation of the reset mechanism, attention must be made to whether or not the pusher
arm returns exactly to zero and if the return to zero is smooth and within specified time limits for the
device.
An error in the zero setting will be reflected at all points on the scale. Most registers have an
adjustable zero stop for the maximum pointer which should be checked to see that the pointer is
exactly on zero. The pusher arm is provided with a micrometer screw adjustment for coordinating the
zero of the pusher arm with the maximum pointer zero position.
A sluggish return to zero may be the result of excessive friction or a decrease in the amount of
return power. For various types of registers, the return time, sometimes referred to as the out time,
varies from a fraction of a second to four seconds (for 15 minute interval registers). This out time
generally increases proportionally with the length of the time interval. On most registers, no adjust-
ment is provided to change the reset time, while some do have an adjustment in the cam mechanism.
Sluggishness is more pronounced and can be detected more readily in the spring-return and grav-
ity-return type of registers. In the spring-return type, a change in torque is possible, though a change
sufficient to effect malfunction is uncommon. In the gravity-return type, the weight is constant so 337
there cannot be a change in return force. Therefore, sluggishness can usually be attributed to excessive
friction due to dirt or gummy oil, maladjustment of the clutch, or a defective governor mechanism in
types where used. Examination of the register should indicate the maintenance required—either clean-

demand meter testing and maintenance

ing, adjustment of the clutch, or replacement of defective parts.
Timing Motor
Failure of the timing motor is perhaps the most common fault in demand register performance. Under
normal conditions, the synchronous motors are as reliable as the system frequency at which they
operate. However, excessive friction may impose loads in excess of the motor capability causing the
motor to stop or operate intermittently. This means that the demand interval is extended, creating
a high demand or even an off-scale reading. If the condition is due to excess friction in the interval
or reset gearing, correction must include removal of the friction through cleaning, adjustments, or
replacement of parts as indicated by inspection.
The two most common causes of complete motor failure are the motor running out of oil and
burned-out motor coils. Burned-out coils require replacement of the motor field coils or complete
replacement of the motor.
If the motor fails due to loss of lubrication, it must either be re-oiled or replaced. Certain types
of General Electric Company telechron rotor assemblies were provided with removable oil caps for
flushing with a cleaning solution and re-oiling. Some rotors are grease-filled for longer life and have
no provisions for regreasing. For example, the motor operating unit for the General Electric Type M-60
register is a hermetically-sealed unit.
The motors on Westinghouse Type RW and Duncan Type FW and HW registers are identical and
oil can be added through the breather hole. For complete cleaning and re-oiling, it is recommended
that the gear case be dismantled by removing the top of the case. After complete cleaning and reseal-
ing, the gear case is refilled with the proper amount of oil. The Westinghouse Mark series register
motor is provided with a separate oiling hole for convenient maintenance.
The Type A and A-7 motors used in certain Sangamo demand registers can be cleaned and re-oiled
by completely dismantling the motor. Bearings should be carefully inspected for excessive wear. The
Type H motor is much easier to maintain by removing the rotor and cleaning and oiling the bearings
using an hypodermic needle.
It is recommended that any demand motor that is re-oiled or replaced be dated. Although there
is no definite period of time that motors will operate correctly without attention, most of them will
last five years or longer. Excessively noisy motors or motors that will not operate at 75% rated voltage
should be cleaned and re-oiled or completely replaced.
Maximum Demand Pointer
In order to leave an indication of the maximum demand for a billing period, a friction-type pointer
is retained in a position representing the maximum advance of the pusher arm that occurred during
a demand interval in the period. The friction may be obtained from a friction pad of felt or cork or
by use of a silicone grease cup. When a friction pad is used, there is usually an adjustment by which
the compression of the pad may be controlled which is not required with the silicone grease cup. The
friction should be sufficient to prevent moderate vibration from changing the reading but well below
the amount required to slip the driving clutch. Tension testing devices are available for checking and
setting the correct pointer friction for the register.
Cumulative Demand Register
Cumulative demand registers usually have all of the operating principles described for indicating
demand registers with an additional feature of retaining the maximum demand reading by adding
the kilowatts for the current demand reading period to the accumulated demands of previous reading
periods. This is accomplished by adding a gear train to advance dials which is manually engaged at the
time of reading. Usually a small sweep hand is provided to indicate the current maximum demand.
The recorded maximum demand for the period is the result of subtracting the previous reading from
the reading after reset as indicated on the kilowatt dials.
Test Procedure
Most demand register tests are made to determine the mechanical accuracy of the register only or to
determine that, for a marked register ratio and time interval, the demand pointer will give a correct
indication for a definite number of revolutions of the first driven gear. The watthour meter on which
 338 the register is to be used must be calibrated accurately to give a true indication of demand when in
service. Furthermore, the watthour meter should be tested with its demand register energized to ensure
accuracy under normal operating conditions.
Since there is a definite correlation between the time interval gearing and the demand gear train
Handbook for Electricity Metering

for any particular register, self-checking devices are available for most types. The register self-checking
consists of gearing mounted in a framework so the gear trains of the register are locked together
through the checker gearing. With the register energized, it will perform its normal function of reset-
ting the register and driving the demand gear train a definite number of revolutions per interval.
Most self-checking devices can be manually operated to run the register more quickly through a
demand interval. When operated manually, the checker should be run slowly during the reset cycle to
be sure the pusher arm is allowed to return to zero. The true reading may be calculated by counting
the number of revolutions of the first gear of the register for the demand interval:
kW 5 (Revolution of first gear per time interval) 3 10 (Register Ratio)
3 (Marked time interval, in hours)
Usually the self-checking devices are provided with two gear ratios to check two points on the
scale. This type of test verifies the gear train ratios only, and it is necessary to check the timing motor
to ensure the correct time interval.
Some timing motors can be checked for correct speed by use of a stroboscope light, others by
timing one of the slow-speed gears with an accurate stopwatch. The time interval may be checked
by timing the interval between two successive resets with an accurate device. It is recommended that
motors be checked at the voltage expected when placed into service.
Alternately, an overall test of a demand register can best be accomplished by a ­register-checking
device that simulates a watthour meter on a constant load. This consists of a synchronous motor
driving a shaft similar to a meter shaft for which the demand register was designed, and studs for
mounting the register. With the register motor and checker motor energized from the same source, the
register is allowed to operate through one or more complete intervals. Ignoring the demand multiplier,
the demand that should be indicated may be calculated as follows:
kW 5 (Revolution of first gear per time interval) 3 10 (Register Ratio)
3 (Marked time interval, in hours)
Revolutions of the first gear can be calculated for the time interval from the checker shaft speed
and the ratio of the first gear reduction. This type of checker is particularly adaptable to shop testing
when several such devices may be mounted on a test board. They are usually equipped with two or
more speed changes for checking different points on the demand scale. A correct indication verifies
that the time interval and the gear ratios are correct.
A manual test may be made on the gear train and zero setting by resetting the interval reset to
zero, then advancing the first gear a definite number of revolutions. The kilowatt indication is calcu-
lated by the same formula as for mechanical test devices. It is necessary to determine that the time
interval is correct.
Field tests on watthour demand meters may be made by connecting a field standard in series with
the watthour meter as for a regular watthour meter test. With a load applied to produce approximately
the desired demand indication, the field standard should be started at the instant of a demand interval
reset and stopped at the succeeding reset. The true kilowatts that should be indicated by the demand
register can be calculated as follows:
True kW 5 (Watthours recorded by standard) 3 N 3 60
1,000 3 (Time interval, in minutes)

Mechanical Meter With Electronic Register

Also referred to as an electronic demand register, this type of register, like the mechanical demand
register, is designed to replace the conventional register of a watthour meter for the dual purpose of
recording kilowatthours and the maximum integrated kilowatt demand. Use of electronics may provide
some added benefits not available with the mechanical register. The electronic demand register displays
the total kilowatthour consumption and the maximum integrated kilowatt demand via a digital
display. The programming options of this type of register vary by each manufacturer and can typically
be adjusted via supplied software.
Principle of Operation 339
When attached to a mechanical meter, the electronic demand register makes use of an optical pickup
either directly from the rotating disk or via a small shutter device attached to the shaft of the disk

demand meter testing and maintenance

apparatus. The optical pickup feeds pulses to the register which allows the register to advance the
demand display value in proportion to the speed of the rotating meter disk.
The microprocessor in the electronic register analyzes the pulses fed to it through an optical
pickup. At the end of a predetermined interval, usually 15 or 30 minutes, the register calculates the
average or integrated maximum kilowatt demand, compares the result with the previous interval, and,
if larger, replaces that value. If the resulting demand value is smaller than that of the previous inter-
val, the previous interval value is retained and the latest value just calculated is discarded. The register
then begins analyzing the next predetermined interval and repeats the process.
A test of an electronic demand register must satisfy three questions:
1. Does the register display the correct values upon completion of each interval?
2. Does the reset operate correctly?
3. Is the time interval correct?
Advancing Mechanism
Since the optical pickup which advances the electronic register relies directly on the motion of the
watthour meter disk and shaft, the accuracy of the demand indication can only be as accurate as
the watthour meter. The watthour meter must be calibrated correctly if the demand indication is to
be right. Visual inspection of the shutter mechanism on the disk shaft for those meters using that
method of pickup, as well as inspection of the holes in the disk for the other method of pickup,
should be performed to check the integrity of the mechanical portion of the meter. Refer to the manu-
facturers’ instructions for more information.
Resetting Mechanism
At the end of the demand interval, the microprocessor contained within the electronic demand
register is programmed to return to zero and thus begin the measurements for the next interval.
Some electronic demand registers provide visual indication that the interval has come to an end and
the next is beginning. If enabled, this indication consists of an end-of-interval message displayed on
the digital display. The loss of alternating current (AC) power at any time during a demand interval
will cause the meter to store the current information into non-volatile memory where it is held until
the meter is again energized. For example, if a meter 25 minutes into a 30 minute interval experi-
ences a power outage, all information is written to the meter’s memory. Options within the register’s
programming will determine if the meter, when reenergized, begins a new demand interval period or
continues the demand interval measurement at the same point within the interval, maintaining the
value of demand that had been measured up to the point of the power outage.
Careful attention should be given to the manual demand resets performed for billing. Each of the
electronic registers has a demand reset indication that appears on the digital display when a correct
billing reset has occurred. The manufacturers’ information booklet for each of their registers will give
the specific reaction which determines if a correct reset has occurred.
Test Procedure
The watthour meter on which the register is to be used must be calibrated accurately to give a true
indication of demand when in service. Although the electronic demand register does not have any
gearing or moving parts, it is very important that the register be mounted on the meter before the
meter itself is tested. The energy required to power the electronic circuitry may be enough to affect the
calibration of the meter.
Prior to testing, the electronic demand register must be programmed to display the maximum
demand value. Many of the electronic demand registers have a special test mode which allows a com-
plete test of the register without affecting the billing values of the customer. The length of the interval
within the test mode may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and is often programmable. In
addition, many electronic demand registers will time out of the test mode after a predetermined
amount of time as defined within the register’s program in case the tester fails to manually take the
register out of test mode.
A test voltage only is applied to the meter under test. If the register contains a test mode, it is
good practice to enter that mode before any external currents are applied. Visual inspection of the
 340 display sequence is necessary to confirm that all segments of the display are functioning properly. If
one segment of any of the digits is not functioning, erroneous readings could occur.
The actual test on the meter may be performed by connecting a standard in series with the watt-
hour meter similar to a regular watthour meter test. Realizing the length of the test mode interval,
Handbook for Electricity Metering

a desired demand value is established to be run up on the meter. With the load applied to produce
approximately the desired demand indication, the standard should be started at the instant of a
demand interval reset and stopped at the succeeding reset. The true kilowatts that should be indicated
by the demand register can be calculated as follows:
True kW 5 (Watthours recorded by standard) 3 N 3 60
1,000 3 (Time interval, in minutes)
N 5 Number of full-current coils in series in the watthour meter

Electronic Demand Register With Time-Of-Use

An electronic demand register with time-of-use (TOU) register (also referred to as a time-of-day
register) is designed to produce time-differentiated billing. The register designates predetermined time
periods as being peak and others as off-peak. Some utilities have established a shoulder-peak which
may not be as critical as the peak periods, but more so than the off-peak periods.
Time-of-use is typically set up to financially reward the customer for consumption during the off-
peak periods and to discourage consumption during the shoulder or peak periods via different billing
rates for each time period.

Principle of Operation
As with the electronic demand register, the electronic TOU register uses the same principle of optical
pickup to establish pulse information. The pulse information is analyzed by an on-board microproces-
sor. The pickup generates pulses directly from the disk rotation and is only as accurate as the base
meter.
Electronic TOU registers contain a microprocessor-based module with a program that is specific
to a particular billing rate schedule as established by the utility. Electronic TOU registers are capable
of measuring time-differentiated kilowatthours and time-­differentiated integrated kilowatt demand.
The demand may take the form of block interval demand, cumulative demand, continuous cumulative
demand, or rolling demand.
The means of programming this type of register may be performed by either the manufacturer or
the utility via supplied software. Each method of programming provides the register with information
pertaining to the peak, shoulder-peak, and off-peak times; season change dates; daylight saving dates;
off-peak holidays; etc. Refer to the manufacturers’ instructions for more information.
Each electronic TOU register maintains an ongoing date and timekeeping function. During AC
power outages, the registers rely on battery backup. The register monitors the battery condition and
produces an error code on its digital display if the battery charge is not adequate. Monitoring of the
battery condition on a routine basis is advised to maintain proper operation of the register during
power outages. Manufacturers’ information provides insight as to when the register may require a new
battery or needs to be replaced.

Test Procedure
Periodic testing of the register switch times and special dates is recommended to ensure the correct
setup of the programming information. Some electronic registers have visual indications of the pres-
ent rate (peak, shoulder, off-peak). The manufacturers’ information may offer additional insight of
features that should be tested. Updates to any of the programs to be used with the electronic registers
should be verified completely before use in a billing situation.
Careful attention should be given to the manual demand resets performed for billing. Some
electronic TOU registers have a demand reset indication that appears on the digital display when a
correct billing reset has occurred. The manufacturers’ information booklet will give the specific reac-
tion identifying if a correct reset has occurred for each of their available registers.
Some electronic TOU registers may be tested utilizing its test mode function maintained within the
register. This feature disallows any load applied during a test to be applied to the customer’s bill.
 A test voltage is only applied to the meter under test. If the register being tested is one of the types 341
that contain a test mode, that mode should be enabled. Visual inspection of the digital display is very
important to ensure all segments of the display are functioning properly.
The actual test of the demand portion of the register is performed by attaching a standard in

demand meter testing and maintenance

series with the watthour meter as for a regular watthour meter test. Some TOU registers offer smaller
demand intervals for test conditions. The test interval length is used to establish a demand level that is
attainable during that time span. With the load applied to produce the calculated demand indication,
the standard should be started at the instant of a demand interval reset and stopped at the succeeding
reset. The true kilowatts that should be indicated by the register can be calculated as follows:
True kW 5 (Watthours recorded by standard) 3 N 3 60
1,000 3 (Time interval, in minutes)
N 5 Number of full-current coils in series in the watthour meter

Solid-State Pulse Recorders

Solid-state pulse recorders have generally been replaced by fully solid-state electronic meters. However,
if any are still in operation, the following describes their general operations, considerations, and pos-
sible testing methodologies. It is important to consult with the manufacturer for specific information
for the operation and maintenance of each device.
Solid-state recorders receive pulses from the pulse initiator in a watthour meter, or the pulse
recorder can be under glass within the watthour meter.
Pulse data is stored in electronic memory and cannot be visually inspected. Instead, the stored
pulse data is retrieved by a portable computer with an optical probe, or by a remote computer with
dial-up capabilities. Once sent to a computer, the data may be formatted, printed, and viewed on a
monitor. The software which retrieves the data may be supplied by the manufacturer or by a vendor of
general purpose software supporting several recorders.
One critical function of an electronic recorder is its clock, which must be accurate and stable. If
the recorder has an end-of-interval output pulse, that pulse can be used to test the clock. The length
of time between output pulses should exactly match the interval length programmed into the recorder.
Another test method for testing an interval data recorder requires pulses from a precision source
which are inserted at a known rate. The expected number of pulses per interval can be calculated
and, if different than the actual value, would potentially represent an inaccuracy within the register’s
timing mechanism.
Other parameters that should be verified during testing are pulse-multiplier factors, calendar set-
tings to change between daylight saving and standard time, and settings for seasonal peak periods.

MAINTENANCE
Solid-state pulse recorders require very little maintenance. Most of these recorders are designed so that
the circuit board assemblies in the recorder can be easily replaced. Some recorders use rechargeable
batteries which should be checked periodically. Some recorders perform a self-check of the battery and
send a low-battery alarm to the device interrogating them. All batteries should be changed at intervals
less than the expected shelf life.
Planned replacements of solid-state pulse recorders as part of a maintenance program should be
made based on the estimated product life of solid-state electronics, which is usually 10 to 15 years.

Electronic Meter and Register

With the fully solid-state or electronic meter, separate functions between the metrology unit and the
register still exist. However, with the advent of advanced electronics, the register functions become
more closely linked to the meter’s associated metrology component. More advanced electronics also
allow for an enriched level of available options which may include time-of-use, load profiling, active,
reactive, and kilovoltampere (kVA) measurement, as well as coincident peak determination amongst
various units of measure. The options may also provide for different preferences in the manner that
the unit of measure is actually determined, such as rolling versus block demand determination as well
as any type of demand forgiveness programmed into the register. The programming of each option
 342 can be performed by the manufacturer or by the utility via either supplied software or other internal
processes such as the utility’s Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) system.

Principle of Operation
Handbook for Electricity Metering

In its simplest form, the electronic meter must duplicate the basic functionality of the mechanical
demand meter and its subsequent replacement, the hybrid electronic register, by providing a means for
recording consumption and the maximum demand. Various designs for the electronic meter perform
this basic function in essentially two different ways:
1. Processing of consumption data via pulse values
2. Direct measurement
In the first method, the metrology unit provides kilowatthour information to the register in the
form of pulses. The register then operates exactly in the same manner as the electronic demand
register.
The second method provides for a more direct measurement in that the basic units of current and
voltage are converted digitally and then sent to a microprocessor that provides all the data process-
ing functions, including the determination of consumption, determination of elapsed time, and the
demand calculation.
Depending on whether more advanced options are turned on, such as TOU, load profile, or kVA,
either type of unit described may or may not contain a battery to help maintain the meter’s time base.
As with the electronic register, the meter will typically monitor the battery condition and provide alerts
to its status if a battery is installed.
The method for performing the monthly demand reset may range from the manual reset via a
switch on the meter to one performed electronically via a handheld device or some alternative system
remotely. There are also conditions where the demand reset is not even necessary for determining the
monthly peak demand values.
Since there are no moving parts, all the features and options are controlled by the meter’s firm-
ware, software, or a combination of both. Therefore a test of the electronic meter must satisfy the
following the following questions:
1. Does the firmware and/or software match versions already validated by the utility?
2. Is the meter’s time interval correct?
3. Does the operation of the register function match expected results?

Test Procedure
Since all register functions are proportional to the kilowatthour measured via the metrology compo-
nent of the meter, it is important to perform an accuracy test on the meter. Any inaccuracy with the
kilowatthour measurement will be reflected into any values determined by the register (e.g., demand,
TOU, etc.). In addition, with only voltage applied to the meter, a visual inspection of the display
sequence is necessary to confirm that all segments of each display value are functioning properly.
For a type of device which processes pulse information, the steps for the electronic demand
register can be applied.
Alternately, for either type of device, a test comprising of running the meter in parallel with
a known standard for an equal period of time and measuring equivalent units of measure can be
applied. This type of test is sometimes referred to as a time run test and is typically performed in the
meter shop. Some electronic meters may be tested utilizing the test mode function within the meter.
This feature allows for test load to be applied to the meter without impacting the customer’s bill.
However, for shop testing, this feature may also be utilized to shorten the duration of the test, which
is typically set for at least one interval period.
Testing the electronic meter in this manner, especially with a static programming design, will
provide a level of confirmation that all components—the firmware/software, the time interval, and the
measurement determination—conform to the utility’s requirements. However, in some more advanced
meters, many utilities are going beyond an operational test of the meter, mainly due to the fact that it
is difficult to reproduce all the scenarios that may impact the measurement and value determination
by the device. These additional tests become more critical whenever changes are made to the meter’s
firmware and/or software. For example, one utility may program into the meter/register a holiday
schedule during which the peak and off-peak periods may respond differently than on a normal
weekday. The question arises of how a utility ensures that all of the specific holidays are included in 343
the register’s program.
To resolve the concern of the potential risk of incorrectly programmed devices being placed into
service, utilities have introduced some of the following actions:

demand meter testing and maintenance

a. Installation of meter farms/gardens to verify long-term operation and communication connec-
tivity issues.
b. Verification of a meter’s firmware and/or software to ensure no inadvertent changes have been
made.
c. Verification of programming change at the manufacturer’s factory.
d. Monitoring of in-service meters and flagging those devices experiencing unusual changes in any
operational conditions for further review/investigation.
The purpose of incorporating these process steps is to add insurance of not only the accuracy but
also the continued proper operation of every device placed into service.
 Chapter 15
KiloVAR and
Kilovoltampere Metering
The modern electric utility system has been changing from traditional resistive lighting and
motor loads to a system which is dominated by power electronics. This change is mostly due to the
efficiency gains and conveniences power electronics provide. From a system operation standpoint, the
operation of the electrical grid is based on the total kilovoltampere (kVA) load to be served. The kVA
load reflects equipment sizing requirements and provides an indication of total losses in the system
caused by the loads. This is defined as the product of the root-mean-square (rms) voltage and the
rms current. In a system where the voltages and currents have no noise or harmonics, kVA may be
regarded as consisting of two components: kilowatts (kW) and kiloVARs (kVAR). Traditional residen-
tial rates generally define revenue to be derived from only one of these components, kilowatts. The
ratio of kW to kVA is the power factor. It may also be defined as the ratio of power producing current
that is doing useful work in a circuit to the total current in that circuit:
kW KW Current
——— 5 Power Factor 5 ——————————
kVA Total Current
A poor ratio of kW to kVA, or low power factor, has a serious effect on the economic design and
operating costs of a system. When power factor is low and rates are based only on kW, the utility
is not being compensated by that consumer for all the kVA it is required to generate, transmit, and
distribute to serve that customer. Instead, these costs are spread throughout the consumers subject to
that rate. To more equitably distribute these costs, rate schedules have been established which take into
consideration the power factor of the load being measured. These schedules take a variety of forms,
but, in general, they penalize poor power factor or reward good power factor.
The principal purpose of kVAR and kVA metering is to support these power factor rate schedules
by the measurement of one or more of the quantities involved: power factor, kVA, kVAhours (kVAh),
kVARs, or kiloVARhours (kVARh).
As more and more sophisticated electronic loads are added to the system (such as adjustable speed
drives, computerized devices, compact fluorescent, and Light Emitting Diode [LED] lighting), these
loads cause harmonics and other noise to be added to the system. Instead of having a single frequency
(60 Hz), the voltage and current waveforms consist of several frequencies (harmonics) superimposed
on each other. The harmonic currents are part of the total current and impact copper losses and
equipment sizing of the system.
One consideration that should be given to future rate development is that modern metrology can
provide measurements of kVA, which can allow utilities to explore cost recovery on a kVA measure-
ment basis, rather than a kW basis. This can allow those developing rates more flexibility in designing
rates that more accurately reflect the actual use of the power system components. This could also
result in benefits with the development of billing and customer information systems, as there is

345
 346 less measuring components that need to be read, processed, computed, and, ultimately, billed to the
customer as part of their rate structure.
In three-phase systems, harmonic currents can add in the ground wire instead of canceling, result-
ing in grounding problems. The harmonic voltages produce larger eddy currents in magnetic materials,
Handbook for Electricity Metering

resulting in greater core losses and impacting equipment sizing. In historic metering equipment,
harmonics can also cause errors or may not be measured at all. Metering equipment, techniques, and
simplifying assumptions used to meter power were adequate because these harmonic loads were very
limited and any meter technology limitations had little impact.
Today and in the future, these harmonic loads must be carefully reviewed and new metering
technologies used as needed to accurately measure these values. In some cases, for historical reasons,
the older techniques must be emulated to achieve consistent results, although their validity is ques-
tionable. Some may believe that existing rates dictate that historical techniques be emulated. Others
may feel that applying newer metering techniques will cause commercial issues with their customers.
These issues require care to avoid measurement or other problems.

Background
Historic measurement techniques assumed all currents and voltages were perfect sine waves. Some
instruments and methods will be in error if the sine wave is distorted. The current required by induc-
tion motors, transformers, and other induction devices can be considered to be made up of two kinds:
magnetizing current and power-producing current.
Power-producing current, or working current, is that current which is converted into useful work.
The unit of measurement of the power produced is the watt or kilowatt.
Magnetizing current, which is also known as wattless, reactive, quadrature, or non-working
current, is that current which is required to produce the magnetic fields necessary for the operation of
induction devices. Without magnetizing current, energy could not flow through the core of a trans-
former or across the air gap of an induction motor. The unit of measure for magnetizing voltamperes
is the VAR or kiloVAR. The word VAR is derived from voltamperes reactive and is equal to the voltage
times the magnetizing current in amperes.
The total current is the current which would be read on an ammeter in the circuit. It is made up
of the magnetizing current and the power producing current which add phasorially (vectorially).

Total Current 5 2

(kW current)2  (kVAR current)
Similarly,
kVA or Apparent Power 5 
(kW
2
 
kVA
R2)
These relations are easily shown by triangles. See Figure 15-1.

Figure 15-1. Power Triangles (Single-Phase or Three-Phase).

 In a polyphase service, historically the kW for the service was measured with one meter and kVAR 347
was measured with a second meter. As such, the kW for each phase were combined resulting in a
net kW and the kVAR were combined for each phase resulting in a net kVAR. These net values were
then combined vectorially to produce kVA per the above equation. This was referred to as the vectorial

Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering

calculation of voltamperes (VA), or simply vectorial VA.
Once harmonics or phase imbalances are encountered in the circuit, the vector sum equations
shown above begin to lose accuracy. As the harmonic content increases, they become increasingly
inaccurate. It becomes necessary to use meters that can calculate true rms readings in order to capture
the total current. The same is true for voltamperes. By taking true rms readings for both voltage and
current on each phase, the total voltampere load can be determined. Summing the VA on each phase
is called an arithmetic calculation of voltamperes, or simply arithmetic VA. In a four-wire circuit
arithmetic VA is defined as:
[kVA Total 5 Ea*Ia  Eb*Ib  Ec*Ic]
True rms response is important when accurate voltampere metering of loads with distorted wave-
forms is needed. Arithmetic summing results in more accurate metering than vector summing when
voltage, power factor, or load imbalance exists. Vector ­summing is required to obtain voltamperes
when separate kWh and reactive meters are used to feed data collecting equipment. Under all voltage
and load conditions, the arithmetic sum will always be equal to or greater than the vector sum and
will more accurately meter the true voltampere load.
Referring to Figure 15-2, vector kVA is the straight line from one to four. Arithmetic kVA is the
sum of line segments one to two, plus two to three, plus three to four. By inspection, the vector kVA
sum is less than the sum of the individual kVAs of the individual phases.

Phasor Relationships
In a single-phase circuit which contains only resistance, the current I is in phase with the voltage E.
See Figure 15-3a. In this ideal case, watts equal voltamperes.
When reactance (inductive or capacitive) is introduced into the circuit, the current is displaced or
shifted out of phase with the voltage by an angle , depending on the relative amounts of resistance
and reactance. Normally, the reactance is inductive and the current I lags the voltage E. See Figure
15-3(b). If the reactance is capacitive, the current will lead the voltage.
The current I in a two-wire circuit can be considered to be made up of two components: IW which
is in phase with E and which produces watts; and IV which is displaced 90° from E and produces
reactive voltamperes. By trigonometry:
  IW 5 I cos 
and IV 5 I sin 

Figure 15-2. Comparison of Vector and Arithmetic Summing.

 348
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 15-3. Phasor Relationships.

then:
    E  I cos  5 watts
and E  I sin  5 VAR
Again by trigonometry, the cosine varies from zero for an angle of 90° to one for an angle of zero
degrees. As power factor improves, the displacement angle becomes smaller. When the power factor is
in unity, watts and voltamperes are equal to each other and reactive voltamperes equal zero.

Voltampere Metering
As previously stated, voltamperes is simply the product of the voltage and current without consider-
ation of the phase angle. This is shown in the following definition:
Voltamperes 5 |V|*|I|
Where the |V| is the rms value of the voltage and |I| is the rms value of the current. Note that
there is no mention of phase angle. This definition is accurate under all waveform conditions includ-
ing the presence of noise and harmonics on the line. Another method of calculating VA when the
waveform has 60 Hz only is to combine watts and VAR vectorially,
Voltamperes (vector) 5 
watts
2
1 
VA R2
This can be seen from the familiar power triangle illustrated in Figure 15-4.
This method of calculating VA is called Vector VA.
Use of Two Conventional Meters: Real and Reactive
Prior to the development of electronic meters capable of performing accurate measurement of appar-
ent energy, the approximate value of this quantity typically was measured by combining readings from
a real energy meter and a reactive 349
energy meter. For the billing time
period, kVAh is calculated vectorally
from the square root of the sum of

Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering

the squares of the readings from both
the real and reactive energy meters.
Hence, this calculation method
produces an average vector kVAh for
the billing cycle. Normally, the sign
of the real power is assigned to the
apparent power (positive if delivered
by the utility, negative if received).
Some in the industry will argue that
by definition apparent power should
always be positive. Others argue they
want apparent power to have a sign
to determine where it was generated,
supplier or consumer. Thus, the
correct determination and display of
apparent power quantities is defined Figure 15-4. Voltamperes Power Triangle.
by the user. For more information
on conventional methods for power factor, refer to the 10th edition of the Handbook for Electricity
Metering.

Electronic kVA Metering

Various types of electronic meters may use significantly different methods to measure apparent energy.
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) C12.24 TR-2011, “Definitions for Calculations
of VA, Vah, VAR, and VARh for Poly-Phase Electricity Meters,” is a technical report which provides
standardized definitions of the common methods in use today.
Some meters improve the measurement of reactive energy but otherwise compute apparent
energy in the traditional vectoral method. In C12.24 this method is identified as section 8.2, “Vector
Method.” It should be noted, however, that when harmonics are present, two different meters, both
using the vectorial method, can still give different answers depending upon how they calculate reactive
energy.
Some meters will employ the arithmetic method instead of the vector method. In C12.24, these
are identified in section 8.1, “Sum of Elements Method.”
Even with the standardization provided by C12.24, there are still differences. C122.24 provides
definitions for static waveforms and does not yet address time varying waveforms.
Many electronic meters simply continue to combine real and reactive energies, derived in the
traditional manner over the entire billing period, and are thus limited by the accuracy of the reactive
energy measurement. Other meters will compute the apparent energy more frequently over shorter
intervals of time and then sum those measurement during the billing period, thus improving the
accuracy of the measurement.
Finally, some electronic meters compute the apparent power by integrating the product of rms
voltage and rms current for each phase over some brief time interval. The individual phase values are
then integrated over a longer time interval to obtain values of apparent energy and a basis for calculat-
ing VA demand.
The last method can be the most accurate method of computing apparent power. Assuming an
adequate sampling and computation rate, this method provides the best harmonic measurement. A
concern for the designer (and utility) is that if care is not taken by the meter designer to minimize
noise generated by the system electronics, this method can have a limited dynamic range. Using this
preferred method to generate apparent energy readings and combining accurate real energy readings,
very accurate reactive energy values can be calculated using the following formula on each phase:

VAs2
VAR 5    2
Watts
 350 Assuming that an adequate sampling and computation rate is used, the only drawback with using
this method is that the sign of the reactive energy is lost. This may or may not be a problem, depend-
ing upon the local practices and legislation for utility tariffs. In any case, more sophisticated electronic
meters can be used to provide alternate measurement methods to overcome this possible concern.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Note that in the presence of harmonics, this quantity is not just VAR as historically defined, but a very
accurate value of

VARD
2
 2
which includes the harmonic effects.
In this case, the VAR measurement of the primary (fundamental) frequency is distorted by the
inclusion of the harmonics. However, this is not viewed as a significant issue because VAR and distor-
tion power “D” affect the electrical system in a similar manner. Indeed, it can be argued that for the
purpose of determining system loads and billing for all of the inherent impacts of customer-induced
harmonics, this value is the preferred value to use.

How Should Apparent Energy Be Measured?

With the variations and possibilities described above, it is understandable that there exists some
confusion in the metering industry and continuing debate over what measurement and computation
methods are correct. Accordingly, it must be recognized that the correct method of measuring appar-
ent energy is open to some combination of personal opinion, local traditions, and even local legal
requirements.
It must be recognized that the local tariff regulations do not necessarily depend upon rigorous
scientific definitions of the measured quantities. Most utilities want to improve the accuracy of the
apparent power measurements, and obtain greater accuracy than that available when using the tradi-
tional combination of readings from electromechanical meters.
Even so, the debate continues over whether the values obtained should be mathematically accurate
or, more simply, should just be derived from more precise measurement with the existing measure-
ment technique. In many jurisdictions, the level of detail of how apparent energy is measured is not
specifically stated in local regulations. As such, it is critical that a defendable methodology be used in
the measurement of this energy.

The Alternative Positions For “Correct Measurement”

First, consider the argument that reactive and apparent power should be measured as accurately as
possible; proper rates should be developed to compensate for the actual power used. Logically, this
statement is valid regardless of how the tariffs might be constructed using the various possible combi-
nations of real, reactive, and/or apparent power.
Alternatively, some require that the new and more accurate meters simply must collect data in a
form that will be used in existing tariffs, even though these tariff structures were formulated when
meters were less accurate and less capable of accurate complex measurements. To further complicate
the issue, in many locations legislation requires that all customers on a specific utility tariff must be
measured and billed on exactly the same basis.
Thus, where apparent power is used for billing purposes (and when all metering sites will not
simultaneously be changed to new metering equipment), it is important only to calculate apparent
power in the traditional (legally mandated) manner. Note that even when adhering to the “same
basis” approach, meter products seldom will produce an identical reading in the presence of harmon-
ics. Thus same basis can only apply to measurement and computation for the ideal fundamental
system frequency.

Vectorial Versus Arithmetic kVA Calculation

In the utility industry, a debate rages over whether vectorial versus arithmetic kVA calculation is more
correct. The vectorial method states that the correct values are obtained when real watthours and VAR-
hours are measured over the demand interval using conventional methods, then the kVA is calculated
for the totals accumulated during the interval using the conventional square-root of the sum of the
squares
VA 5  2
Watts AR
V2
The arithmetic method requires that actual kVAh energy values be obtained from moment to moment 351
and added arithmetically over the demand measurement interval to determine a precise kVA demand
value.
Unfortunately, the results obtained, using even the most accurate basic metering, will normally be

Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering

quite different.
For example, in Figure 15-5, assume that demand is to be determined for a 30-­minute demand
measurement interval. For the first 15 minutes of the period, the load is pure resistive load at 100
kW (consuming a total of 25 kWh during that first 15 minutes). For the next 15 minutes, the load is
pure inductive and 100 kVAR, drawing no watts but 25 kVARh during the remainder of the demand
interval.
Example:
What is the kVA demand for the ½-hour interval?
1. Vectorial Method
Using the vectorial method and the traditional (ideal) devices which precisely measure either
kWh or kVARh, we have the result that for 15 minutes, 25 kWh are drawn and 25 kVARh are
drawn by the load. In this case, kVA is calculated as follows:
kVAh 5 
kWh2  kVARh2 5 
(25)2  (25)2 5 
1250

Thus, kVAh 5 35.355

The average kVA demand 5 kVAh times the intervals per hour 5
35.355 kVAh  2 5 70.71 kVA

2. Arithmetic Method
Using the arithmetic method and an “ideal” measuring device, we determine the kVA at each
moment during the measurement interval and integrate it over the time period of interest.
In this case, we know that for the first 15 minutes (.25 hours), the kVA 5 kW and we have
25 kWh or 25 kVAh metered in our ideal measurement device (100 kW  .25 hours). Similarly,
for the next 15 minutes, we draw 25 kVARh and therefore, exactly 25 kVAh again.

Figure 15-5. Vectorial Example.

 352 Therefore:
kVAh 5 25  25 5 50 and
kVA demand 5 50 kVAh times the interval per hour 5 50  2 5 100 kVA
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Which is correct? Both! This illustrates how two “completely accurate” methods of measuring
apparent power and energy can result in dramatically different values. In this particular example, the
vectorial method returns a “correct” answer that is almost 30% lower than the arithmetic method!
Even so, it is useful to observe that the equipment capacity had best be set by the arithmetic measure-
ment result.
As there is no universally accepted correct way, meter manufacturers have provided metering
solutions enabling all utilities to obtain better and more accurate basic data, regardless of the local
requirements for power calculations.

Delta Services: VA Metering

The availability of electronic meters that calculate kVA using the arithmetic method instead of the
vector method has raised a debate in the electric utility industry as to which is the correct method to
be used in revenue metering.
It is presumed that, given a choice, most meter engineers would prefer that the harmonic perfor-
mance and real-time measurement of kVA should be derived from rapid sampling and integration of
the rms voltage and rms current on each phase. Such meters generally are designed to compute kVA
using the arithmetic method instead of the vector method. Most utilities will accept and many prefer
the arithmetic method for four-wire wye services. This can easily be justified, and as long as the load
is balanced and harmonics are minimal, the indicated values of usage are quite similar for either the
arithmetic method or the traditional vector method.
Delta services behave differently, requiring additional judgment on which methods should be used.
This concern arises because normal polyphase loads draw phase currents (from the supplying trans-
formers and systems) at angles 30° different than the line-to-line voltages of the service. This is true
even if the load is purely resistive. Typical metering voltage connections provide line-to-line voltage
values, but the line current values being monitored are the vector sums of two of the phase currents
(IlineA 5 Iac  Iab). This gives rise to a legitimate debate over, “What properly represents the correct
apparent or reactive power in a delta service?”
Phase currents from a delta-connected transformer bank are summed vectorally to supply a single-
phase load current. The traditional vector method of calculating kVA will indicate that there are no
VAR in the system.
VARs 5 IlineA*Vab sin (30)  IlineC Vcb*sin (30) 5 0
This is due to the VAR computed in one phase being equal to the other phase, but of the opposite
sign. Thus, when the VARs are combined they sum to zero and the apparent energy will exactly equal
the real energy. Proponents of this method will argue that it is just the way it should be, because a
resistive load should not produce VARs.
In contrast, the arithmetic method of computing VA will provide an apparent energy value at
least 15.47% higher than the vector method. Intuitively, this might seem to be in error. In physical
reality, it may provide the more realistic picture of system load! If two transformers connected in an
open delta provide the service, the transformers must carry a kVA load value equal to the arithmetic
method’s larger apparent power value.
The four-wire delta service also provides a special set of metering issues. This service is commonly
used in North America to provide both three-phase power to large loads and three-wire, single-phase
for lighting.

Electronic Multiquadrant Metering

Electronic multiple-quadrant meters can measure active quantities such as watt demand and wat-
thours, reactive quantities such as VAR demand and VARhours, and apparent quantities such as VA
demand and VAhours. These measurements can be for unidirectional or bidirectional applications.
Figure 15-6 shows a diagram which illustrates relationships between active power (watts), reactive
power (VAR), and vector apparent power (voltamperes). The familiar Power Triangle has been incorpo-
rated into Figure 15-6 in each of the four quadrants.
 353

Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering

Figure 15-6. Four Quadrant Power: Normal Conventions.

Quadrant Power Factor Watts VARs

I Lag Delivered () Delivered ()
II Lead Received () Delivered ()
III Lag Received () Received ()
IV Lead Delivered () Received ()

Energy sold by the source may be defined as delivered. Energy purchased may be defined as received.
For any given voltage and current, VA is constant and an unsigned absolute quantity. For any given
phase angle 
Watts 5 EI cos 
VAR 5 EI sin 
The signs—plus and minus—and directions—delivered and received—are for conventionally polar-
ized instrument transformer connections with respect to the power source.
Electronic multiple-function meters can measure the following quantities, or combinations of
quantities:
kWh, kW demand delivered Quadrants I and IV
kWh, kW demand received Quadrants II and III
kVAh, kVA demand delivered Quadrants I and IV
kVAh, kVA demand received Quadrants II and III
kVARh, kVAR demand active quantities delivered, PF lagging Quadrant I
kVARh, kVAR demand active quantities received, PF leading Quadrant II
kVARh, kVAR demand active quantities received, PF lagging Quadrant III
kVARh, kVAR demand active quantities delivered, PF leading Quadrant IV
The following combinations of reactive quantities are available on some meters as displayed
quantities or as non-displayed outputs. Consult the specifications of individual meter manufacturers.
kVARh and kVAR demand delivered Quadrant I plus II
kVARh and kVAR demand received Quadrant III plus IV
 354 These two combined quadrant VAR quantities are equivalent to the performance of a rotating
detented VAR meter.
kVARh and kVAR demand delivered, net Quadrant I minus IV
Handbook for Electricity Metering

kVARh and kVAR demand received, net Quadrant IIIII

These two combined quadrant VAR quantities are equivalent to the performance of a rotating
undetented VAR meter.
Electronic Reactive Metering
Modern electronic reactive meters may provide both real and reactive quantities without the use
of external phase shifting transformers or special element wiring. In general, the overall reactive
measurement is greatly improved over the electro-mechanical meter (again with some cautions about
harmonic measurement of VAR if phase shifting circuits are used). Electronic meters incorporate one
of the following four methods of metering reactive power.
The most common method employed by simple electronic meters is to phase shift each phase
current or voltage by 90° prior to the multiplication process. This is usually accomplished by incorpo-
rating either an integrator or differentiator for each phase. These circuits affect any harmonics, mak-
ing them either too small or too large, respectively. The error is directly proportional to the harmonic
number, thus the third harmonic is three times too large in the case of the differentiator.
A second compromise method is to employ a fixed time delay that is equivalent to 90° of the
fixed fundamental frequency prior to the multiplication. This method is inaccurate as the power
line frequency varies about its average value. It also does not allow for the accurate delaying of the
harmonics. For example, on a 60 Hz system, all signals would be delayed by 4.166 ms; however, the
3rd harmonic should only be delayed by 1.388 ms to get the correct 90° phase shift. As the delay is
incorrect, the magnitude of the harmonic thus measured also will be significantly in error and/or the
sign will be incorrect.
A third method employs a time delay. However, the time delay tracks the actual power line
fundamental frequency. This greatly improves the accuracy of measurement, but does not address the
inaccuracy issue with harmonics.
A fourth method of measuring reactive energy more accurately addresses the issue of harmonic
performance. This requires the measurement of apparent power VA, along with real power watts,
with the VAR reactive quantities arithmetically derived from these two. This method was discussed in
conjunction with apparent power measurement earlier in this chapter.
Impact of Non-fundamental Frequencies on VAR and VA
When power is generated by the utility, the voltage and current waveform have only one frequency
present, typically 60 Hz in North America. If a spectrum or harmonic analyzer did an analysis, only
one frequency would be detected. However, as more sophisticated electronic and industrial loads are
being added to the system, current drawn from the line is not linear with the voltage.
A good example is a power supply in a desktop computer. The power supply only pulls current
when the line voltage exceeds the voltage on the internal storage capacitors, so the current waveform
is close to zero until the voltage nears its peak. Suddenly, the current surges to fill the capacitors once
the threshold is exceeded. This gives a nonlinear waveform similar to that shown in Figure 15-7.
Due to resistance in the circuit wiring, this sudden surge of current causes the voltage to drop
slightly near the peak, both positively and negatively. As a result, the voltage waveform becomes
distorted. It is no longer a single
frequency, but now has a small
amount of distortion that can be
expressed as a higher frequency
waveform. This higher frequency
now present on the line is called
an harmonic. In this case, that is
the third harmonic, or three times
the line frequency, 180 Hz. Any
other equipment, including elec-
tricity meters, will be affected by
Figure 15-7. Non-sinusoidal Current Waveform.
the added frequency components. Other sources of non-fundamental signals also have characteristic 355
harmonics patterns.
Harmonics and VA Definitions

Kilovar and Kilovoltampere Metering

With the advent of more complex loads or when the system is not balanced, the difference between
vector generated VA and rms generated VA becomes larger. What is the difference that adds to the
vector VA to give a total rms VA?
There are many labels and definitions currently under discussion to help provide meaning to these
values. Some in the industry refer to VA that is caused by harmonics as distortion VA and VA that is
caused by asymmetry in a polyphase system as imbalance VA.
For some, the discussion about how to define the various VA quantities involves finding definitions
that are understandable and useful for field application. The emphasis is placed on finding quantities
that actually help the utility to operate the power distribution system.
Harmonics and Watts and VARs Definitions
The calculations of harmonic watts and VAR also involve definition issues. There is general agreement
that the definition for watts is simply:
Watthours 5 (vi  ii), where vi and ii are the instantaneous values
This equation is correct in alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) circuits and with or
without harmonics.
Watts at an harmonic 5 volts at that harmonic  current at that harmonic 
cos (phase angle at that harmonic)
When it comes to VAR, no definition has been agreed upon yet in the metering industry. It is pres-
ently only defined for single frequency systems.
Importance of Harmonics on Accuracy
Generally speaking, as the harmonic values increase, the relative magnitude of the harmonics tends
to fall off, but there are many types of loads in which this general statement is not true. Only when
the harmonic value is small on both voltage and current is the product of the two very small. The
example below gives the details when the harmonic values are small and thus the harmonically caused
watt values will be small compared to the watt values at the main frequency. Other examples could be
given when the harmonic values cause significant changes to the resultant calculations.
For example, there is a 5% third harmonic on the current (i.e., the fundamental current is
10 amps at 60 Hz, the harmonic current is 0.05  10 5 0.5A at 180 Hz) and there is a resulting
1% third harmonic on the voltage (i.e., if the fundamental voltage is 120 V at 60 Hz, the harmonic
voltage is 0.01  120 5 1.2 V at 180 Hz) and assuming that they are in phase (phase displacement of
the third harmonic is 0°), then:
Watts at third harmonic 5 V3  I3  cos  5 1.2  0.5  1 5 0.6 watts
While the fundamental has, assuming a unity power factor,
Watts at first harmonic 5 V1  I1  cos  5 120  10 5 1200 watts
If you measure this with a meter of 0.1% accuracy, the accuracy of the fundamental measurement
is 1200 1% or 0.001  1200 5 1.2 watts or 2.0 times greater than the third harmonic watts! In this
example, if the accuracy of the third harmonic is off slightly, it will not be seen in the accuracy band
of the meter’s fundamental accuracy.
There have been studies reported in the literature where harmonics in the current exceeded 30%
and the harmonics in the voltage exceeded 10%. In such cases it is necessary to include harmonics to
get a true measurement of the conditions on the electrical system. The harmonics measurements are
useful as diagnostic tools and do catch significant power at higher harmonic levels. Any measurement
of harmonics done in an electronic meter must not compromise the basic function of metering power
at the fundamental frequency.
 Chapter 16
Special Metering

Compensated Metering for Transformer and Line Losses

WHY IS COMPENSATION DESIRED?
SOMETIMES IT IS IMPRACTICAL, either for physical or economic reasons, to install metering equip-
ment at the contractual billing point. As a solution, the metering equipment can be installed at a loca-
tion which is more economical and/or more accessible and compensation can be made for the losses
which occur between the physical metering point and the contractual billing point.
For example, instead of measuring power consumption on the high voltage, or line, side of a
power transformer, it is less costly to use a lower voltage meter system and measure on the low volt-
age, or load side of the power transformer. In most cases, power can be measured more accurately at
the lower usage voltage rather than at the supply voltage. Compensated metering may also be used if
the billing point is located at an inaccessible location, such as a remote boundary between two utilities
or the mid-span of a river crossing. For these conditions, where transformer losses, line losses between
the metering equipment and the billing point, or both line and transformer losses combined may be
significant, compensated metering for the losses should be considered. The decision to use compen-
sated metering can be influenced by local regulations and utility practices, including state tariffs for
retail metering, power pool regulations for bulk or wholesale metering, the layout of the substation,
and the ability to obtain contractual agreements with the customers.
Since compensation is based on mathematical formulas and some basic assumptions, errors can
be introduced when the formulas do not precisely describe actual physical conditions. For example,
the formulas may assume that temperature and frequency are constant and always 75°C and 60 hertz
(Hz), when actually both parameters are variables. Other examples may include imbalanced volt-
ages and the different electrical characteristics of power transformer steels. The important point to
understand is that, in general, transformer losses represent less than 2% of the overall capacity of the
­transformer bank. As a result, any small errors introduced, as previously described, will have a negli-
gible effect on the overall measurement of the total compensated values.

WHAT IS COMPENSATION METERING?

The objective of compensated metering is to determine unmetered losses which occur between the
billing and metering points and then either record the losses on a loss meter or combine the losses
with the metered portion of the load on a single meter. The current common practice is to combine
the losses with the metered portion to establish metered values which the meter would have recorded
had it been located at the billing point.
Most high-end, solid-state, multi-function, revenue-grade meters sold today will have the ability
to measure and record energy bi-directionally in channels with internal loss compensation for both
transformers (with and without load flow) and line loss.

357
 358 These meters operate with formulas, approved by meter engineers and/or regulatory agencies,
that add or subtract simulated losses to the metered load and record compensated meter readings, or
uncompensated readings, with simulated losses. The information for the derivation of the parameters
required to be programmed into these meters will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Transformer losses are typically viewed as load—or copper—losses, and no load—or iron—losses.
Losses in the transformer are caused by hysteresis, eddy currents, and load currents. Hysteresis losses
are derived from energy expended as the magnetic field within the transformer continually changes
intensity and direction. Hysteresis losses are a function of the metallurgical properties of the core
material. Eddy current losses are caused by energy expended by current, induced by the magnetic field,
and circulating within the transformer core. Eddy current losses can be minimized by building the
transformer core from electrically resistive steel formed into thin, insulated laminations. Load losses,
or I2R losses, are caused by current passing through the transformer windings and the resistance of
those windings. Transformer manufacturers will test transformers and provide data on load and no
load losses, excitation current, and percent impedance, all of which are values needed for internal
meter compensation and will be explained in more detail later in this chapter.

LINE LOSS COMPENSATIONS

Line loss can be viewed in two areas, the shorter busses and line taps within the station (measured
in feet) and the longer distribution/transmission lines (measured in miles). Generally, the shorter
lines and busses are considered to be resistive and therefore only the I 2R losses need to be considered.
With the longer lines, the lengths, spacings, number of conductors per phase, and configurations of
lines will need to be considered in order to calculate the resistance and reactance of the line. In these
cases, the reactive component may be used in the loss compensation. If line and bus losses are to be
compensated, they are included as part of the transformer load losses. Most solid-state meters can
compensate for both resistive and reactive losses.

TRANSFORMER LOSS TESTS

Transformer manufacturers test power transformers for loss characteristics prior to shipping. Loss
values vary among transformer designs and even among different units built from the same design.
In order to calculate accurate loss compensation, it is important to obtain actual test results for each
power transformer involved.
Following are the values normally required from a transformer test report in order to calculate loss
compensation:
• Base (lowest) kilovoltamps (kVA) rating
• Voltage ratings (high and/or low side)
• Voltage taps percentage ratings, high and low sides
• Full load watt losses (FLW) at 75°C or greater—also called copper or winding losses; determined
by a short circuit test at rated current based on the kVA rating at rated voltage
• No-load watt losses (NLW) at 100% rated voltage—also called iron or core losses; determined by
an open circuit test at rated voltage
• Percent impedance at 75°C or greater is used to determine full load kVA losses
• Percent excitation current at 100% rated voltage is used to determine no-load kVA losses

TRANSFORMER LOSS MODEL

The transformer loss model for loss compensation is based on the following mathematical relation-
ships with metered voltage and current as the variables.
No-load (core) loss watts are proportional to V 2.
Load (copper) loss watts are proportional to I 2.
No-load (core) loss volt-ampere reactive (VAR) are proportional to V 4.
Load (copper) loss VAR are proportional to I 2.
 The first pair of relationships, no-load loss watts and load loss watts, for rated current and voltage 359
are given in the manufacturer’s test results as shown in Figure 16-3. The second pair of relationships,
no-load loss VAR and load loss VAR, must be derived from the respective loss kVA and the power
factor angles of the losses.

SPECIAL METERING
No-load loss kVA equals the rated transformer kVA times the percent of magnetizing current. Load
loss kVA equals the rated transformer kVA times the percent of impedance.
The power factor angle for no-load loss is the angle whose cosine equals the ratio of no-load loss
watts to no-load kVA. The power factor angle for load loss is the angle whose cosine equals the ratio
of load loss watts to kVA. Alternately, these expressions can be seen in Figure 16-1.
No-load loss VAR and load loss VAR are the products of their respective kVAs times the sines of
their respective power factor angles. The Power Triangle may also be used to determine VARs as they
equal the square root of VA2 minus watts2.

BIDIRECTIONAL ENERGY FLOW

Usually, if energy is delivered by a high voltage line to a customer, it passes through the customer’s
transformer for use by the customer at a lower voltage. It is not uncommon that the contractual
billing point will be on the high voltage side of the transformer; the metering point is physically
connected on the low voltage side. Compensation for losses between the high voltage billing point
and the low voltage metering point can be calculated by the meter and added to the metered (i.e.,
measured) data. When programmed to perform loss compensation, a majority of meters can calculate
both uncompensated and compensated values and, depending on the meters’ capabilities, can provide
readings of either or both sets of values.
If, in the situation just described, the customer has generation capable of sending energy back into
the utility’s system, losses could again be calculated for this reverse energy flow. In this case, the losses
would be subtracted from the metered (i.e., measured) data to represent the net energy flowing into
the higher voltage system.
A solid-state meter with both bidirectional measuring and loss compensation capabilities can be
programmed to calculate losses when energy is flowing in either direction, delivered or received, by
adding or subtracting the losses as appropriate. That is, the meter can add losses to delivered energy
and subtract losses from received energy (or vice versa if required). Although generally superseded by
full four-quadrant metering, some advanced meters even have the capability of calculating losses when
programmed to measure Q hours.

NO ENERGY FLOW
During periods when there is no energy flow, transformer losses still exist. Under no-load situations
such as this, the meter measures no energy delivered or received. However, the high voltage system is
still consuming watts and VARs to energize the customer’s transformer. A meter programmed to per-
form loss compensation will calculate no-load (core) losses even when it sees no current flow as long
as the meter still sees voltage. As such, the meter will continue to register these losses even with no
load flowing through the transformer. As a result, it is possible to see accumulation of kilowatt hours
(kWhs) and kilovolt amps reactive hours (kVARhs) during periods when the customer’s load and gen-
eration are zero. It should be noted that once loss compensation is enabled, most of today’s solid state
meters will have an option to either apply or ignore loss compensation during no load conditions. An

No-Load Loss KVA 5 Rated transformer KVA 3 percent magnetizing current

Load loss KVA 5 Rated transformer KVA 3 percent impedance

Power factor angle for no-load loss 5 Cos21  No-Load

No-Load Loss KVA 
Loss watts

Power factor angle for load loss 5 Cos21

   Load Loss watts  
Load Loss KVA 
Figure 16-1. Equations Used for Loss Determination.
 360 example in which loss compensation would be ignored or disabled during no load conditions would be
one where only line loss compensation (i.e., zero transformer losses) are being applied.

METER LOCATION
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

If installed on the low voltage side of the transformer, any meter compensated for transformer losses
should be connected ahead of the disconnection device so that, while the transformer is still energized,
it will continue to see voltage and register core losses (if applicable) under no load conditions. This is
typically the case for most types of construction since the metering voltage circuit (or metering voltage
transformer) is usually connected to the low-voltage bus.
Conductor losses on the low voltage side between the interconnection point and the metering
point should be considered in the compensation calculations. For short conductor lengths and rela-
tively large conductor sizes, these losses may be negligible. However, in other cases where there is some
distance between the interconnection and metering points, conductor losses may be significant and
therefore should be included in compensation calculations. Conductor losses are typically added to the
full load (copper or winding) losses of the transformer since both vary with the square of the current.

TRANSFORMERS WITH TAPS

Usually transformers are provided with taps to permit adjustment of utilization voltages. The loss data
for transformers supplied by the manufacturers is generally based on the rated voltage. Iron losses,
defined in watts at rated voltage, are the same as those existing when connection is made to a tap
with its rated voltage applied. However, for copper losses of transformers, it is sufficient to consider
that the losses are divided equally between the high-voltage and the low-voltage sides and that the size
of the conductor is the same throughout each of the windings. Taps on the high-voltage side are the
most common. When metering on the low-voltage side, if copper loss is given for the rated voltage VR
and tap voltage VT is used, the multiplying factor MT to be applied to the copper loss at rated voltage
will be:
VR
MT 5 ———— 1 0.5
2VT
For taps on the low-voltage side with metering also on the low-voltage side:
VT
 
VT 2
MT 5 ——— 1 0.5 ——
2VR VR
Multipliers calculated for most common taps are shown in Table 16-1. Where taps are used in
both windings, both multipliers are required. Where taps might be changed rather frequently, or for
use with automatic tap changers, the best performance is obtained by basing the adjustment on the

Table 16-1. Copper-Loss Multipliers for

Common Transformer Taps with Low-Voltage Metering.

Percent Tap Tap on High-Voltage Winding Tap on High-Voltage Winding

86.6 1.077 0.808

90.0 1.056 0.855
92.5 1.041 0.890
95.0 1.026 0.926
97.5 1.013 0.963
100.0* 1.000* 1.000*
102.5 0.988 1.038
105.0 0.976 1.076
107.5 0.965 1.115
110.0 0.955 1.155

*Tap on which copper loss data is based.

median tap. An example of a manufacturer’s cover sheet with test results at various tap positions is 361
shown in Figure 16-2.

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

SPECIAL METERING
The majority of transformer loss compensation situations involve either four-wire wye or three-wire
delta connections. Both of these are balanced conditions for which standard calculations require
no adjustments. For other transformer connections, consideration must be given to the relationship
existing between the load current through the power transformer winding and the current through the
metering current transformer. The connections of the power transformers may affect the copper loss
calculations for determination of the meter calibrations.
Open-Delta Connections
For open-delta connections, full load losses occur when the transformers are supplying 86.6% of the
sum of the kVA ratings of the two transformers. Therefore, if an open-delta bank was used, the value
of the full-load line current would be multiplied by 0.866 to determine the current in the transformer
windings at full-load transformer losses.
Scott Connections
In Scott connections used for three-phase to two-phase transformation, the teaser transformer is
connected to the 86.6% tap. The copper-loss multiplier for the teaser transformer is 1.077 or 0.808
as shown in Table 16-1, depending on whether the metering is on the two-phase or three-phase side.
For the main transformer, the copper-loss multiplier is 0.875 for metering on the three-phase side and
1.167 for metering on the two-phase side.
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Connections
Three-phase, four-wire delta connections with a two-stator, 2½-element meter involve a special
feature. When final tests of the meters are made with stators in series, the percent loss to which the
transformer-loss compensator is adjusted applies to the stator connected to the two-wire current
transformer. The stator connected to the three-wire current transformer measures the vector sum of
the two currents displaced by 120°. For this stator, the percent of copper loss is multiplied by 1.155.
For operation in service, the loss increment will then be divided equally between the two stators.
Similarly, with the transformer-loss meter, the speed of the stator connected to the three-wire current
transformer should be increased by the relation:
52
1 to ———— 5 1 to 1.333 or 33.3%
4.332

LOSS COMPENSATION METHODS

Over the years, there have been four methods for determining and applying compensation within a
metering system.
• Use of electromechanical transformer-loss meters
• Use of a transformer-loss compensator
• The resistor method of applying compensation
• Use of a solid-state meter with programmable compensation parameters
The first three are older methods for applying compensation that have been universally replaced
by the use of solid-state meters with compensation programming options. Even though it may still
be possible to find one of the older compensation methods still in use at some older utility service
sites, they have long been superseded by the lower cost, easier to deploy and more efficient options
provided by a solid state meter. Consequently, the remaining sections within this chapter will focus
on this more prevalent and current method for applying compensation to a meter system. For more
information on the three older compensation methodologies, please consult either the manufacturer’s
literature or previous editions of this Handbook.
 362
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Transformer Connection

Nominal Tap Setting

Figure 16-2. Sample Transformer Cover Sheet With Key Data Elements Circled.
SOLID-STATE COMPENSATION METERS 363
Solid-State Compensation Meter
A solid-state meter with various compensation options for calculating and applying loss factors

SPECIAL METERING
to measured quantities is currently the primary method used when loss compensation is required.
Although solid-state meters compensate using the same modeling formulas as those utilized via older
methodologies, they differ markedly in their manner of operation. Instead of using resistances, tapped
transformers, and capacitors to modify currents and voltages, coefficients based on loss compensation
percentages and other site specific information are stored within the meter and accessed each time a
loss calculation is performed. Solid-state meters convert the current and voltage to digital inputs for
microprocessors, which then perform the mathematical operations to compute metered quantities
such as watts, VARs, volt amperes (VA), Q, etc. Using these measured voltage and current inputs along
with the stored compensation coefficients, a meter with loss compensation programming options
performs internal calculations based on defined algorithms to generate compensated metered values.
These compensated metered quantities can then be stored as part of typical billing data. They can be
displayed, can generate an energy pulse output, and be used as a trigger or alarm. Some meters are
also capable of measuring and displaying both compensated and uncompensated metered quantities at
the same time.
Derivation of Coefficients
Solid-state meters with loss compensation (LC) options may be programmed by the manufacturer
using loss compensation data provided by the meter purchaser. However, most frequently, the utility
meter engineer programs the LC percentages based on data unique to the equipment at each specific
metering site using software provided by the meter manufacturer. Because the LC coefficients are
programmed directly in the meter and impact the measurement calculation, depending on the direc-
tion of the load, applicable losses may either be added or subtracted from previous metered quantities.
The overlying goal of the utility meter engineer is to properly model the transformer loss param-
eters, line loss parameters, or some combination of both when introducing compensation into the
metering circuit. Depending on the type of solid state meter and its capability for calculating compen-
sation factors, a meter engineer may have to use different methods of deriving the appropriate loss
compensation coefficients. Therefore, it is important to fully understand the required meter parameters
and how those parameters are utilized within the meter in determining the compensation percentages.
Finally, it is important to note that any change in the original set of physical connections or
operational conditions will impact the compensation results and thus require a new set of compensa-
tion calculations to be performed.

LOSS CALCULATIONS
Determination of Losses
In order to determine the proper loss compensation parameters, first request from the manufacturer of
the transformers the following information:
• Lowest kVA rating
• No-load test results—watts (iron loss) at rated voltage with no load current (open circuit test)
• Full-load test results—watts (copper loss) that meets or exceeds 75°C at rated full-load current
• Rated voltage of transformer
• Voltage taps provided in the high-voltage and/or low-voltage side
If compensation based on either power factor or ­VARhour losses is to be considered as part of the
overall compensation model, the following additional information will also be required:
• Percent exciting current at rated voltage to full load current
• Percent impedance that meets or exceeds 75°C at full-load current
Figures 16-2 and 16-3 show a sample set of transformer data sheets with the required informa-
tion, listed above, highlighted.
Finally, information pertaining to operational criteria at the site such as the transformer connec-
tions, taps in use, and the length, size, and material of conductors from the low-voltage terminals of
the transformers to the metering point must be properly documented in order to apply any necessary
 364
High and Low Voltages
with KVA Rating
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

No-Load Loss Watts

Percent Magnetizing Current

Load Loss Watts

Percent Impedance

Figure 16-3. Sample Transformer Data Sheet With Key Data Elements Circled.
transformer loss adjustment factors as well as to determine any possible line loss contribution to the 365
overall compensation model.
The impact of the line losses may be considered negligible, depending on the location of the
metering circuit relative to the transformer. However, the utility meter engineer may still want to

SPECIAL METERING
account for these losses, despite their negligible effect, in order to better model the physical loss
characteristics of the site.
The following is a list of any type of cable-related information that must be obtained from various
sources, including the cable manufacturer and/or the site engineer, in order to determine the line
losses resulting from the cables:
• Positive sequence impedance at continuous rated current
• Type of conductor(s)
• Number of conductors
• Length of cable from the metering point to the billing point
In some cases, depending on the type and configuration of cable (e.g., underground, submarine,
overhead, etc.), additional information may also be required from the manufacturer, such as the per
length cable capacitance between each conductor and its insulation shielding as well as the conductor
loss angle at maximum ambient temperature and rated voltage.
Loss Compensation Formulas
Calculations should be referred to either the high voltage circuit or to the low voltage circuit. Once
the choice is made, this convention should be maintained as a point of reference for all subsequent
calculations. The following formulas all use the high voltage circuit as its reference.
Meter test current is defined as the test current with metered current elements (coils) in series at
unity power factor.
Meter test voltage is defined as the test voltage with meter voltage elements (coils) in parallel at
unity power factor.
Rated transformer volts are dependent on the voltage connections to the meter and can be either
delta (line-to-line) or wye (line-to-neutral). For consistency purposes, the rated voltage values are typi-
cally expressed in terms of a line-to-neutral reference.
Three possible options are listed below for determining the meter’s test current. When calculating
loss percentages for a programmable meter, it is necessary to choose the meter test current formula
that matches the method prescribed by the manufacturer. For example, some meter types specify that
loss calculations be based on 50% of the meter’s class amps, while other types specify calculations be
based on meter’s test amps. Alternatively, some meter types allow the user to specify directly within
the meter a specific current value for its loss percentage calculations.
Meter test current1 5 Meter TA 3 K
Meter test current2 5 5 amperes (transformer rated) 3 K
Meter test current3 5 50% Class amps of meter 3 K
Where K 5 3 (three-element meter)
K5 2 (two-element meter)
K5 4 (2½-element meter)*
Transformer Test kVA
Transformer Test Amps 5 —————————————————————
3  Transformer Rated kV
Note: VTR 5 Voltage Transformer Ratio
CTR 5 Current Transformer Ratio
LWFe is defined as the watt losses due to iron (core-loss watts) determined by the equation:
(Meter Test Voltage 3 VTR)2
LWFe 5 No-load Test Watts 3 ————————————————————
(Rated Transformer Volts)2

*Based on a mechanical 2½-element meter.

 366 LWCu is defined as the watt losses due to copper determined by the equation:
(Meter Test Current 3 CTR)2
LWCu 5 Load Test Watts 3 —————————————————————
(Transformer Test Amps)2
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

LVFe is defined as the VAR losses due to iron (core-loss VAR) determined by the equation:
(Meter Test Voltage 3 VTR)4
LVFe 5 no-load VAR 3 ————————————————————
(Rated Transformer Volts)4
With no-load VAR being calculated as follows:
No-load VA Loss 5 (Transformer Percent Exciting Current/100) 3
(Transformer kVA Rating 3 1000)
No-Load VAR 5 SQRT((No-load VA Loss)2 — (No-Load Watts)2)
Alternately, the same equation may be represented as:
No-load VAR 5 No-load VA 3 Sin 
Where  is the angle between the no-load watts and no-load VA
LVCu is defined as the VAR losses due to copper determined by the equation:
(Meter Test Current 3 CTR)2
LVCu 5 Load VAR 3 ————————————————————
(Transformer Test Amps)2
With load VAR being calculated as follows:
Transformer Load VA Loss 5 (Transformer Percent Impedance/100)
3 (Transformer kVA Rating 3 1000)
Load VAR 5 SQRT((Load VA Loss)2 — (Load Watts Loss)2)
Alternately, the same equation may be represented as:
Load VAR 5 Load VA 3 Sin 
Where  is the angle between the load watts and load VA
%LWFe is defined as the percent iron watt loss (core loss) determined by the equation:
LWFe 3 100
%LWFe 5 ——————————————————————————————————————
Meter Test Current 3 Meter Test Voltage 3 CTR 3 VTR
%LWCu is defined as the percent copper watt loss (load loss) determined by the equation:
LWCu 3 100
%LWCu 5 ——————————————————————————————————————
Meter Test Current 3 Meter Test Voltage 3 CTR 3 VTR
%LVCu is defined as the percent copper VAR loss (load VAR) determined by the equation:
LVCu 3 100
%LVCu 5 ——————————————————————————————————————
Meter Test Current 3 Meter Test Voltage 3 CTR 3 VTR
%LVFe is defined as the percent iron VAR loss (core VAR) determined by the equation:
LVFe 3 100
%LVFe 5 ——————————————————————————————————————
Meter Test Current 3 Meter Test Voltage 3 CTR 3 VTR
Calculate %LWFe, %LWCu, %LVFe, and %LVCu for full load, single phase, and with unity power
factor.
If the test voltage remains constant:
%LWCu is proportional to test load (test amps)
%LWCu is inversely proportional to power factor
%LWFe is inversely proportional to test load (test amps)
 %LWFe is inversely proportional to power factor 367
%LVCu is proportional to test load (test amps)
%LVCu is inversely proportional to power factor
%LVFe is inversely proportional to test load (test amps)

SPECIAL METERING
%LVFe is inversely proportional to power factor
These relationships permit light-load test and 50% power-factor-load test values which are derived
from full-load test values.
Application Example 1
Once all of the physical and electrical characteristics of the equipment and site are determined, it is
recommended that forms such as shown in Figure 16-5 be utilized for documentation purposes. By
using such forms to record and document all data from the applicable sources, procedures for deriving
the compensation values can be more easily and uniformly followed. The application of the solid state
meters may be better understood by the following steps as applied to a specific installation.
Equipment and Site Specifications
A single 15,000 kVA three-phase transformer bank is connected delta/wye. Metering on the low side
of the transformer at 13,279 volts will be by a three-phase four-wire solid-state meter utilizing three
1,200:5 ampere current transformers and three 14,400:120 volt voltage transformers. It is desired
to compensate the metering to record the load at the designated point of interconnection, which is
3.3 miles away from the physical metering location, on the 115,000 volt (high) side of the power
transformer, as shown in Figure 16-4, using a solid-state meter.
Calculation Methods—Iron and Copper Transformer Loss
Using the equipment and site information as documented on the form shown in Figure 16-5, the iron
and copper loss values can be calculated. The calculations and resultant iron and copper loss values for
both watts and VARS are shown in Figure 16-6. These values will be referenced in subsequent calcula-
tions in determining the percent loss compensation factors programmed into the meter. Throughout
the calculations shown in Figure 16-6, an empirical assumption is made that within small ­variations
of the rated voltage, iron watt losses vary as the square of the voltage and the iron VAR losses vary
approximately as the fourth power of the voltage.
Calculation Methods—Line Loss
The inclusion of line losses is fully dependent on the physical conditions at the metering site. Since,
in this example, the physical metering location is 3.3 miles from the intended point of interconnec-
tion, the utility meter engineer has decided that the impact of such line losses is significant enough to

Point of
Interconnection

Actual Meter
Location
14,400:120

1,200:5
Source
Load
3.3 miles

15,000 KVA
115 2 23Y / 13.2 KV

Figure 16-4. On-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications

 368
TRANSFORMER INFORMATION
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

          JOHN
Customer's DOE MFG. CO
Name or Station _____________________________________________________________
   100 MARKET STREET
Address _____________________________________________________________________________
              GENERAL
Power Transformer ELECTRIC
Data (Provided by): _____________________________________________________
GE
Make ________________________________________________________________________________
CLASS OA/FA/FOA THREE PHASE 60 Hz
Type ________________________________________________________________________________
    691592
Serial Number _________________________________________________________________________

Rated kVA   15,000/20,000/25,000
____________________________________________________________________________
    115,000/23,000
Rated Voltage _________________________________________________________________________
       
Tape Voltage FIXED HIGH SIDE TAP; LOW SIDE - 23,000 VOLT TAP
in Use ____________________________________________________________________
           20,849
Fe Loss @ WATTS
100% Rated Voltage ___________________________________________________________
       68,074
Cu Loss @ WATTS
Full Load ___________________________________________________________________

% Imp. @     8.23
75° C _______________________________________________________________________
      0.52
% Exciting Current _____________________________________________________________________
          
Connections: X       
PRIMARY Delta  WYE   3                  
Wire _____ X   
  SECONDARY Delta  WYE   4
Wire _____
           
Instrument 1,200:5      
Transofmer Ratio: CT __________    14,400:120
VT __________
15,000,000
Transformer Test Amps at Full Load: ________________________ 5 376.5328 Amps
3 3 23,000 3 SQRT (3)

CABLE INFORMATION
OKONITE
Make ________________________________________________________________________________
Overhead ACSR
Type ________________________________________________________________________________
       0.077452
Impedance 1 j 0.738273 per mile
per length ___________________________________________________________________
3.3 miles
Length ______________________________________________________________________________
        3
Number of Conductors __________________________________________________________________

METER INFORMATION
SOLID STATE METER
Make ________________________________________________________________________________
DIGITAL
Type ________________________________________________________________________________
   9F
Form/Base ___________________________________________________________________________
20
Class ________________________________________________________________________________
    120
Rated Voltage _________________________________________________________________________
       3
Number of Elements ____________________________________________________________________

Figure 16-5. Example of a Form for Collecting Equipment and Site Information.
 369
TRANSFORMER LOSS CALCULATIONS
Iron Loss (No-Load VARS) Copper Loss (Load VARS)

SPECIAL METERING
VA 5 15,000,000 3 0.0052 5 78,000 VA 5 15,000,000 3 0.0823 5 1,234,500
20,849 68,074
Cos  5 ———— Cos  5 ————
78,000 1,234,500
 5 Cos21 (0.2673) 5 1.3002  5 Cos21 (0.0551) 5 1.5156
Sin  5 0.9636 Sin  5 0.9985
VARs 5 78,000 3 0.9636 5 75,161.9531 VARs 5 1,234,500 3 0.9985 5 1,232,621.67

Note: VTR 5 Voltage Transformer Ratio

CTR 5 Current Transformer Ratio

Meter Test Current 5 Number of elements 3 50% Class Amps of Meter

Meter Test Current 5 30

VAm 5 VA of Meter 5 (Meter Test Current 3 Meter Rated Voltage 3 CTR 3 VTR)
VAm 5 3 3 10 3 120 3 240 3 120 5 103,680,000 VA
Iron and Copper Loss Watts:
(Meter Rated Voltage 3 VTR)2
LWFe 5 Watt losses due to iron (core-loss watts) 5 No-Load Watts 3 ————————————————
(Rated Transformer Volts 4 SQRT(3))2
(120 3 120)2
LWFe 5 20,849 3 ————————— 5 24,517.4781 Watts
(23,000 4 SQRT(3))2
(50% Class Amps of Meter 3 CTR)2
LWCu 5 Watt losses due to copper (Load Loss watts) 5 Load Watts 3 ————————————————
(Transformer Test Amps)2
(10 3 240)2
LWCu 5 68,074 3 —————— 5 2,765,655.781 Watts
(376.5328)2

Iron and Copper Loss VARS:

(Meter Rated Voltage 3 VTR)4
LVFe 5 VAR losses due to iron (core-loss vars) 5 No-Load VARS 3 ————————————————
(Rated Transformer Volts 4 SQRT(3))4
(120 3 120)4
LVFe 5 75,1613.9531 3 —————————4 5 103,940.9164 VARS
(23,000 4 SQRT(3))
(50% Class Amps of Meter 3 CTR)2
LVCu 5 VAR losses due to copper (Load Loss watts) 5 Load VARS 3 ————————————————
(Transformer Test Amps)2
(10 3 240)2
LVCu 5 1,232,621.67 3 —————— 5 50,077,962.92 VARS
(376.5328)2

Figure 16-6. Transformer Loss Calculations.

include as part of the overall compensation model. The calculations of the watt and VAR loss values
attributed to the 3.3 mile line length are shown in Figure 16-7.
The calculations in Figure 16-7 employ the fundamental concept that line loss is proportional to
the I 2 (amp squared) losses associated with the type of cable used for each conductor. Utilizing this
method of calculation thus neglects the admittance of the cable. In most cases, the admittance of the
cable is determined to be negligible. However, if considered, the admittance would only impact the
value of VAR loss. In the above example, the calculation of nominal primary amps is found using the
current transformer ratio and 50% current class of the meter. This current value was selected in this
 370
LINE LOSS CALCULATIONS

Resistance per length 5 0.0774 ohms/mi     Reactance per length 5 0.7738 ohms/mi
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Total Resistance of Cable 5 Resistance per length 3 length of cable 3 number of conductors
Total Line Loss Watts 5 0.077452 3 3.3 3 3 5 0.7667

Total Reactance of Cable 5 Reactance per length 3 length of cable 3 number of conductors
Total Line Loss VARS 5 7.3089

Nominal Primary Amps 5 50% Class Amps of Meter 3 CTR 5 10 3 240 5 2400 amps

Secondary Transformer Voltage

Primary Amps 5 Nominal Primary Amps 3 ——————————————
Primary Transformer Voltage

23,000
Primary Amps 5 2400 3 ———— 5 480 amps
115,000

Total Line Loss Watts 5 Primary Amps2 3 Total Resistance of Cable

Total Line Loss Watts 5 4802 3 0.7667 5 176,644.9139

Total Line Loss VARS 5 Primary Amps2 3 Total Reactance of Cable

Total Line Loss VARS 5 4802 3 7.3089 5 1,683,971.1821

Figure 16-7. Line Loss Calculations.

example since it represents conditions approximating those that would be seen by the meter under
normal operating conditions.
Calculation Methods—Percent Loss Coefficients
The final step prior to entering the compensation values into the meter is to calculate the actual loss
percentages, as shown in Figures 16-8 and 16-9. Using the calculation results in our example as shown
in Figures 16-6 and 16-7, the percent loss factors to be entered into our meter are as follows:
Transformer Loss percentages:
Watts loss due to iron 5 0.0236%
Watt loss due to copper 5 2.6675%
VAR loss due to iron 5 0.10025%
VAR loss due to copper 5 48.3005%
Line Loss percentages:
Watts loss 5 0.1704%
VARS loss 5 1.624%

ALTERNATIVE COMPENSATION SCENARIOS

Three Single-Phase Transformers
In this alternative compensation scenario, as shown in Figure 16-10, three single-phase transform-
ers have been installed as compared to the three-phase bank within our original example. The same
derivation techniques as shown in the previous example can be utilized here. However, the overall
or combined ratings must now be determined, taking into account the three separate transformers.
Note that in this scenario, all three transformers are equally sized and assumed to have equivalent
characteristic ratings, as is often the case. In determining the overall ratings, some parameters are
aggregated as the sum while others are an average of the values from the three transformers, as shown
in Figure 16-11.
 371
PERCENT TRANSFORMER LOSS COMPENSATION

Percent Loss Watt Iron and Copper:

SPECIAL METERING
LWFe
%LWFe 5 Percent Iron Watt Loss (Core Loss) 5 ——— 3 100
VAm

%LWFe 5 (24,517.4781 4 103,680,000) 3 100 5 0.0236%

LWCu
%LWCu 5 Percent Copper Watt Loss (Load Loss) 5 ——— 3 100
VAm

%LWCu 5 (2,765,655.781 4 103,680,000) x 100 5 2.6675%

Percent Loss VAR Iron and Copper:

LVFe
% LVFe 5 Percent Iron VAR Loss (Core Loss) 5 ——— 3 100
VAm

%LVFe 5 (103,940.9164 4 103,680,000) 3 100 5 0.10025%

LVCu
%LVCu 5 Percent Copper VAR Loss (Load Loss) 5 ——— 3 100
VAm

%LVCu 5 (50,077,962.92 4 103,680,000) 3 100 5 48.3005%

Figure 16-8. Transformer Loss Calculations.

PERCENT LINE LOSS COMPENSATION

Percent Line Loss Watts:

Total Line Loss Watts

%LLW 5 ————————— 3 100
VA of Meter

176,664.9139
%LLW 5 —————— 5 0.1704%
103,680.000

Percent Line Loss VARS:

Total Line Loss VARS

%LLV 5 ————————— 3 100
VA of Meter

1,683,971.1821
%LLV 5 ——————— 5 1.6242%
103,680.000

Figure 16-9. Line Loss Calculations.

Three Winding (Tertiary) Transformers

In the scenario of a three winding (tertiary) transformer, as shown in Figure 16-12, conditions are
such that the secondary winding voltages are different but their base mega voltampere (MVA) ratings
are equal. Based on these condition, the copper losses for each secondary winding with respect to
their applicable voltages can be calculated individually using the same set of calculations as previously
described in our original example.
On the other hand, the iron losses for this type of transformer, i.e., with a single core, represents
the total loss of the entire transformer independent of the individual secondary windings. They are
 372
Point of
Interconnection 500 MVA
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Actual Meter
Location
500 MVA

Source Load

500 MVA

345 kV   23 kV / 13.2Y

Figure 16-10. One-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications for Three Single-Phase ransformers.

always present, with or without load, as long as the transformer is energized and should be shared
between the two meters. Under normal operating conditions, the iron losses may be allocated equally
between the two solid state meters.
However, it should be pointed out that if the operating configuration of the system changes by, for
example, taking one of the secondary winding loads out of service, the iron loss coefficient for only
50% of total losses would be accounted by the remaining metered service due to the equal allocation
across both. Ultimately, the determination of how iron losses are allocated should be mutually agreed
upon by all stakeholders.

Calculation
Transformer Parameters 1X 2X 3X Parameters
VA Bank Rating 500,000,000 500,000,000 500,000,000 1,500,000,000 (Total)
Rated Primary Voltage 345,000 345,000 345,000 345,000
Secondary L-L Voltage 23,000 23,000 23,000 23,000
Secondary L-N Voltage 13,279 13,279 13,279 13,279
No-Load Watts 200,000 190,000 195,000 585,000 (Total)
Copper Loss Watts 590,000 595,000 600,000 1,785,000 (Total)
Percent Impedance 12 11.9 11.8 11.9 (Average)
Percent Excitation Current 0.06 0.058 0.059 0.059 (Average)
Primary Amps 12,551.1 12,551.1 12,551.1 37,653.28 (Total)

Figure 16-11. Example of Parameter Listing for Combining Three Single-Phase Transformers.
 373
Point of
Interconnection Actual Meter

SPECIAL METERING
Location

4.16 kV
Single Core 15 MVA
Transformer Load 2
Source
Load 1
30 MVA 15 MVA
115 kV 23 kV

Actual Meter
Location

Figure 16-12. One-Line Diagram of Metering Specifications for Three Winding ertiary Transformers.

Determination of Expected Meter Accuracy Results With Compensation Applied

Percent Watthour Losses—Expected Meter Registration
Good business practices dictate that the operation of any meter, especially related to its operational
accuracy, is fully verified upon installation as well as periodically throughout its service life. For
uncompensated meters, this verification is simply achieved by comparing the meter at specific meter
test points against a certified watthour standard. The accuracy test ensures that the meter is operating
as close as possible to 100% of the standard at each test point. However, when compensation is added,
the measurement within the meter is intentionally altered to account for operational losses such that
when compared against a certified watthour standard they will result with values that will vary from
100%. To account for the variances attributed to the compensation loss factors, expected percent
watthour accuracy values must be calculated for each meter test point.
With the assumption that the test voltage remains constant throughout the duration of all meter
tests, the percent watthour losses calculated at the full load test point can be used to determine the
expected accuracy results at the other test points based on the following underlying principles:
• The percent copper loss for the meter at light-load (10% of full load) is one-tenth of the copper
losses for the meter at full-load.
• The percent iron loss at the meter’s light-load test point, however, is 10 times the iron losses
under full-load conditions.
• The percent copper loss at the lagging load (50% power factor) test point is twice the copper
loss of the meter full-load test.
• The percent iron loss at the lagging load test point is twice the iron loss of the meter full-load
test.
• The percent losses are also either added or subtracted to the expected uncompensated percent
registration of the meter to obtain the calibration percent registrations of the compensated
meter under forward or reverse load conditions, respectively.
From our original transformer loss example, the four calculated percent loss factors, as shown in
Figure 16-8, are:
Percent loss WATTS Iron (%LWFe) 5 0.0236
Percent loss WATTS Copper (%LWCu) 5 2.6675
Percent loss VARS Iron (%LVFe) 5 0.10025
Percent loss VARS Copper (%LVCu) 5 48.3005
 374 With the percent loss factors, above, the expected meter accuracy test result at each test point is
derived as follows:
Full Load Test Expected Registration 5
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

(% LWFe) 1 (% LWCu) 5 0.0236 1 2.6675 5 2.6911

Therefore, the percent expected compensated meter test accuracy results under full load conditions
should be:
100% 1 2.6911 5 102.6911% For forward load
100% 2 2.6911 5 97.3089% For reverse load
Light Load Test Expected Registration 5
(%LWFE 3 10) 1 (%LWCU / 10) 5 (0.0236 3 10) 1 (2.6675 / 10) 5 0.50275
Therefore, the percent expected compensated meter test accuracy results under light load condi-
tions should be:
100% 1 0.50275 5 100.50275% For forward load
100% 2 0.50275 5 99.49725% For reverse load
Power Factor Test Expected Registration 5
(%LWFE 3 2) 1 (%LWCU 3 2) 5 (0.0236 3 2) 1 (2.6675 3 2) 5 5.3822
Therefore, the percent expected compensated meter test accuracy results under 50% power factor
conditions should be:
100% 1 5.3822 5 105.3822% For forward load
100% 2 5.3822 5 94.6178% For reverse load

TOTALIZATION
Introduction
Totalization is the algebraic combination of like electrical quantities performed on a real time or
near time basis. The combination may be as simple as adding the kilowatthour usage of two or more
circuits or as complicated as solving an algebraic algorithm to determine the overall net usage for an
installation with multiple sources and loads.
Totalization is typically utilized when it is necessary to combine loads from multiple contributing
sources into a single load value. Revenue metering of customers who are served by two or more lines
and billed on coincident demand is one example where totalization would be advantageous. For any
true coincidental demand determination, totalization must be performed in either a real or near time
basis in order to reflect the true peak demand impact of that customer on the utility system (see
Chapter 13, Demand Meters, for a more detailed discussion on this topic). The simple addition of the
individual demand readings does not provide a true coincidential demand value.
In some cases, totalization is not necessary but is used to simplify meter reading and the subse-
quent accounting procedures. Under this type of scenario, monthly ­kilowatthour usage from multiple
meters is simply added together to determine the customer’s total consumption. Monthly consump-
tion values can be accurately added together as long as there is not any type of demand component on
the customer’s bill.
Finally, in some situations, the totalization process may become very complex, requiring an algo-
rithmic calculation to separate customer supplied load from utility supplied load. An example of such
a case is when a generation station’s service load determination for merchant generators may possibly
be supplied either from the utility or the merchant’s own generator, depending on the generator’s
status.
The manner in which totalization may be provided can be broken down into the following
methods:
• Combining input circuits—current transformers (CTs) and/or voltage transformers (VTs)
• Multi-stator metering
• On-site pulse totalization
• Totalization via translation
 Of the four methods listed, examples of the first two may still exist within the industry, but they 375
have both been universally replaced by either of the last two methods. The on-site pulse totalization
and totalization via translation methods are less costly to implement and maintain, and use readily
available equipment that is generally more reliable over a longer period of time. The following are

SPECIAL METERING
descriptions of each of the four totalization methods.

Combining Input Circuits—CTs and/or VTs

PARALLEL CURRENT-TRANSFORMER SECONDARIES
Totalization before measurement, such as paralleling the secondaries of the current transformers in
two or more circuits having a common voltage source, is shown in Figure 16-13. Here, the secondar-
ies of the current transformers on Line 1 of circuits A and B have been connected in parallel at the
coil of the meter. A similar arrangement would be used on Line 3. Precautions must be taken due to
the difficulties arising from the increased effects of burden and the flow of exciting current from one
transformer to the other during imbalanced load conditions.
When using this totalization method, the following precautions are important to note:
1. All of the transformers must have the same nominal ratio regardless of the ratings of the
circuits in which they are connected.
2. All transformers which have their secondaries in parallel must be connected in the same phase
of the primary circuits.
3. The secondaries must be paralleled at the meter, not at the current transformers.
4. There should be only one ground on the secondaries of all transformers at their common
point at the meter.
5. Modern current transformers with low exciting currents must be used for little shunting
effect when one or more current transformers are floating at no load. (Three or more floating
current transformers might have an effect that should be investigated.)
6. The secondary circuits must be so designed that the maximum possible burden on any trans-
former will not exceed its rating. The burden should be kept as low as possible as its effects are
increased in direct proportion to the square of the total secondary current.
7. A common voltage must be available for the meter. This condition is met if the circuits share a
common bus that is normally operated with closed bus ties.
8. Burdens and accuracies must be carefully calculated.
9. If adjustments are made at the meter to compensate for ratio and phase angle errors, the ratio
and phase angle error corrections used must represent the entire combination of transformers
connected as a unit.
10. The watthour meter must be of sufficient current capacity to carry, without overload errors,
the combined currents from all the transformers to which it is connected.

Figure 16-13. Simplified Connection Diagram for Parallel-Connected, Current- ransformer Secondaries.
 376 11. Low-voltage, low-burden-capability current transformers are not suited to this application
since the burden imposed on parallel secondaries may be very high.
12. Meter voltage is usually equipped with a throw-over relay to avoid loss of meter voltage in the
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

event the normal supply is de-energized.

PARALLEL CURRENT-TRANSFORMER PRIMARIES

Under certain conditions, particularly with window-type transformers, primaries may be paralleled.
With the proper precautions, acceptable commercial metering performance may be obtained with
this method, which will represent the combined (totalized) load passing through all of the primary
circuits. Without proper consideration of all factors involved, the errors may be excessive, particularly
at low current values.

Multi-Stator Meters
Mechanical totalization is accomplished by combining, on one watthour meter shaft, the number
of stators necessary to properly meter all circuits involved. Its use is mostly relegated to mechanical
meters and dates back to the early 1950s as a method for utilities to reduce the number of meters,
and therefore the cost, required for this type of totalization. However, with the advent of pulse meter-
ing and now solid-state metering, it is doubtful that utility personnel will encounter such a device. If
additional details on the operation of a multi-stator meter in a totalization application are required,
please refer to previous editions of this Handbook or to the manufacturer’s literature.

On-Site Pulse Totalization

PULSE TOTALIZATION
Pulse totalization is the algebraic addition or subtraction of pulses from two or more pulse generating
meters. This method may be accomplished using an external totalizer-type device which has the ability
to add pulse inputs from one or more meters. Alternatively, some meters also have the ability to accept
pulses from external sources and add them to the load measured by the meter in much the same
manner as the external totalizer. In either situation, pulses are available in two-wire form A (KY) and
three-wire form C (KYZ) versions.

PULSE INITIATORS
A pulse initiator is the mechanism, either mechanical or electrical, within the meter which generates a
pulse for each discrete amount of a metered quantity.
The pulse initiator can be a small switch or pair of switches mounted within the meter. It may
also be an electronic device. On a mechanical meter, the pulse initiator may consist of a light-sensitive
device positioned so as to receive reflections directly from the bottom of the disk or from reflective
vanes on a shaft driven from the disk. Whether the pulse initiator assembly is commonly geared to
the disk shaft or receives reflections from the disk itself, the number of pulses is directly proportional
to the number of disk revolutions. On a solid-state meter, the pulse output value can be set to any
value within the meter’s program. However, it is typically set to a value which is proportional to the
meter’s internal pulse multiplier in units of equivalent disk revolutions.
The output pulses are normally Form C closures, commonly known as KYZ or double-throw,
single-pole, or their electrical equivalent. Each closure is one pulse.
In some applications, Form A closures are used. A Form A closure can be obtained from a Form C
by using only either the KY or KZ contact and doubling the value of each pulse.
Since pulses are directly proportional to disk revolutions (or equivalent disk revolutions, as in
the case of a solid-state meter), a specific watthour value must be assigned to each pulse. If the ratio
between pulses and disk revolutions is 1:1, the watthour value of a pulse must be, and is, equal to the
primary watthour constant of the meter. Thus, in a receiving instrument which counts the number of
pulses, this count multiplied by the primary watthour constant gives the value of the energy measured.
It is important to note that in certain mechanical pulse receivers, one pulse is a latching and the next
an advancing pulse. There may be confusion regarding this type of device, since only half the pulses
are recorded. This chapter considers one closure of the pulse initiator as one pulse transmitted.
Regardless of the manner in which the pulses of a watthour meter are initiated, the value of the
pulse is in terms of energy and not of power. Before any time factor is introduced, the pulse has a
value in watthours rather than watts. In a pulse recorder or any translation system, the time channel, 377
in effect, divides the quantity of pulses received into recorded intervals, therefore creating a reading in
watts. This does not change the character of the value of the pulse as received. In this type of device,
the interval pulses, when multiplied by the appropriate constant, yields demand in kilowatts; the total

SPECIAL METERING
pulses, when multiplied by the appropriate constant, yields kilowatthours.
There are certain requirements in the design and operation of pulse initiators that should be kept
in mind when employing this type of telemetering. In any pulse system, the initiator is the only source
of information transmitted. Therefore, particularly when used for billing, the performance of the
mechanism generating the pulses must match the accuracy of the requirement. A pulse initiator free
from faults has the accuracy of the watthour meter in which it is installed. The final answer given by
the receiver cannot be more accurate than the initiating pulse.
To achieve the desired accuracy, good design of the pulse initiator, proper application, and a high
order of maintenance are necessary. The good design must be provided by the manufacturers. Proper
application by the utility’s meter engineer means matching the capabilities of the pulse initiator, the
communication channel, and the receiver.
It must be remembered that as the value in kilowatthours of each pulse is increased, the possible
dollar impact in the demand determination by a miscount of even one pulse becomes correspondingly
greater. However, the lower limits of pulse value and correspondingly greater rate of sending pulses is
determined by pulse initiator design and receiver capabilities.
Please note that this section has primarily addressed pulses in terms of watthour values. Electronic
meters provide a variety of measured quantities that can be associated with their own unique pulse
output. Therefore, the same concepts discussed in this chapter are also applicable to pulses represent-
ing other energy values, e.g., VARhours, VAhours, etc.
Characteristics of Pulse Initiators
The two basic output circuits of pulse initiators used for pulse metering of kilowatthours are the two
wire and the more common three wire, as shown in Figure 16-14.
The pulse initiator output circuit may be energized with alternating current (AC) or direct cur-
rent (DC). Direct current, in conjunction with polarized relays or electronic-type demand devices, is

Figure 16-14. Simplified Diagrams Illustrating Basic wo- and Three-Wire Pulse Circuits.
 378 used where transmission over telephone lines is necessary. The polarized relay permits true three-wire
operation over a two-wire circuit. It is also used on long circuits to avoid the attenuation due to the
capacity effect of some communication cables.
Electronic pulse initiators of the mercury wetted relay or transistor switching types provide quick
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

make-break action in delivering pulses to the transmitting circuit. Electronic devices obtain all of the
advantages of the physical construction with none of the disadvantages associated with the mechani-
cal type of pulse initiator.
The output pulse circuits of pulse initiators are usually low power circuits. Most receivers, total-
izers, and pulse equipment designed for meter pulse applications are also low power devices and,
therefore, require no intermediary device. However, the installation must have interposing relays,
impedance correcting circuits, or a combination thereof to protect the pulse initiator where there are
long runs of connecting wire, multiple devices activated by one initiator, or devices having inductive or
capacitive input characteristics.
Types of Pulse Initiators
Mechanical pulse initiators with cam-and-leaf construction depend upon the meter disk for their
driving force.
Electronic pulse initiators may have a shuttered disk, which is an output shaft with reflective vanes
or reflective spots on the rotor of the meter, that work in conjunction with a light source to furnish
an input signal to an amplifier whose output is connected to the pulse transmitting circuit. Electronic
pulse initiators can be designed to permit a much greater number of output pulses per meter disk
revolution than cam-and-leaf devices.
Pulse initiators of hybrid mechanical meters with electronic registers are sometimes integrated
with their registers. The registers are not driven by direct gearing as with a mechanical device, but by
light or infrared reflections off the meter disk. The pulse initiator supplies output pulses, which are an
integral number of the pulses driving the register. Normally, the register pulse ratio is 12 pulses per
revolution. Output pulses can therefore be 12, 6, 4, 3, 2, or 1 pulse per revolution. The reciprocals
1/12, 1/6, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, and 1/1 are known as the Pulse Multiplier (Mp) or Revolutions per Impulse
(R/I) of the initiator. The choice of Mp or R/I is made when programming the register.
Some meters with electronic registers have no provision for supplying output pulses. These meters
must be equipped with a separate pulse initiator board. Having a separate initiator has the advantage
of providing a redundant revolution-counting circuit which can serve as a check against the meter
registration.
Electronic meters that do not have a rotating disk may be configured to generate pulses based on
the quantity selected and the pulse weight entered within the meter’s program. These pulse outputs
may be chosen to indicate a quantity of energy identical to that quantity metered by one revolution of
the disk of an equivalent mechanical meter. This equivalent revolution pulse permits testing the meter
using conventional test procedures. The output pulse is usually programmable in terms of Ke, where Ke
is a discrete amount of the metered quantity per pulse, e.g., kilowatthours/pulse.
Maintenance of Pulse Initiators
Proper maintenance of mechanical pulse initiators requires correct adjustment of contacts for maxi-
mum tension, minimum resistance when closed, adequate clearance with contacts open, and low
friction loading on the meter rotor.
If the contact points become discolored or pitted, the points should be dressed with a burnishing
tool and then with paper until they are bright but not necessarily flat. If employed with discretion,
fine crocus cloth is sometimes useful. The use of a file on these points is bad practice and should be
avoided. If contacts require filing, they should be replaced as their service life will be limited. Small
pits in the contact points will not impair operation as long as the points are clean.
The same mesh conditions required for mechanical pulse initiators must be obtained for electron-
ics pulse initiators. However, friction due to mechanical make and break of contacts has been elimi-
nated in solid-state pulse initiators.
Fully solid-state pulse initiators with transistor-type switching typically do not require any type of
maintenance beyond simple replacement.
Kilowatthour and Kilowatt Constants
Meter pulse initiators normally have a three-wire pulse output. The wires are designated K, Y, and Z.
The pulse output is a series of alternating KY and KZ closures. Contact closure between K and Y is a
pulse as is closure between K and Z. Most initiators have break-before-make closures. The output can 379
be thought of as a single-pole, double-throw switch. Describing the output in relay terms is relevant
because many initiators have mechanical relay outputs. However, the current trend is toward solid-
state switches, with a dry output via Form C contacts.

SPECIAL METERING
Each pulse represents a distinct quantity of kilowatthour energy. The kilowatthour value of each
pulse is Ke.
Meter Kd is programmable in most solid-state meters and electronic registers which have KYZ
pulse outputs. The same multiplier can be derived for pulse initiator on electro-mechanical meters
using constants listed within manufacturer’s literature as either Pulses/Disk Revolutions (P/DR),
Revolutions/Impulse (R/I), or Revolutions per Pulse (Mp). All of these constants are either equivalents
or reciprocals of the particular constant, depending on the preference of the meter manufacturer.
Depending on the model and type, these constants are either programmable or must be specified
when purchased. Meter Ke equals Kh (watthours per revolution) 3 R/I (revolutions per pulse), divided
by 1,000.
The overall Ke, that is the effective Ke of pulses delivered to an end device by the output of the
pulse totalizer or relay, may be different from meter Ke. If the totalizer or any interposed relay has
an input/output ratio other than 1:1, the output Ke will equal the meter Ke times the product of the
input/output ratios.
If a two-wire device is operated by a three-wire pulse system, the value of each two-wire pulse will
be double the three-wire value.
For a particular demand interval, each pulse represents a distinct quantity of kilowatt demand.
If the demand interval is programmed into the pulse receiver, a demand indicator, pulse recorder,
translation system, or any other device, the value of the demand pulse Kd, is equal to the overall Ke
divided by the demand interval, expressed in hours.
Meter pulse systems determine demand by counting the total quantity of pulses accumulated over
a complete demand interval. Devices that operate on pulse rate, duration, or the times between pulses
might be erroneous, especially when pulse totalization is being performed.
The following gives the nomenclature, equations, and method of calculating the application of
pulse initiators.
Required data:
Maximum kW demand expected, e.g., kilowatts
Demand interval in hours
Pulse receiving capacity of demand meter per interval
Nomenclature:
kWh 5 kW 3 demand interval in hours
Pulse 5 The closing and opening of the circuit of a two-wire pulse system. The
alternate closing and opening of one side and then the other of a three-
wire system is equal to two pulses.
Ke 5 kWh/pulse, i.e., the energy
Mp 5 Meter disk revolutions per pulse
Ti 5 Demand interval in hours
Rp 5 Ratio of input pulses to output pulses for totalizing relay(s)
Np 5 Number of pulses required to advance receiver
Kd 5 Kilowatts per incoming pulse at receiver 5 (Ke 3 Rp) / Ti
Kh 5 Secondary watthour constant
Kilowatts divided by the pulse receiving capacity of the demand meter gives a possible value of Kd.
Obviously, no demand meter would intentionally be run to exactly full scale at the demand peak. Usu-
ally a choice of one-half to three-quarters of the maximum pulse capacity per interval of the receiver
is reasonable and will allow for load growth. Also, the choice should be such as to obtain convenient
values of Ke and Kd.
If revolutions per pulse is too small a fraction, the value of Ke must be increased and a lower scale
reading on the demand meter accepted.
 380 kW Constants
Where Kd is the kilowatt value of the incoming pulse and where Ti equals the incoming demand
interval in hours,
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Ke (final)
Kd 5 ———————
Ti
Kilowatt dial multiplier 5 Kd 3 kW ratio where the kW ratio equals the number of incoming
pulses to give a reading of 1 on the demand dial.
Available R/I, Mp, and other ratios are generally in the range of 1:10 to 10:1. Indicators which
operate on reflections off the meter disk are normally 2, 4, 6, 8, or 12 pulses per revolution. Ques-
tions concerning the availability of specific ratios should be referred to the meter manufacturer.

TOTALIZING RELAYS
When the totalization of more than two circuits is required on site, an intermediate totalizing relay
is generally necessary. This relay must be capable of adding pulses and, when required, subtracting
other pulses from the positive sum and retransmitting the algebraic sum to a receiving device. When
a totalizing relay with an input to output ratio other than 1:1 is used, the new output ratio must be
considered in adjusting the pulse value of the meter.
If, for example, a relay is used which has a 4:1 ratio, it is necessary to furnish four pulses to the
relay for every one that is retransmitted to the receiver. Pulse values for the meter must be in a 1:4
ratio to the values for the receiver. As an example, if the receiver pulse value was 38.4 kWh, it would
be 38.4/4 5 9.6 kWh at the meter.
Totalizing relays serve to combine pulses produced by two or more meters and to retransmit the
total over a single channel. Electronic types eliminate most of the problems of maintenance that are
associated with the older electromechanical mechanisms, but in no way relieve the situation of limit-
ing pulse rates to prevent overrun of the relays. Attention to pulse rates (pulses per minute) is espe-
cially important if several relays are cascaded to accommodate a large number of meters in a single
totalizing network.
The maximum pulse rate at which any relay can be operated is often limited by the receiver.
Electronic data logging receivers are capable of accepting very high pulse rates with very short time
duration per pulse, but many electromechanical receivers require relatively low rates and relatively long
pulses.
In electronic totalizing relays, all input circuits of a relay must be interrogated (scanned) in turn
and all pulses present must be output to the receiver before any ­channel can be again interrogated. A
limiting condition is pulses on all channels simultaneously, known as a burst condition.
For a multi-channel relay, the maximum input rate must be no greater than output rate divided
by the number of channels. For example, a seven-channel relay with a relay ratio of 1:1 and an
output rate of 56 pulses per minute has an effective input rate of eight pulses per minute per chan-
nel (56 4 7 5 8). In order to provide some safety margin, a rate of seven pulses per minute may be
utilized.
If the relay ratio is other than 1:1, this factor must also be considered. The formula used is output
rate times the ratio factor divided by the number of channels (56 3 4/7 5 32 for a four-to-one relay).
It must be kept in mind that the higher the output rate of the relay, the shorter the duration of
the pulses. This, too, can be a limiting factor for some receivers.
A general discussion of the electromagnetic type of totalizing relays can be found in Chapter 10 of
the 7th edition of this Handbook. For specific operating characteristics of modern totalizing relays, the
manufacturer’s literature should be consulted.

MULTI-CHANNEL PULSE RECORDERS

Many applications which previously required a totalizing relay and a single-channel pulse counter can
now be performed by a multi-channel pulse recorder used in conjunction with a smart translation
device. Normally, the recorder stores pulse counts from one to four meters. Periodically, the recorder is
interrogated and the information is transferred to a computer. The computer performs the translation
and is programmed to combine those channels which are to be totalized and to produce reports for
revenue billing, load survey, market research, and other applications.
 Typical recorders store at least a minimum of 35 days of data in 15 minute increments. Newer 381
electronic meters can even record substantially more data before filling up their memory. The time
base is the determining factor on the amount of data any recorder may retain. A smaller increment
would fill the recorder memory in proportionally less time while, similarly, a larger increment would

SPECIAL METERING
permit more days of data to be stored. Most meters allow at least 16 bit resolution or 65,535 pulses
per interval. The resolution of the data (per pulse) is controlled by this maximum pulses per interval
and the interval length or duration.
One useful memory design is the wrap-around type. Wrap-around memory overwrites the most
current data over the oldest data. The consequence of this type of memory is that the data is not
erased when the recorder is interrogated. These properties permit a certain level of redundancy in
data storage, in that the recorder will always retain the most recent amount of data depending on the
number of days that can be stored. The database at the translation site has all data up through the last
interrogation. The meter data can be reread if the communications introduced errors or if data stored
at the central computer is corrupted.
Data transmission can be by telephone, frame relay, fiber optic cable, packet radio, cable TV lines,
power line carrier, microwave, or other communication medium with the ability to transmit data
accurately. In the event the communication system fails, most solid-state recorders can be interrogated
by a portable reader or computer via an optical port. Each time there is communication between an
individual recorder and the central computer, the central computer runs a time check and may adjust
the time within the individual unit to match the system time. Each unit keeps time using the 60 Hz
power system as reference. In addition, each unit has a backup source for keeping time during power
outages.
When the communication system is telephone, packet radio, or other medium which is constantly
available, individual units can call or be called at frequent intervals. With more frequent interrogation,
problems can be discovered and solved promptly. Additionally, the units can be self-diagnostic, includ-
ing tamper detectors which initiate calls to report alarms.

PULSE ACCESSORIES
Auxiliary Relays
In some cases of totalization, it may be necessary to operate more than one device from the same
watthour meter pulse initiator or to operate an AC device and a DC circuit from the same pulse
source. Auxiliary relays may be used for this purpose. In general, such relays have a variety of combi-
nation of input and output circuits, each isolated from one another, in either a two-wire or three-wire
format. Relays are also available to convert two-wire pulses to three-wire and three-wire pulses to
two-wire.
Another auxiliary relay is the polarized relay—a direct current operated relay. It permits the use of
the two-wire circuit to transmit three-wire pulses. This is done by reversing the polarity of the direct
current applied to the relay coil. It is equivalent to using a positive pulse for one side of the three-wire
circuit and a negative pulse for the other.
Polarized relays are found to be necessary in the totalization and telemetering of pulses over some
distance. The features of these relays are the low current at which they operate, one to 20 milliamp
(mA) DC; the positive action upon polarity change, preventing stray currents from causing incorrect
operation; and the fact that the contacts for retransmitting consist of two sets which can be paralleled
or used to drive separate circuits. The polarized relay maintains a closed transmitting contact until the
opposite polarity is received. Polarized relays require only two wires between the source of pulses and
the relay, an obvious advantage for distance metering.
Load Pulse Isolation Relays
Often, metering pulses are provided to utility customers as a means of providing real time load data
to their energy management systems. The load pulses may be provided directly from the meter to the
customer’s energy management system. However, this direct connection may increase the risk of dam-
age to the meter, depending on what the customer does with their end of the pulse output cabling.
The solution many utilities have put in place is to utilize a load pulse isolation relay. The isolation
relay serves two purposes. The first is to create a convenient point of interconnection or a demarcation
between the customer and the utility. The second is that it provides a certain level of isolation between
the meter’s pulse output and the customer’s energy management system. In the case where a high
 382
Meter Interface Enclosure
(For Load Pulse output options)
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Load Pulse Isolation Relay

CUSTOMER / SUPPLIER
2-wire cable from energy
management system

Pulses from Meter

Figure 16-15. Simplified Diagram for a Load Pulse Isolation Rela .

voltage is inadvertently applied to the customer’s end of the pulse cabling, the isolation relay may be
damaged; however, the meter continues to perform its primary function—monthly billing. Figure 16-15
is an example of a wiring diagram for a typical isolation relay.

NOTES ON PULSE TOTALIZATION

When selecting or designing a pulse totalization system, there are a number of practical considerations
that must not be ignored:
1. The pulse-receiving capability of the totalizing recorder.
2. Total number of pulses that can be recorded during any one demand interval.
3. The ability to record clusters of pulses at a much higher rate than capability over the entire
demand interval. Cascaded intermediate relays may result in transmission of two to eight
almost simultaneous pulses. If the receiver fails under these conditions, the intermediate relay
circuits must be redesigned to space pulses.
4. Sensitivity to pulse duration. When pulse duration may be less than one-quarter of a second,
it is futile to employ a receiver requiring pulses of a minimum duration of three-quarters of a
second.
5. Pulse-receiving mechanisms which fail to respond to less than perfect contact closures will
require excessive maintenance. Receivers should tolerate some variation in pulse current as well
as in pulse duration.
In any complex pulse totalization system, pulse values must be established for both transmitting
and receiving instruments. If it is desired to retain the same pulse value at the initiator and at the
receiver, it may be necessary to cascade totalizing relays rather than combine all pulses in one relay.
For example, certain types of six- or eight-circuit totalizing relays cannot be operated with any degree
of reliability with a 1:1 ratio of incoming to outgoing pulses. A 2:1 ratio doubles the value of the
pulse. It is often possible to employ, in such a case, two four-element relays with 1:1 pulse ratios, the 383
outputs of which are combined on a two-element relay again with a 1:1 pulse ratio. In this manner,
pulse values at the receiver can be kept at the same values as when initiated.

SPECIAL METERING
Totalization Through Translation
The use of recorded meter interval data provides a very flexible and popular method of totalization. It
requires that interval meter data be recorded and gathered from the meters into a computer system
(sometimes called a translation system or translator). This form of totalization requires no additional
hardware at the meter sites other than whatever communications equipment might be needed to
retrieve the interval data. It does not require the matching of current transformer ratios or service
voltages or careful manipulation of pulse multipliers, all of which are necessary with some other
methods of totalization. It also does not impose any physical proximity requirements on the meters or
services that are to be totalized. The meters can be located many miles apart, even at opposite corners
of a utility’s service territory.
The actual process of totalizing occurs after the fact using the meter interval data sets that are
retrieved and stored on the computer.
Energy—to determine totalized energy, the computer simply combines* the energies from each
meter source for the desired period.
Demand—to determine coincident demand, the computer combines* the individual consump-
tion value from each meter set, interval by interval, for the desired period to create a new
combined interval set. It then scans this new data set to select the peak or other desired value.
By its nature, this process does not make available any totalized values at the meter sites. This can
be a disadvantage in situations where totalized values are required by the customer. In these cases,
some other method must be used to provide totalized data to the customer, either in addition to or
instead of the interval data totalization method.

METERING TIME-CONTROLLED LOADS

Certain customer loads lend themselves to load control applications where interruption of the load at
certain times of usage (TOU) can benefit all customers in the management of the overall utility sys-
tem peak load. For the customer participation (voluntary or mandatory), there is typically a financial
benefit and/or incentive for participation during peak periods when the cost of generation is usually at
its highest. Modern day meters can, in many cases, be equipped with multiple TOU registers, multi-
channel interval data recording, pulse output, radio frequency communication, and internal load
service switches, to name a few, which the utility may use to offer various rate options for customer
load control applications. Water heater loads, air conditioning, and special industrial loads especially
lend themselves to load control applications.
Water Heater Loads
Today’s modern self-contained Form 2s meter can be equipped with a service switch as an integral part
of the meter. While used primarily for turning customers on and/or off, this service switch application
can also be used for water heater load control. The application would only apply for separately metered
services where the load on the service is isolated to the water heater. With typically 80 gallons of
storage capacity in the hot water tank, interruption of service for short periods (a few hours) during
high cost of generation periods can have a significant impact in reducing the overall utility system
peak load. Usually, the water tank has ample hot water storage capability so the customer is unaffected
while also enjoying the benefit of a reduced kilowatt hour charge for this load control application.
The service switch in the meter can be turned on or off by the smart metering infrastructure control
system to coincide with system peaking characteristics.

*Combining data: While the most common form of totalizing involves adding data from two constituent meters,
there can also be applications in which the data from one meter are subtracted from those of a second meter. Of
course, if more than two meters are involved in the totalization, the combinations can become more complex.
 384 Air Conditioning Loads
Like water heating loads, air conditioning loads also lend themselves to utility load control applica-
tions when interrupted for short durations so as not to adversely affect customers during times of high
cost of generation and/or system peaking.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Special Industrial Load Interruptible Contracts

Many large commercial and industrial customers also have loads that can be interrupted occasionally
for short durations as a means of managing the overall utility peak load. In exchange for permit-
ting a targeted load to be controlled during times of system peak, utilities usually provide a financial
incentive to the customer for participating in these types of special contracts. One example of a load
that could be interrupted for a short duration would be a ski area snow-making load. The ski lift and
lodging load would continue to service customers while the snow-making load could be reduced. The
smart meter messaging function could be used to signal the customer of the system peak curtailment
event and the interval recording of the smart meter would be used, after the event, to verify that the
customer complied with the specific load control response spelled out in the interruptible contract.
 Chapter 17

Meter Reading

FOR THE PAST 20 years, the process of reading of electric meters has changed more than it has in the
history of electric distribution. With the evolution of Automated Meter Reading (AMR) and the devel-
opment of the Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) and smart meters, meter reading has been
increasingly automated and done remotely. The meter reading technology revolution will bring its own
challenges as more functionality of the meter system will require additional data and communications
with the utility smart grid. One fundamental will not change, and that is the requirement for accuracy
and timeliness in reading the metering systems. During this transition phase, the need still exists to
read meters manually and remotely.
The accurate reading of meters is an operation of major importance for any electric utility com-
pany, not only from a revenue standpoint but also in the promotion of strong customer relationships.
In the manual reading of meters, the meter reader makes many personal contacts with customers
and is often the only utility employee seen by the customer. With this in mind, most electrical utility
companies choose, for their meter reading personnel, employees who are conscientious and have the
natural attributes of friendliness and courtesy as well as a neat appearance.
A meter reader’s initial training course usually includes the fundamentals of good public relations,
familiarization with the types of metering equipment likely to be encountered, and thorough explana-
tions of the terms used in customer billing. It is important that meter readers be familiar enough with
their company’s organizational structure to be able to channel a customer’s requests and questions to
the proper departments.
Meter reading is carried out under a carefully planned program, and meter routes are arranged in
proper reading order. Readings are taken on a pre-arranged schedule to make the billing cycle practica-
ble and to provide an even flow of work for other operations, such as billing, auditing, and collecting.
To prevent undue annoyance to customers and to expedite the work, meter-reading records usually
contain notations showing the exact locations of meters, means of access, keys needed (if applicable),
and notes of any unusual conditions, such as physical hazards and/or dangerous pets.
If it is necessary to enter a customer’s premise, it is a good practice for readers to announce
themselves courteously and to produce proper identification when requested. Meter readers can be of
considerable help to the company in reporting irregularities, such as changes in customers, meters
without a reading record, vacant buildings, stopped meters, unsealed meters, unmetered service,
and any other condition that might adversely affect customer billing, safety, or the quality of service
rendered.
The principal duty of a meter reader is to obtain the meter readings and to make certain that these
readings are entered on the correct reading records by verifying addresses and meter numbers. A good
meter reader will enter the readings on mark sense cards or meter reading sheets in a clear, precise,
and legible manner.

385
 386 How to Read a Watthour Meter and Electromechanical Meters
There are three styles of mechanical kilowatthour meter register types in general use. One has indi-
vidual dial circles as shown in Figure 17-1, another has interlocking dial circles as shown in Figure
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

17-2, and a third style of register uses cyclometer-type dials.

Registers with dial circles have either four or five dials. Five dials are provided to avoid a dial
multiplier of 10 and the possibility of a register turn-over during the normal billing period. Adjacent
pointers rotate in opposite directions and are geared for travel so that the pointer on the right will
make one complete revolution while the one next to it on the left makes one-tenth of a revolution.
When a pointer is between two figures, the smaller figure is the one to use for the reading.
A watthour meter is read from right to left by reading all dials and recording the reading on a
meter reading form in this same sequence. The reason for reading the dials from right to left is that
the right-hand dial governs the one to its left. With all pointers at zero and a dial multiplier of one,
one clockwise revolution of the unit’s dial pointer will indicate a reading of 10 kilowatt hours on the
register. A complete counterclockwise revolution of the 10’s dial pointer will indicate a reading of
100 kilowatt hours on the register, and so on. When reading the dials the procedure is analogous to
reading ones, 10s, 100s, and 1,000s.
Each pointer must complete a revolution to advance the pointer located to its left by one division.
Therefore, to correctly determine the reading of a pointer, the previous pointer (located to the right)
must be consulted. Unless this pointer has completed a revolution by reaching or passing zero, the
pointer in question has not completed the division on which it may appear to rest. Reading the meter
from right to left increases both accuracy and efficiency. Figures 17-3 and 17-4 show examples of
typical watthour meter readings.
To obtain the use in kilowatthours over a designated period of time, subtract the previous read-
ing from the present reading. When the dial multiplier is one, the difference will be the number of
kilowatthours consumed between the two readings. When the dial multiplier is a number other than
one, the difference between the readings must be multiplied by the given dial multiplier to obtain the
kilowatthours consumed. Dial multipliers of one generally are not shown, but those other than one
are shown on the dial faces.
Double- or two-rate registers employ two sets of dials and two complete register mechanisms that
are automatically switched into gear with the moving element shaft at predetermined times. These
two-rate registers are generally used in conjunction with off-peak water heating rates.

REGISTER CONSTANTS
The register constant is also known as the dial constant, dial multiplier, or reading multiplier. It
represents the factor by which the register reading is multiplied to obtain the total registration.

Figure 17-1. Conventional Five-Pointer Kilowatthour Dial.

 Each disk revolution represents a 387
definite value of the units being mea-
sured. The register gearing converts these
disk revolutions into the units used

METER READING
for customer billing. For small capacity
domestic meters, the register commonly
reacts directly in the billing units.
Changing the gearing between
the dial pointers and the disk shaft
introduces a constant. If the value of
this gearing is doubled, the speed of the
register pointers is halved and the read-
ing must be multiplied by two to obtain
the true value.
On modern high-capacity meters,
particularly with bi-monthly billing,
a four-dial register may not have the Figure 17-2. Conventional Four-Pointer Kilowatthour Dial
capacity to indicate the customer’s with Overlapping Circles.
consumption during the billing period
and the register may turn over. This
difficulty can usually be avoided by increasing the capacity of the register.
One way to increase register capacity is to add an extra dial at the left of the four dials commonly
used. This means that the capacity of the register is increased ten-fold and, instead of a maximum
reading of 9,999 kilowatthours, there is a maximum reading of 99,999 kilowatthours. Another solu-
tion is to change the register ratio or gearing and introduce a multiplying factor or constant of ten. In
this way, the capacity of the register is changed from 9,999 kilowatthours to 99,999 kilowatthours.
Many factors enter into the decision as to which method is used. Among these factors are the pro-
cedures and billing machines used by the billing group and whether they require major modification
to accept five-digit readings. On the other hand, constants other than one must be carefully controlled
and checked if errors are to be avoided.
Register constants are also introduced when meters are supplied from instrument transformers. If
the meters are supplied for use with instrument transformers of specified ratios, the register constant
is a multiple of ten, i.e., 10, 100, 1,000, etc. If transformer-rated meters are not supplied for specified
transformers, the register will read directly for the meter alone (considered as self-contained) and the
register constant will be the current-transformer ratio or the product of the ratios of the current and
potential transformers when both are used.
Meter manufacturers have recently made available demand registers with a scale and gear shifting
design that provides full-scale deflection at 50% and 100% of meter capacity. These registers provide
flexibility for future load growth with better reading accuracy at smaller loads.

Figure 17-3. Kilowatthour Register Showing Figure 17-4. Kilowatthour Register Showing
Reading of 0562. Reading of 2198.
 388 Meters With Electronic Displays
Electronic meters or electromechanical meters with electronic registers use digital displays to indicate
power readings and other information. The display can show a series of readings, automatically step-
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

ping through each parameter at a programmed rate, five or ten seconds per step. This allows the meter
reader to record each reading by writing it on a meter card or by keying it into a handheld terminal.
In addition to measured values, the display can show time and date and perform an all-segments test
(Figure 17-5) to verify the proper operation of all display elements. Some electronic registers display
prompts such as “01” or “02” (Figure 17-6), which identify the parameters being displayed.

Demand Meters
Demand readings are usually measured in kilowatts, kilovoltamperes, or kiloVARs, with the quantity
measured being indicated on the dial face, the nameplate of the instrument, or an icon/identifier on
the electronic display. The demand device may be incorporated within a watthour meter or associated
with an auxiliary demand device connected to the meter. Demand readings consist of two types—­
indicating or recording.

INDICATING DEMAND METERS

Indicating demand meter mechanical registers consist of four basic types.
Sweephand Type of Pointer (Mechanical-Type Register)
How to Read—The position of the sweephand is read and the pointer reset to zero. A register of this
type is shown in Figure 17-7. The maximum demand is determined by the position of the pointer
on the scale in a manner similar to reading a voltmeter or a speedometer. The value of the smallest
subdivision on the scale may be determined by dividing the first numeral by the number of divisions
between this numeral and zero. When the number of subdivisions between the marked or numbered
divisions is 10, the reading of the pointer is the value of the marked division, plus the value of the
subdivisions, which are expressed in tenths of the major division. The demand value shown in Figure
17-7 is 1.45 kilowatts. Figure 17-8 shows four demand scales with different subdivision values.
How to Reset—This mechanical type of register has a clutch in the advancing mechanism and
therefore both the indicating pointer and the pusher finger may be returned to zero by a counter-
clockwise movement of the reset knob. The wire reset should not override the pointer, as the resulting
spring action may cause a false demand indication.

Figure 17-5. Electronic Display, All-Segments Tests. Figure 17-6. Electronic Display, with Prompts.
 389

METER READING
Figure 17-7. Watthour Demand Register, Indicating Type.

Sweephand Type of Pointer Showing Maximum Demand, Plus a Sweephand Pusher Pointer,
Showing Current Demand (Thermal-Type Register)
How to Read—The maximum demand is read in the same manner as the mechanical-type register.
How to Reset—Unlike the mechanical register, the pusher pointer is not driven by a clutch in the
thermal-type register, but is directly attached to the moving element and must not be forced back to
zero. Therefore, it is customary to record the position of the maximum pointer, and then to reset the
maximum pointer back to, or slightly depressed beyond, the indication of the pusher pointer.

Figure 17-8. Watthour Demand Scales Showing Various Subdivision Values.

 390 Dial Type of Pointers (or Cyclometer) Showing Cumulative Readings
How to Read—In addition to four or five kilowatthour dials, this type of register features four similar
dials at the bottom for registering maximum demand. These demand dials are read in the same man-
ner as the kilowatthour dials. To obtain a maximum-demand reading from this device, it is necessary
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

to operate a mechanism attached to the meter cover. The kilowatt demand for the billing period is
then automatically added to these dials and a record is made of the new readings. The dial pointers
are stationary between reading periods. A solid black index line equal in height to the demand dials is
used to denote the decimal point.
How to Reset—When resetting cumulative demand registers, which are motor operated, the reset
plunger must be firmly pushed against the reset knob until the knob starts to rotate. The plunger
should not be held against the knob for the completion of the accumulation because this may jam the
register. For a meter equipped with a reset lock device, the key is inserted, turned to the left one-eighth
of a turn and pushed forward, causing the plunger on the lock to push against the reset knob. When
the knob starts to rotate, the pressure on the key should be released and rotated back one-eighth of a
turn to its normal position and the key removed.
Dial-Type Pointers (Non-Cumulative)
How to Read—This register has three demand dials similar in appearance to the kilo­watthour dials
(Figure 17-9). These dials are located at the bottom of the register and are read in the same manner as
the kilowatthour dials. The pointers are reset to zero after each reading. A solid black index line equal
in height to the demand dials is used to denote the decimal point.
How to Reset—The dial pointers are reset to zero by turning the reset lever approximately one-
fourth of a turn in a counterclockwise direction; then the lever is returned to its normal position.

ELECTRONIC DEMAND REGISTER METER

Electronic meters or electromechanical meters equipped with electronic registers are capable of display-
ing peak and present power demand. Information is presented on the electronic display in various
formats and sequences. Reset of the peak demands is accomplished using a lever or pushbutton
techniques depending on the device type.

Figure 17-9. Watthour Demand Register, Non-Cumulative Dial Type.

SEALING 391
Following the operation of a reset device or operating mechanism, it is necessary that the device be
sealed or locked and that it remains so until the next reading. Some companies require that old seals

METER READING
be returned for their salvage value and/or in the interest of cleanliness and safety at the customer’s
premise.

RECORDING DEMAND DEVICES

Recording demand devices may consist of older mechanical chart recorders or newer microprocessor
based solid-state memory devices. Recording chart and magnetic tape devices have been replaced by
solid-state recorders. They can be integral to the meter or a separate auxiliary unit.

Automatic Retrieval of Data From Solid-State Recorders

New technology enables the retrieval of information electronically from certain solid-state recorders
using both wired and wireless communication networks. If the recorder has a modem and is con-
nected to a communications network, e.g., radio frequency (RF), telephone, cellular, cellular digital
packet data (CDPD), ARDIS, etc., the recorder can connect with the central office periodically and
transmit the data it has stored. If the recorder does not have a modem or network connection, a
portable computer can be taken to the site to collect the information in the field.
Some solid-state recorders have an optical port for transmitting readings through an optical probe
to a portable computer or handheld device.
When this data is returned to the central office, it can be processed using software provided by
the recorder manufacturer or by general meter reading software developed for processing data from a
variety of recorders.

Remote Meter Reading

The use of electronic devices within meters or fully solid-state meters opens up new options for
accurately retrieving larger volumes of data from meters. A wide variety of methods and technologies
for automating the meter reading process have been developed, tested, and deployed.
Electronic meters and smart meters also have the ability to record a wide variety of consump-
tion information. Electronic meters can measure consumption by time-of-use (TOU), record peak
consumption values, and collect load survey data. New meter reading technologies also make it easier
for the utility to automatically collect all types of data in a much more accurate, efficient, and reliable
manner.
To eliminate meter access problems and data entry errors while improving overall meter reading
efficiency, many utilities are implementing AMR technology or an AMI. These new remote technolo-
gies enable utilities to collect meter data without having to visit the meter. Nationwide, an increasing
number of electric, gas, and water utilities are installing these remote data collection technologies.

MIGRATION FROM MANUAL METER READING TO AMR AND AMI

As with the conversion of recording demand devices from magnetic tape and mechanical end-points
to solid-state recorders, the migration from purely manual meter reading to AMR and AMI has been
stimulated by the following events:
1. The widespread use of handheld data terminals within meter reading
2. The introduction of solid-state components into the mechanical meter and the subsequent
move to fully solid-state meters
3. The availability of additional categories of data
4. The development of mobile data monitoring application (MDMA) platforms
5. The availability of more robust networks and capabilities
6. The development of two-way communication systems

AUTOMATED METER READING

Utilities have had a wide choice of AMR technologies. The drivers moving utilities toward automation
are many, though AMR technology primarily enables utilities to collect meter data without having to
visit the meter.
 392 The various technologies available include wired and wireless collection systems that use both
public and private communication networks, including power line carrier, broadband, cellular, and
satellite. For some systems, the data collection terminals are driven out to the vicinity of the meters to
be read, where they can collect readings from large numbers of meters via a low powered radio trans-
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

mitter. In other processes, there is either a one- or two-way connection from the office to the meter,
allowing the meter to be read upon request at any time.

ADVANCED METERING INFRASTRUCTURE

Describing AMI strictly in terms of its meter reading capabilities, AMI is the evolution of AMR.
Whereas AMR can be adapted to an electromechanical meter to retrieve the billing register data,
AMI requires a fully solid-state meter platform that can be programmed to provide load profile data,
alarm data, and real-time monitoring. AMI communications are also more extensive, requiring a fixed
network to support a secured two-way communication system. Additionally, AMI systems can support
remote switches, communications to home area networks (HANs), and distribution devices in a highly
secured manner.
 Chapter 18

Meter Wiring Diagrams

THIS CHAPTER IS intended to provide the user with a reference to how to apply various different
meter forms to some of the more common wiring applications a user may encounter. This chapter
also provides precautions to be aware of when applying a specific form meter into an application
which does not meet Blondel’s Theorem.

Chapter Contents
Table Figure Page

Symbols 18-1 394

Attributes of Socket Form Designations 18-1 395
Attributes of Bottom Connected Form Designations 18-2 396
Internal Connections of Single-Phase Socket Meters 18-2 399
Internal Connections of 2-Element Polyphase Self-Contained Socket Meters 18-3 400
Internal Connections of 3-Element Polyphase Self-Contained Socket Meters 18-4 401
Internal Connections of 2-Element Polyphase Transformer-Rated Socket Meters (3-wire) 18-5 402
Internal Connections of 2-Element Polyphase Transformer-Rated Socket Meters
(4-wire delta) 18-6 403
Internal Connections of 2-Element Polyphase Transformer-Rated Socket Meters
(4-wire wye) 18-7 404
Internal Connections of 3-Element Polyphase Transformer-Rated Socket Meters 18-8 405
Internal Connections of Single-Phase Bottom-Connected Meters 18-9 406
Internal Connections of Self Contained 2-Element Bottom-Connected Meters 18-10 407
Internal Connections of Self Contained 3-Element Bottom-Connected Meters 18-11 408
Internal Connections of Transformer Rated 2-Element Bottom-Connected Meters 18-12 409
Internal Connections of Transformer Rated 2-Element Bottom-Connected Meters 18-13 410
Internal Connections of Transformer Rated 3-Element Bottom-Connected Meters 18-14 411
Application of Meters 18-3 397
Phasor Diagrams 18-4 398
Single-Phase Two-Wire Circuit (Form 3S Meter) 18-15 412
Single-Phase Three-Wire Circuit (Form 4S Meter) 18-16 413
Single-Phase Three-Wire Circuit (Form 3S Meter) 18-17 414
Three-Wire Network Circuit (Form 5S Meter) 18-18 415
Three-Phase Three-Wire Delta Circuit (Form 12S Meter) 18-19 416
Three-Phase Three-Wire Delta Circuit (Form 5A Meter) 18-20 417
Three-Phase Three-Wire Delta Circuit (Form 45S Meter) 18-21 418
Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Circuit (Form 36S Meter) 18-22 419
Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Circuit (Form 9S Meter) 18-23 420

393
 394 Three-Phase Four-Wire Wye Circuit (Form 45S Meter) 18-24 421
Three-Phase Four-Wire Delta Circuit (Form 16S Meter) 18-25 422
Three-Phase Four-Wire Delta Circuit (Form 8S Meter) 18-26 423
A Simple Approach to the Analysis of Non-Blondel Metering Applications 424
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Chapter Conclusion 434

Symbols used in this chapter are in accordance with American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Y32.2 except where none are listed (see Figure 18-1).

Current Coil Current Link Voltage Coil Voltage Link

Polarity Marks

Resistor

Two-Wire Three-Wire Window-Type Voltage Transformer

Current Transformers
Reactor

Test Switch Components

Ground
Link Terminal
Voltage Current Ground Self-Contained Phase Sequence
Switch Switch Strap Connection Block Indicator

Figure 18-1. Symbols.

Table 18-1. Attributes of Socket Form Designations. 395

Form Current Voltage External Self-Cont. or

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Designation Elements Circuits Circuit Circuit Trans Rated1 Figure

1S 1 1 1 2-Wire SC 18-2
2S 1 2 1 3-Wire SC 18-2
3S 1 1 1 2-Wire TR 18-2
4S 1 2 1 3-Wire TR 18-2
5S 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-5
6S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7
7S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7
8S 2 3 2 4-Wire Delta TR 18-6
9S 3 3 3 4-Wire TR 18-8
10S 3 3 3 4-Wire TR 18-8
11S 3 3 3 4-Wire Delta TR 18-8
18S 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-3
13S 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-3
14S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye SC 18-3
15S 2 3 2 4-Wire Delta SC 18-3
16S 3 3 3 4-Wire SC 18-4
17S 3 3 3 4-Wire Delta SC 18-4
24S 2 3 2 4-Wire Delta TR 18-6
25S 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-3
26S 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-5
29S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7
32S 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-3
35S 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-5
36S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7
39S 3 4 3 4-Wire TR 18-8
45S 2 2 3 3-Wire TR 18-5
46S 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7
56S 2 2 3 3-Wire TR 18-5
66S 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-5
76S 2 4 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-7

While ANSI Form Designation does not specify TR or SC, the most common case is shown for clarity.
 396 Table 18-2. Attributes of Bottom Connected Form Designations.

Form Current Voltage External Self-Cont. or

HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Designation Elements Circuits Circuit Circuit Trans Rated Figure

1A 1 1 1 2-Wire SC 18-9
2A 1 2 1 3-Wire SC 18-9
3A 1 1 1 2-Wire TR 18-9
4A 1 2 1 3-Wire TR 18-9
5A 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-18
6A 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-13
8A 2 3 2 4-Wire Delta TR 18-18
9A 3 3 3 4-Wire TR 18-14
10A 3 3 3 4-Wire TR 18-14
11A 3 3 3 4-Wire Delta TR 18-14
18A 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-10
13A 2 2 2 3-Wire SC 18-10
14A 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye SC 18-10
15A 2 3 2 4-Wire Delta SC 18-10
16A 3 3 3 4-Wire SC 18-11
17A 3 3 3 4-Wire Delta SC 18-11
18A 2 4 2 5-Wire SC 18-11
29A 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-13
35A 2 2 2 3-Wire TR 18-18
36A 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-13
45A 2 2 3 3-Wire TR 18-18
46A 2 3 2 4-Wire Wye TR 18-13
48A 3 3 3 4-Wire TR 18-14

Application of Meters
Electromechanical meters and some solid-state meters are built with potential coils or potential
transformers. These meters may have limits on the voltages that a voltage coil can reliably measure.
More recent meters support a wide voltage range. These meters may have different voltages applied to
different voltage coils.
For example, modern FM 9 or FM16 meters may be applied to either 4-wire wye or 4-wire delta
services. This flexibility may not be present in earlier meter designs.
Switch board and panel meters are not covered by ANSI C12.10. Some manufacturers have marked
these meters with a form designation to represent the electrical connection of the meter; these nota-
tions may appear as “FM __” or “FM __Z.” The reference is generally to the equivalent socket meter
electrical connection.
Table 18-3 provides the power calculations and noted precautions when applying various form
meters for a given service application This table also lists some of the possible meter configurations for
given applications. The power formulas in Table 18-3 reference the phasor diagrams in Table 18-4.
Table 18-3. Application of Meters. 397

Meter Power Formula of

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Application Forms Meter Measurement Precautions/Notes

3-Phase 5, 45 Van * (Ia cos θa 2 Ib cos θb) 1 Vcn * Assumes balanced voltages on all
4-Wire Wye (Ic cos θc 2 Ib cos θb) 3 phases / Ib has to be reversed and
combined outside the meter
6, 7, 14, 29 Van * (Ia cos θa 1 Ib cos θb) 1 Vcn * Assumes balanced voltages on all
(Ic cos θc 1 Ib cos θb) 3 phases
46 Van * Ia cos θa 2 Van * Ib cos θb 1 Assumes balanced voltages on all
Vcn * Ic cos θc 2 Vcn * Ib cos θb 3 phases / Voltage polarities are
reversed in the meter for Ib
9, 10, 16, 39 Van * Ia cos θa 1 Vbn *Ib cos θb 1 Satisfies Blondel's Theorem
Vcn * Ic cos θc

3-Phase 5, 12, 13, 25, Vab * Ia cos (θa 1 30) 1 Vcb * Satisfies Blondel's Theorem
3-Wire Delta 26, 32, 35, 45, Ic cos (θc 2 30)
56, 66

3-Phase 8, 15, 24 Vab /2 * [Ia cos (θa 2 30) 1 Ib Assumes all 3-phase voltages are
4-Wire Delta cos (θb 1 30)] 1 Vcn * Ic cos θc balanced / Vcn 5 SQRT(Vcb² 2 Vbn²)
Van 5 Vbn 5 Vab /2

11, 17 Van * Ia cos (θa 2 30) 1 Vbn * Ib Van 5 Vab /2; Vbn 5 Vab /2;
cos (θb 1 30) 1 Vcn * Ic cos θc Vcn 5 SQRT(Vcb² 2 Vbn²)
Satisfies Blondel's Theorem
5, 26, 45, 56 Van * [Ia cos (θ 2 30) 2 Ib Assumes Van and Vbn voltages are
cos (θ 1 30)] 1 Vcn * Ic cos θc balanced / Ib has to be reversed and
combined outside the meter
Vcn 5 SQRT(Vcb² 2 Vbn²)
Van 5 Vbn 5 Vab /2

2-Phase 5, 12, 13, 25, Van * Ia cos θa 1 Vcn * Ic cos θc Voltage across line side terminals is 208
3-Wire Network 26, 32, 35, 45, volts. Satisfies Blondel's Theorem
56, 66

1-Phase 2, 4 Vac * (Ia cos θa 2 Ic cos θc ) Assumes Van 5 Vcn 5 Vac /2

3-Wire
3 Vac * (Ia cos θa 2 Ic cos θc ) Assumes Van 5 Vcn 5 Vac /2
Ic has to be reversed and combined
with Ia outside the meter
5, 12, 13, 26, Van * Ia cos θa 1 Vcn * Ic cos θc Satisfies Blondel's Theorem
35, 45, 56, 66

1-Phase 2-Wire 1, 3 Van * Ia cos θa Satisfies Blondel's Theorem

 398 Table 18-4. Phasor Diagrams.
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

3-Phase, 4-Wire Wye 3-Phase, 4-Wire Delta

Vcn
C

Ic

Ia B A Vcn
Van N

Ib

Ic

Vbn Vbn Van

θb θa
N
Ib Ia
ABC Phase Sequence (CCW rotation)
CBA Phase Sequence (CW rotation)
ABC Phase Sequence (CCW rotation)
CBA Phase Sequence (CW rotation)

3-Phase, 3-Wire Delta 3-Wire Network

Ic Vcn
θc
Vcb
θa

Ic
Ia Vab
Van
N Ia
ABC Phase Sequence (CCW rotation)
CBA Phase Sequence (CW rotation) ABC Phase Sequence (CCW rotation)
CBA Phase Sequence (CW rotation)

Single-Phase, 3-Wire Single-Phase, 2-Wire

Vac Van N
Van Vcn Ia
Ia N Ic
 399
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Figure 18-2. Single Phase.
 400
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 18-3. Polyphase Self-Contained—2-Elements.

 401
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Figure 18-4. Polyphase Self-Contained—3-Elements.
 402
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 5S Form 26S

2-Element, 3-Wire 2-Element, 3-Wire

Form 35S Form 45S

2-Element, 3-Wire 2-Element, 3-Wire

Form 56S Form 66S

2-Element, 3-Wire 2-Element, 3-Wire

Figure 18-5. Polyphase Transformer-Rated—2-Element.

 403
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Figure 18-6. Polyphase Transformer-Rated—2-Element, 4-Wire Delta Services.
 404
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 18-7. Polyphase Transformer Rated—2-Element, 4-Wire Wye Services.

 405
Internal Connections of Socket Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 9S Form 10S
3-Element, 4-Wire 3-Element, 4-Wire

Form 11S Form 39S

3-Element, 4-Wire Delta 3-Element, 4-Wire
with Neutral Current Sensor

Figure 18-8. Polyphase Transformer Rated—3-Element, 4-Wire Services.

 406
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 1A Form 2A
Single-Phase, Self-Contained 2-Wire Single Phase, Self-Contained 3-Wire
Single-Phase,

Form 3A Form 4A
Single-Phase, Transformer Rated 2-Wire Single-Phase, Transformer Rated 3-Wire

Figure 18-9. Single Phase.

 407
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 13A Form 14A
2-Element, 3-Wire 2-Element, 4-Wire Wye

Form 15A Form 18A

2-Element,4-Wire Delta 2-Element, 5-Wire

Figure 18-10. Self-Contained 2-Element Meters.

 408
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 16A Form 17A

3-Element, 4-Wire 3-Element, 4-Wire Delta

Figure 18-11. Self-Contained 3-Element Meters.

 409
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Figure 18-12. Transformer-Rated, 2-Element Meters, 3-Wire and 4-Wire Delta.
 410
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 18-13. Transformer-Rated, 2-Element Meters, 4-Wire Wye.

 411
Internal Connections of A Base Meters
Front Views

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Figure 18-14. Transformer-Rated, 3-Element Meters.
 412
Single-Phase, Two-Wire Circuit
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 3S
120 Volt One-Element
Two-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-15. Current and Voltage Transformers.

 413
Single-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 4S
240 Volt One-Element
Three-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-16. Current Transformers.

 414
Single-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 3S
240 Volt One-Element
Two-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-17. One Window Type Current Transformers.

 415

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 5S
120–480 Volt
Two-Element
Three-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-18. Three-Wire Network Circuit.

 416
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 12S
120–480 Volt
Two-Element
Three-Wire
Self-Contained
Socket Meter

Figure 18-19. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Circuit.

 417

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 5A
120 Volt Two-Element
Three-Wire
Transformer-Rated
A Base Meter

Figure 18-20. Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Circuit.

 418
Three-Phase, Three-Wire Delta Circuit
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 45S
120–480 Volt
Two-Element
Three-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter
With Current
Transformers

Figure 18-21. Current Transformers.

 419
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Circuit

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 36S
120 Volt Two-Element
Four-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-22. Current and Voltage Transformers.

 420
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Circuit
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 9S
120 Volt Three-Element
Four-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-23. Current and Voltage Transformers and Typical Test Switch.
 421
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Wye Circuit

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 45S
120 Volt Two-Element
Three-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-24. Two Window Type Current Transformers.

 422
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Circuit
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Form 16S
240 Volt Three-Element
Four-Wire
Self-Contained
Socket Meter

Figure 18-25. Self-Contained.

 423
Three-Phase, Four-Wire Delta Circuit

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Form 8S
120–480 Volt
Two-Element
Four-Wire
Transformer-Rated
Socket Meter

Figure 18-26. Current Transformers.

 424
The following section is an excerpt from a book written by William H. Hardy, Power Measurement
Handbook (Copyright 2013), which was provided by Dr. Hardy as a contribution to the 11th edition of
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

the Handbook for Electricity Metering. This section of Dr. Hardy’s book provides a useful explanation of
how to derive potential measurement errors when applying meter forms in applications which do not
satisfy Blondel’s Theorem.

A Simple Approach to the

Analysis of Non-Blondel Metering Applications
WILLIAM H. HARDY, PHD
Power Measurements, Gainesville, VA 20155
www.PowerMeasurements.com
April 30, 2013

Introduction
In North America a number of non-Blondel metering applications are very common. In fact
the most common metering scenario, the use of 2S meters to meter residential customers, is a non-
Blondel application. There is currently a movement to allow form 2S meters to be included under the
high accuracy metering standard, C12.20. Certainly 2S meters can be built which meet a 0.5% accu-
racy specification under balanced conditions. The question is what errors can we expect simply because
the meter does not meet the requirements of Blondel’s Theorem.
In addition to the residential 2S application there are a number of non-Blondel metering forms
used in commercial metering, and even more Blondel forms which are used in non-Blondel applica-
tions through creative use of PTs and CTs. In these commercial applications we may have an accuracy
class 0.2 meter used in an application where the “application dependent” errors are more than an
order of magnitude larger.
The various non-Blondel applications can be grouped by service type. There are five very common
configurations. Table 1 summarizes these applications.

The Single-Phase 2S Application

Line A Line B Neutral There are more form 2S meters than all other
meter forms combined, so this application
will be dealt with in detail. The form 2S meter
eliminates a voltage measurement input and
neutral connection that it would need in order
Vab to conform to Blondel’s Theorem. This cost
saving short cut introduces assumptions into
the measurement because we are no longer
measuring all of the necessary parameters. It
Ia Ib does its energy measurements by using half of
the measured line to line voltage as the input
voltage for each phase. The question: Is this
reasonable in the typical residential installation?

The Details of a 2S Meter

Figure 1 shows the internal wiring of a 2S
meter. The four connection blades have been
labeled 1, 2, 3 and 4 per ANSI C12.10. The
meters single voltage input is connected
Load A Load B Neutral
between blades 1 and 3. The meters two current
sensors are located between blades 1 and 2 and
Figure 1. 2S Meter Internals. between blades 3 and 4.
Table 1. Common Non-Blondel Applications. 425

Power Blondel Power as Metered

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Group Application (Vector Notation) (Vector Notation)
→ → → → → → →
1 Single Phase (1V 2I) P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib P 5 0.5 * Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib )
2S, 4S
Internal circuitry does current
differencing.
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
2 4-Wire Wye (2V 2I) (2PT 3CT) P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic P 5 Van ? (Ia 2 Ib ) 1 Vcn ? (Ic 2 Ib )
5S, 26S, 45S, 66S
External CTs do current differencing.
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
3 4-Wire Wye (2V 3I) (2PT 3CT) P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic P 5 Van ? (Ia 2 Ib ) 1 Vcn ? (Ic 2 Ib )
6S, 7S, 14S, 29S, 36S, 46S
Internal circuitry does current
differencing.
→ → → → → → → → → → →
4 4-Wire Delta 5S, 45S P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic P 5 Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib ) 1 2 * Vcn ? Ic
(2V 2I) (2CT 2PT) Meter measures 23 actual
Uses external CTs to do current unless CT Ratio set to ½ actual
differencing.
→ → → → → → → → → → →
5 4-Wire Delta (2V 3I) (3CT 2PT) P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic P 5 0.5 * Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib ) 1 Vc ? Ic
8S, 15S, 24S
Internal circuitry does current
differencing.

In Figure 2 we see the form 2S meter installed in a typical residential 3-wire single-phase instal-
lation. The secondary side of the supply transformer is shown on the left. The secondary has a center
tap which is the Neutral conductor, N. This conductor is connected to the local earth ground. The
start and finish of this secondary winding have voltages Van and Vbn with respect to the Neutral. The
voltages Van and Vbn are connected to the meter blades 1 and 3 as shown. Under balanced voltage
conditions Van and Vbn are equal in magnitude and the angle between them is exactly 180°.

Figure 2. 2S Meter Application Schematic.

 426 A Vector Approach to Power Computation
When we calculate power based on trigonometric functions, our calculation sounds simple:
Power 5 VIcos(θ)   where θ is the angle between the voltage and current 1.0
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

The challenge comes in calculating θ when the voltage and current appear at arbitrary angles. There is
a different and simpler approach available by couching the problem in a different way. This “vector”
approach is easier to apply and compute in more complex applications, AND provides a natural exten-
sion to the computation of → VA and→VAR.
If you have two vectors V and I then the dot product of the two vectors is:
→ →
V ? I 5 VIcos(θ) 5 Vx * Ix 1 Vy * Iy 2.0
By using the Cartesian representation in our calculations, the formulization becomes very straight
forward. All we need to remember is that:
Vx 5 Vcos(φv)  Vy 5 Vsin(φv) 3.0
To calculate the power for a voltage V at a phase φv and a current I at a phase φI we have:
Power 5 VIcos(φv 2 φI) 5 Vcos(φv) * Icos(φI) 1 Vsin(φv) * Isin(φI) 5
Vx * I x 1 V y * I y 4.0
Now consider the issue of measuring power in a typical residential three-wire system. This can be
done with a Blondel compliant approach using a 12S or 25S meter, or in a non-Blondel method using
a 2S or 4S meter. The question is, what are the inherent inaccuracies with the non-Blondel approach?
Are the inherent errors significant in normal operation?

Analysis of 12S and 2S Metering of a Three-Wire Single-Phase Application

If we metered the application in a Blondel compliant manner using a 12S meter, then the power
would be:
→ → → →
P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 5 Vanx * Iax 1 Vany * Iay 1 Vbnx * Ibx 1 Vbny * Iby 5.1
This is the vector dot product of the voltage and current phasors.
In a 2S meter we measure
→ → →
P 5 0.5 * Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib) 5 0.5 * (Vanx 2 Vbnx) * (Iax 2 Ibx) 1
0.5 * (Vany 2 Vbny) * (Iay 2 Iby) 5.2
Regrouping the terms we get
P 5 0.5 * {[Vanx * Iax 1 Vbnx * Ibx 1 Vany * Iay 1 Vbny * Iby] 2
[Vanx * Ibx 1 Vbnx * Iax 1 Vany * Iby 1 Vbny * Iay]} 5.3

Blondel Meter Non-Blondel 2S Meter General Case

Va and Vb are equal and Only Vab is measured. Unbalanced Voltages

opposite and loads balanced and Currents
under ideal conditions.

Figure 3. Single-Phase, 3-Wire Vector Diagrams

 The first term in square brackets [] is exactly the same as if we had metered the site with a 12S 427
Blondel compliant approach, however it is multiplied by 0.5. For there to be no difference in the
answers the second term in [] must be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the first term.
The simplest way for this to be true, is the common assumption for the 2S being accurate, that

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

→ →
Va 5 2Vb. Substituting Vanx 5 2Vbnx and Vany 5 2Vbny into eq. 5.3 we get:
P 5 0.5 * {[Vanx * Iax 2 Vanx * Ibx 1 Vany * Iay 2 Vany * Iby] 2
[Vanx * Ibx 2 Vanx * Iax 1 Vany * Iby 2 Vany * Iay]} 5.4

P 5 0.5 * {[Vanx * (Iax 2 Ibx) 1 Vany * (Iay 2 Iby)] 2

[Vanx * (Ibx 2 Iax) 1 Vany * (Iby 2 Iay)]} 5.5

P 5 0.5 * {[Vanx * (Iax 2 Ibx) 1 Vany * (Iay 2 Iby)] 1

[Vanx * (Iax 2 Ibx) 1 Vany * (Iay 2 Iby)]} 5.6

P 5 [Vanx * (Iax 2 Ibx) 1 Vany * (Iay 2 Iby)] 5.7

Exactly the same equation we had for the 12S meter.

OBSERVATIONS
Unity power factor
• Unbalanced voltages cause no error if currents are balanced.
• Unbalanced currents cause no error if voltages are balanced.
• A 20% imbalance in voltage and current where I is proportional to V yields a 1% error.
• A 20% imbalance in V and a 50% imbalance in I yields a 2.5% error.

6.00%

5.00%

4.00% 5% | Imb
10% | Imb
% Error

20% | Imb
3.00%
40% | Imb
60% | Imb
2.00% 80% | Imb
100% | Imb

1.00%

0.00%
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10%
% Voltage Imbalance

Figure 4. 2S Errors at PF 5 1.0.

 HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING
428

Table 2. Errors Under Various 2S Application Conditions.

%V %I Phase A Phase B non-

non-Blondel Blondel
Condition Imb Imb V φVan I φIan V φVbn I φIbn Blondel Error % Error

All balanced 0 0 120 0 100 0 120 180 100 180 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced voltages PF51 18% 0% 108 0 100 0 132 180 100 180 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced current PF51 0% 18% 120 0 90 0 120 180 110 180 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 5% 18% 117 0 90 0 123 180 110 180 24060 260.0 20.25%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 8% 18% 110 0 90 0 120 180 110 180 23100 2100.0 20.43%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 8% 50% 110 0 50 0 120 180 100 180 17500 2250.0 21.43%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 18% 40% 108 0 75 0 132 180 125 180 24600 2600.0 22.44%
Unbalanced voltages PF1 PFa 5 PFb 18% 0% 108 0 100 30 132 180 100 210 20785 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced current PF1 PFa 5 PFb 0% 18% 120 0 90 30 120 180 110 210 20785 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa 5 PFb 18% 18% 108 0 90 30 132 180 110 210 20992 2207.8 20.99%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa 5 PFb 18% 40% 108 0 75 30 132 180 125 210 21304 2519.6 22.44%
Unbalanced voltages PF1 PFa  PFb 18% 0% 108 0 100 60 132 180 100 210 16832 2439.2 22.61%
Unbalanced current PF1 PFa  PFb 0% 18% 120 0 90 60 120 180 110 210 16832 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa  PFb 18% 18% 108 0 90 60 132 180 110 210 17435 2603.2 23.46%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa  PFb 18% 40% 108 0 75 60 132 180 125 210 18339 2849.0 24.63%
Non-unity, equal power factors 429
• If both phases have the same power factor then the results are the same as for unity power
factor.

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

Non-unity, unequal power factors
• Errors occur any time voltage is unbalanced.
• Magnitude of errors can be larger, depending on current imbalance and the difference in power
factor between the two phases.

Analysis of 4-Wire Wye Metering

Using Two-Stator Meters (Forms 5S, 26S, 45S, 66S)
Historically a two-stator meter such as the 5S has been used to meter a 4-wire wye service in order to
save money. The phase B voltage is not measured. The phase B current is measured against the phase A
and phase C voltages. This allows use of two stators and 2 CTs and 2 PTs rather than three.
In a Blondel compliant application the meter would measure:
→ → → → → →
P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic 6.1
In the 5S type application the meter measures:
→ → → → → →
P 5 Van ? (Ia 2 Ib) 1 Vcn ? (Ic 2 Ib) 6.2
In this application the error in the measurement is:
Err 5 Ibnx * (Vanx 1 Vbnx 1 Vcnx) 1 Ibny * (Vany 1 Vbny 1 Vcny) 6.3
This equation basically states that the error is made zero by vectorially balancing the three voltages.

Figure 6. 4-Wire Wye Metering Using

Figure 5. 4-Wire Wye Metering Using 2.5 Stator Meters.
2 Stator Meters.
 HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING
430

Table 3. Errors Under Various 4-Wire Wye Non-Blondel Applications.

%V %I Phase A Phase B Phase C non- non-

Blondel Blondel
Condition Imb Imb V φVan I φIan V φVbn I φIbn V φVcn I φIcn Blondel Error % Error

All balanced 0%   0% 120 0 100 0 120 120 100 120 120 240 100 240 36000 0 0.00%
Unbalanced voltages PF51 5% 25% 118 0 100 0 123 120 100 120 119 240 120 240 38380 450 1.17%
Unbalanced current PF51 5% 40% 118 0 100 0 123 120 80 120 119 240 120 240 35920 360 1.00%
Unbalanced voltages PF51 5% 71% 118 0 100 0 123 120 60 120 119 240 120 240 33460 270 0.81%
Unbalanced current PF51 5% 108% 118 0 100 0 123 120 40 120 119 240 120 240 31000 180 0.58%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 10%   0% 115 0 100 30 125 120 100 150 117 240 100 270 30917 866 2.80%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 10%   0% 115 0 100 60 125 120 100 180 117 240 100 300 17850 600 3.36%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 10%   0% 115 0 100 0 125 122 100 120 117 238 100 240 35685 1250 3.50%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 10% 73% 115 0 60 30 125 122 100 150 117 238 60 240 24028 1486 6.18%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 8% 71% 115 0 60 60 125 115 100 180 120 240 120 300 15933 2217 21.36%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 8% 40% 115 0 80 60 125 119 120 120 120 240 100 240 31598 898 2.84%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 8% 40% 115 0 80 30 125 120 120 150 120 240 100 210 31350 1039 3.31%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 10% 77% 125 0 80 60 117 125 120 150 115 245 60 270 23978 21469 26.12%
Analysis of 4-Wire Wye Metering 431
Using 2.5-Stator Meters (Forms 6S, 7S, 14S, 29S, 36S, 46S)
The 6S family of meters use the same computational approach as the 5S family, except that the differ-

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

encing of the currents (Ia-Ib) and (Ic-Ib) is done internal to the meter. The phase B current is measured
against the phase A and phase C voltages. This allows use of two stators with 3 CTs and 2 PTs.
In a Blondel compliant application the meter would measure:
→ → → → → →
P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic 7.1
In the 6S type application the meter measures:
→ → → → → →
P 5 Van ? (Ia 2 Ib) 1 Vcn ? (Ic 2 Ib) 7.2
In this application the error in the measurement is:
Err 5 Ibnx * (Vanx 1 Vbnx 1 Vcnx) 1 Ibny * (Vany 1 Vbny 1 Vcny) 7.3
Both of these 4-wire wye applications perform the same computations and have the same error
functions.

OBSERVATIONS
• Absolute error is not affected by power factor, however the percent error can be much larger
because the absolute magnitude of the power is smaller.
• The larger the voltage unbalance the larger the error.
• If the phase B current is large, compared to phases A and C, then the percent error can be quite
large.

Analysis of 4-Wire Delta Metering

Using Two-Stator Meters (Forms 5S, 45S)
Historically a two-stator meter such as the 5S has been used to meter a 4-wire Delta service in
order to save money. Only the phase-to-phase voltage Vab is measured, not Va and Vb independently.
Additionally the phase A and phase B currents are differenced, as are the phase C and phase B. This
configuration effectively creates two single-phase meters whose results are summed. The Phase A-B
measurement is treated identically to a form 2S in a residential application. The Phase C is treated like
a simple two-wire single-phase circuit.
In a Blondel compliant application the meter would measure:
→ → → → → →
P 5 Van ? Ia 1 Vbn ? Ib 1 Vcn ? Ic 8.1
In the 5S type application the meter measures:
→ → → → →
P 5 Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib) 1 2 * Vcn ? Ic 8.2
The first term is simply twice what a 2S meter measures in a single-phase application. The second
term is twice the desired answer because the current carrying conductor is looped twice through the
CT. By using half the actual transformer multiplier in the meter we get the right answer. The error
here is exactly the same as in the 2S case, namely:
Err 5 2[(Vanx 1 Vbnx) * (Ibnx 1 Ianx) 1 (Vany 1 Vbny) * (Ibny 1 Iany)] 8.3
The percentage errors are lower than in the 2S case because there is no systematic error in the phase C
measurement.
 432
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 7. 4-Wire Delta Metering Using Figure 8. 4-Wire Delta Metering Using
2 Stator Meters. 2.5 Stator Meters.

Analysis of 4-Wire Delta Metering

Using 2.5-Stator Meters (Forms 8S, 15S, 24S)
The 8S family of meters use the same computational approach as the 5S family, except that the
differencing of the currents (Ia-Ib) and (Ic-Ib) is done internal to the meter. No extra factor of two is
created so the actual transformer multiplier is used.
In the 8S type application the meter measures:
→ → → → →
P 5 0.5 * Vab ? (Ia 2 Ib) 1 Vcn ? Ic 9.1
The first term is simply what a 2S meter measures in a single-phase application. The second term the
desired answer. The error here is exactly the same as in the 2S case, namely:
Err 5 20.5 * [(Vanx 1 Vbnx) * (Ibnx 1 Ianx) 1 (Vany 1 Vbny) * (Ibny 1 Iany)] 9.2
The percentage errors are lower than in the 2S case because there is no systematic error in the phase C
measurement.
Both of these 4-wire wye applications perform the same computations and have the same error
functions.

OBSERVATIONS
• There is no error contribution from the phase C metering.
• Error contribution from phases A and B is identical to the 2S metering application.
Table 4. Errors Under Various 4-Wire Delta Non-Blondel Applications.

%V %I Phase A Phase B Phase C non- non-

Blondel Blondel Blondel
Condition Imb Imb V φVan I φIan V φVbn I φIbn Power Power Error % Error

All balanced 0 0 120 0 100 0 120 180 100 180 20800 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced voltages PF51 20% 0% 108 0 100 0 132 180 100 180 20800 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced current PF51 0% 20% 120 0 90 0 120 180 110 180 20800 24000 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 20% 20% 108 0 90 0 132 180 110 180 20800 24240 2240.0 20.53%
Unbalanced V&I PF51 20% 50% 108 0 75 0 132 180 125 180 20800 24600 2600.0 21.32%
Unbalanced voltages PF1 PFa 5 PFb 20% 0% 108 0 100 30 132 180 100 210 10400 20785 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced current PF1 PFa 5 PFb 0% 20% 120 0 90 30 120 180 110 210 10400 20785 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa 5 PFb 20% 20% 108 0 90 30 132 180 110 210 10400 20992 2207.8 20.66%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa 5 PFb 20% 50% 108 0 75 30 132 180 125 210 10400 21304 2519.6 21.64%
Unbalanced voltages PF1 PFa  PFb 20% 0% 108 0 100 60 132 180 100 210 10400 16832 2439.2 21.61%
Unbalanced current PF1 PFa  PFb 0% 20% 120 0 90 60 120 180 110 210 10400 16832 0.0 0.00%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa  PFb 20% 20% 108 0 90 60 132 180 110 210 10400 17435 2603.2 22.17%
Unbalanced V&I PF1 PFa  PFb 20% 50% 108 0 75 60 132 180 125 210 10400 18339 2849.0 22.95%
433

METER WIRING DIAGRAMS

 434 Conclusions
The basic assumption for the non-Blondel applications in Groups 1, 4, and 5 is voltage balance in the
phases. If the service complies with ANSI C84.1, i.e. a maximum variation from nominal of 65.0%,
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

then errors arising from the non-Blondel approach are generally less than 0.5%. With wider voltage
imbalance, non-unity power factors, and imbalanced currents, these errors can grow to several percent.
Considering the types of loads generally encountered, residential applications probably do not
suffer significant added metering error due to the non-Blondel nature of the 2S meter. However, there
are likely significant numbers of commercial and industrial applications where the dominant error in
the metering is the non-Blondel nature of the installed service.

Chapter Conclusion
This chapter focused on the application of electricity watt-hour meters to measure electrical quantities
for a given service type. The diagrams on internal connections for watt-hour meters and the associated
form numbers are in accordance with ANSI C12.10. For reference to legacy meter forms which may
not be included in this revision of the Handbook, readers are encouraged to reference prior editions of
the Handbook For Electricity Metering. The reader is also encouraged to reference the appropriate ANSI
standards associated with meter sockets, switches, and instrument transformers to provide additional
guidance when designing solutions to meter given service types.
 Chapter 19
The Customers’ Premises,
Service, and Installations
When the utility provides service to the customer, it is important to consult the specific utility’s
service entrance requirements before starting any work. Requirements are not the same in each utility
and not following the local utility’s rules can be costly.

The Customer’s Service

The Service Conductor
The service conductor is the connection between the utility’s secondary distribution system and the
customer’s wiring. It can be overhead or underground. When overhead, it can also be referred to as
the service drop. Overhead services may be open wire or insulated conductor. Current-carrying capac-
ity, voltage drop, and mechanical strength determine the material and wire size. Mechanical strength
is important since the conductors may be subject to ice loading and wind pressure. Some slack is
necessary to avoid excessive strain on the service bracket, which is the attachment on the customer’s
house. The point of attachment must be high enough to provide proper clearances, which may vary by
utility. Though the National Electrical Code (NEC) does not have jurisdiction over utility equipment,
it does provide clearances (e.g., 10 feet above sidewalks, finished grade, or platforms; 12 feet over resi-
dential driveways and commercial areas not subjected to truck traffic; 15 feet over the aforementioned
locations if the voltage exceeds 300 volts (V) and 18 feet over public streets, alleys, roads, parking
areas subject to truck traffic, and driveways on other than residential property).
If the service conductor is underground, the connection may be installed and owned by either the
customer or by the electric company. If the customer installs and deeds the ownership of the under-
ground service conductor to the utility, it must be installed in accordance with the utility’s design and
construction standards. If the customer installs and owns the underground service conductor, it must
be installed in accordance with the current version of the National Electrical Code.

The Service Entrance

The service entrance conductors are those wires, generally on the outside of the building, that run
from the service drop support to the customer’s service equipment. The National Electrical Code
describes minimum specifications for service entrances, and these specifications are often supple-
mented by rules of city or town inspectors. This is known as authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). In
some areas, service drop and service entrance conductors are installed as a continuous run of cable
without a break at the point of attachment.
The utility does not assume responsibility for the various hazards that may result from either
faulty wiring or improper use of equipment installed and maintained by the customer. The utility’s
responsibility ends at the point of attachment of the service drop-wires to the customer’s premises
or at the terminal point of utility-owned equipment. The utility has the right to refuse service to any
customer where wiring hazards are known to exist.
435
 436 Classes of Service
There are various classes of service offered via common distribution circuits (see diagrams of these
classes in Chapter 4, Figure 4-32, Common Distribution Circuits).
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Two-wire service may be taken from a two-wire, three-wire, or four-wire distribution system.
One wire of the two-wire service is grounded by the utility near the transformer and by the electrical
contractor or customer at the customer’s service equipment.
Three-wire, single-phase service may be supplied from either a single-phase or a polyphase distri-
bution system. In this service, one conductor is normally grounded with the nominal voltage 240 V
between the ungrounded conductors and 120 V from each of the ungrounded conductors to the
grounded conductor. Some streetlight services are three-wire 480 V, 240 V from line to ground and
480 V from line to line.
Three-wire network service is supplied from a four-wire, wye distribution system. One line is
always grounded. The nominal voltage for this circuit is 208 V between the ungrounded conductors
and 120 V between each of the ungrounded conductors to the grounded conductor. Note that 208 V
is the phasor resultant, not the algebraic sum, of the two line-to-ground voltages.
Three-wire, three-phase service may be supplied from either a closed-delta or an open-delta trans-
former bank. The difference between these two connections is largely one of capacity. The output of an
open-delta bank is 58% of the output of a closed delta where the individual transformers are similar.
Four-wire, three-phase, delta service is often used for combined power and lighting. It is a delta
service, with one transformer center tapped to provide 120 V for lighting. The center tap must be
grounded. In this case, the voltage between any two phase wires is 240 V; between the grounded wire
and either of two phase wires is 120 V and between the grounded line and the third phase wire is
208 V. The transformer bank may be either open-delta or closed-delta.
Four-wire, three-phase, wye service is also used for combined power and lighting. Under balanced
load conditions, the grounded neutral does not carry current.
If the voltage from neutral to phase conductor is 120 V, the voltage between any two phase wires
is 208 V. Likewise, if the voltage from the neutral to the phase conductor is 277 V, the voltage between
any two phase wires is 480 V.
Primary service is service above 600 V. The customer might own the transformer, reducing the
service voltage from the primary level to the operating level requested by the customer. The metering
is done with instrument transformers, normally installed at the point where the customer facilities are
connected to the electric utility.

How to Distinguish between Three-Wire Network

and Three-Wire, Single-Phase Services
Elsewhere in this Handbook it has been shown that the requirements for network metering are not
met by the meter normally used on single-phase services. To distinguish between a three-wire network
service and a three-wire, single-phase service, any of the following three methods may be used.
Voltmeter Check
In a single-phase circuit, the voltage across the ungrounded wires is equal to the sum of the voltages
between the grounded conductor and each of the other two lines. In a network service, the voltage
across the ungrounded wires is equal to approximately 87% of the sum of the voltages between the
grounded conductor and the ungrounded lines.
Example (with imbalanced voltages):
Three-Wire, Three-Wire
Single-Phase Network
Voltage between grounded wire and live leg A 116 V 116 V
Voltage between grounded wire and live leg C 122 V 122 V
Voltage between A and C 238 V 207 V

Since it is necessary to determine relatively small differences among voltages, this test requires a
voltmeter rather than a voltage tester.
Phase-Sequence Indicator 437
In a single-phase circuit, a rotating-disk phase-sequence indicator will give no indication of phases.
On either a three-wire network or a three-phase circuit, the disk will rotate.

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

To Distinguish between Four-Wire Delta and Four-Wire Wye Service
A voltmeter check is sufficient to distinguish between a four-wire delta and a four-wire wye service.
After determining which is the grounded conductor, the voltages between the grounded conductor and
each of the phase wires and phase-to-phase are checked.
In a wye service, each of the voltages will be 120 V phase-to-ground and 208 V phase-to-phase (or
277 volt phase-to-ground and 480 V phase-to-phase). In a delta service, only two of these voltages will
be 120 V; the third will be 208 V to ground and 240 V phase-to-phase.

Overhead Service to Low Houses

Ranch-type houses can pose a problem in maintaining proper clearances of the service drop, particu-
larly when the distribution line and the residence are on opposite sides of the street. One method of
maintaining clearances is by a service pole set on the house side of all public ways, driveways, and
sidewalks. Another is the use of a service mast attached to the building, such as a pipe mast of rigid
steel conduit from two to three inches in diameter.

Circuit Protection
Surge Protection
Surge protection is designed to protect circuits and connected equipment by providing a bypass to
ground when the supply circuit voltage rises above safe limits. Sometimes called lightning arrestors or
surge arrestors, surge protection devices have acquired an important role in the protection of meters
and the customers’ consumer electronics. Basic surge protection provides a path of least resistance
between each ungrounded line conductor and ground, dissipating much of the energy of a high energy
surge. Normal line voltages are not capable of conducting down this path to ground. In electronic
meters, metal oxide varistors (MOVs), some electronic components (i.e., resistors, fuses), or air gap
spacing on the circuit boards are often used as protection against lightning.
An example of simple protection is the spark gap arrestors of socket-type electro­mechanical
watthour meters. In this type of meter, there are two spark-gap pins protruding from the meter base.
When the meter is assembled, the current-coil leads are located near but not in contact with these
pins. If lightning or a system disturbance causes a sudden surge of high voltage that might break down
the meter insulation, an arc will be established across one or both spark air gaps. The surge will then
go through the pins to the stainless steel straps on the back of the base, into the socket, and then to
ground. The ears that are to the left and right of a meter socket are the connection to ground for the
contacts on the base of the meter.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Fuses are generally designed to open a circuit when the current flowing in it is above a safe limit. The
fuse is an over-current protection and must be coordinated with the size of wire it protects. Excessive
current may be due to either an overload caused by appliances drawing current beyond the current-
carrying capacity of the wire or to a short circuit resulting from a failure of insulation. In the latter
case, the current may reach very high values. A fuse must be able to open a circuit under either of
these conditions. Due to conductor heating, overloaded conductors are a source of fire hazard.
A fuse consists of a strip of metal which has a low melting temperature enclosed in a screw plug
or a cartridge that is placed in series with the load. When the current passing through the load and
fuse exceeds the ampere rating of the fuse, the heat produced from the excess flow of current will melt
the metal, opening the circuit.
Since the fuse link is melted by heat energy and since heat energy is a function of both current
and time, the fuse will open either on a very high current existing for a short period of time or a
current moderately in excess of rated capacity existing for a longer period of time. This time-current
characteristic is designated as inverse-time. That is, operation of the fuse occurs in progressively
shorter intervals as the current increases. As an example, a 15-ampere fuse may carry 30 amperes for
several seconds but will open in about a tenth of a second should 150 amperes occur in the circuit.
 438 In many instances, circuit breakers are used in place of fuses as protective devices. They, too, will
open circuits when overloads or fault currents develop. Breakers have many advantages—one of them
being that they can be reset and used again.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Time-Delay Fuses
Many small motors have a starting inrush current several times the normal running current. This
inrush current is of such short duration that, although it may cause an annoying voltage dip, it does
not result in a serious fire hazard. The time-delay fuse or circuit breaker permits the passage of such
starting currents without opening. However, should this high current last for more than the normal
starting period of the motor, as might be the case if the motor stalled, the fuse or breaker will open
and clear the circuit. Time-delay fuses or circuit breakers will eliminate many “no-light” trouble calls
by reducing unnecessary circuit openings.

Grounding
A ground is a conducting connection between an electric circuit or equipment and the earth. Such a
connection may refer to the grounding of the neutral wire of a circuit or to the connection between
hardware such as meter sockets or switch cabinets and the earth.
When considering when and how to ground, considerations such as conditions of use and the
location of equipment have a bearing on the method of grounding. The NEC must also be consulted
for the most up-to-date rules on grounding.

Residential Wiring Grounds

Responsibility for adequate grounding on the customer’s premises lies with the customer and not with
the utility. Circuits are grounded to limit excessive voltages from lightning, line surges, or uninten-
tional contact with higher voltage lines, and to limit the voltage to ground during normal operation.
The NEC requires the grounding of one conductor of electrical systems in which the voltage to
ground does not exceed 150 V. One of the wires in a single-phase, three-wire system, and also in a
four-wire wye system, is called the neutral conductor and is grounded within the utility distribution
system. This same conductor, when brought onto the customer’s premises, must again be connected
to a ground at a point as close to the structure’s entrance as possible and only at a single point. Since
a two-wire system comprises the neutral conductor and one line conductor, the grounding of the
neutral in the two-wire system follows the same rules as those applied in the three-wire system.
Grounding at only one point on the customer’s premises guards against the possible hazards due
to difference in ground resistance (equipotential grounds) and also makes it easy to check the pres-
ence and adequacy of the grounding circuit.
In residential wiring systems, not only must the neutral conductor be grounded, but exposed metal
such as cabinets and conduits which might come in contact with ungrounded current-carrying wires
must also be grounded. This is accomplished by running a bond wire from those devices to the single
earth ground on the customer’s side.
In city areas where there is a public water system, the grounding wire is connected to the water
pipe near the point it enters the building. To avoid corrosion, connectors for use on copper pipe
should be made of copper; those for use on galvanized pipe should be made of galvanized iron.
In areas not served by an extensive public water system or where plastic pipe is used, there can be
difficulty getting a dependable ground connection. A copper ground rod of at least eight feet in length,
driven into the ground adjacent to the building served, is often a solution. The local electric utility and
local municipalities’ service entrance requirements should be consulted before starting any work on
grounding systems.

Identification of Grounded Conductor

Soil conditions vary widely with location and weather, which means that the resistance of grounds
can vary widely and may reach very high ohmic values. Therefore, the correct identification of the
grounded secondary conductor is difficult when the service connection is being completed. If a mis-
take is made and a live line conductor is connected to the grounded service wire, a short circuit will
develop when the pole ground resistance drops in value during wet weather conditions. It is essential
to correctly and permanently identify the grounded conductor when the service connection is made.
 One method of identifying the grounded conductor is the use of a high-resistance voltmeter, such 439
as a rectifier type with 1,000 ohms per volt.
After the customer’s load has been disconnected by opening the main switch or when the meter is
ahead of the switch, voltage checks are made by removing the meter (Figure 19-1). Voltmeter readings

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

should be zero for all combinations of service drop to entrance wires except A to neutral (N) and B to
N. Readings of approximately 120 V identify N as the customer’s grounded conductor.
Caution: It is important to note that if the service is underground, a cable test might indicate
ground on all conductors due to capacitance of the cable. Such cases should be checked with a low-
resistance meter or a small lamp. The voltage rating of the bulb and the service being connecting to
the bulb must be considered.
To be effective, grounding should maintain the voltage of the grounded conductor at the same
level as that of the ground. Perfect grounding implies zero resistance of the grounding conductor, zero
voltage, and zero current.

Two points in regard to grounding must be remembered:

1. The earth’s crust is not a good conductor, so differences in ground voltage, particularly under
conditions of high current flow such as lightning, may occur. Such voltage differences may
exist within distances of a few feet. In pole metering installations, grounding electrodes should
completely surround the area on which a utility employee might stand when working.
2. Grounding is not the answer to all electrical safety problems. In some instances, isolation is
safer than grounding. Some companies do not ground pole-top metal enclosures since such
grounding may be hazardous to personnel working on live conductors.

Conductor Identification by Color

The NEC specifies the color markings of certain insulated conductors in interior wiring systems as an
aid in identifying conductors. These specifications require that:
1. Grounded insulated conductors of No. 6 or smaller size shall have identification of white or
natural gray color.
2. Grounded insulated conductors larger than No. 6 shall have an outer identification of white or
natural gray color, or shall be identified by distinctive white markings at terminals during the
process of installation.
3. When, on a four-wire, delta-connected secondary, the midpoint of one phase is grounded to
supply lighting and similar loads, the phase conductor having the higher voltage to ground
(sometimes called “power leg,” “high leg,” or “wild phase”) shall be indicated by painting or
other effective means at any point where a connection is to be made if the neutral (grounded)
conductor is present.
4. Grounding conductors shall have a continuous identifying marker readily distinguishing it from
other conductors. This marker shall show a green color.

Figure 19-1. Identification of Grounded Conducto .

 440 Meter Connections
The most careful meter test and the most conscientious meter handling can be made worthless by
connection errors. Employees involved in metering are advised to look for the following common
Handbook for Electricity Metering

connection errors.
Many connection errors can be self-corrected by the installation of an electronic meter. As
opposed to an electromechanical meter, an electronic Form 15 meter will meter properly if the lighting
and the high-leg are swapped whereas the electromechanical meter would have registered incorrectly.
When replacing an electromechanical meter with an electronic meter, a thorough analysis of the
socket and wiring must be performed to catch an existing connection error.

Connection Errors
With the current coil connected in the grounded service conductor, the meter may be partially or
completely by-passed. To correctly measure the power in a two-wire circuit, the current coil in the
watthour meter must carry all of the circuit’s load current. To accomplish this, the current coil
must be connected in series with the ungrounded line. See Figure 19-2. If the current coil is in the
ungrounded leg and the watthour meter has been installed incorrectly as shown in Figure 19-2 and a
ground occurred on the load side of the meter, there are two paths for current flow. The meter cur-
rent coil is effectively shunted by the ground path. The meter is bypassed and the energy used is, to a
considerable degree, unmetered and unbilled.
In Figure 19-3, the current coil is connected to the ground wire and the fuses are not blown. As a
result, the meter is registering forward without a load being used because the meter and the load wires
provide another path to the transformer for loads not properly on this meter. The amount of current
thus shunted will depend on the resistance of the neutral conductor. Due to numerous splices, the
resistance may be quite high, causing even more current to take the path through the meter.
The direction of rotation of the incorrectly wired meter will depend on the direction of current in
the neutral. If a three-wire load is taken from the same service as is shown in Figure 19-3 for Cus-
tomer C, any imbalance in the three-wire load will produce rotation in the incorrectly wired meter.
Similar precautions must be taken when connecting a three-wire meter. If the neutral instead of
an ungrounded line is connected to one of the meter coils, there is a variable error in the current

Figure 19-2. Wrong Connection of Two-Wire, Single-Phase Watthour Meter.

 441

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

Figure 19-3. Wrong Connection of Two-Wire Meter on Customer A with Load on Meter of Customer B.
Arrows Show Possible Direction of Current from Meter B.

components and a constant error of 50% in the voltage, as 120 V instead of 240 V is applied to the
voltage coil.
A three-wire, single-phase meter installed on a two-wire circuit without alteration to fit the condi-
tions may have one current coil bypassed by the customer’s ground. Correct metering of a two-wire
circuit with a three-wire, single-phase meter can be found in the Handbook for Electricity Metering,
10th edition, “Metering Two-Wire Services with Three-Wire Meters,” page 465.
A three-wire, three-phase service is properly metered with a two-stator meter. However, if one of
the transformers has a center tap grounded, it is possible for energy to be consumed on this service
that would not pass through the current coils of the meter (Figure 19-4).

Figure 19-4. Wrong Connection for a Two-Stator, Three-Wire Meter on a Delta Bank with Grounded
Transformer Center Tap.
 442 Other types of errors are possible, such as when load circuits are incorrectly connected at some
point on the source side of the meter. In multi-family buildings, incorrect connection of customer’s
service conductors can result in the registration of one customer’s use on their neighbor’s meter. It is
also possible that meters measure loads other than those for which they are intended, such as a meter
Handbook for Electricity Metering

tagged Apartment A actually measuring the consumption of Apartment B. Sometimes an interruption

of service is necessary to ensure that these conditions do not exist.
Since both three-wire and two-wire services may exist in an apartment building, the customer’s
service equipment must be checked before the meter is installed.
It is possible to fail to meter the customer’s load when one fuse on the supply side of the meter
has been opened. In this case, branch circuits from the live wire and the neutral are still energized but
the meter will not register since its voltage coil is connected across the 240 V circuit. Tying the outside
wires together (Figure 19-5) will make all 120 V branch circuits alive with no meter registration. The
240 V appliances will not be supplied.
Figure 19-6 illustrates a common error—the voltage link left open.
These misconnections are examples of some of the errors to be avoided. Of course, there are many
possibilities for wrong connections, particularly in polyphase metering with instrument transformers.
Methods for checking the correctness of connections are outlined in the discussion of instrument
transformer installations.

Wrong Meter in the Socket Errors

As important as ensuring the service is wired correctly, putting the correct meter in the correct socket
is equally as important for a proper installation and accurate billing. An installation check to ensure
that the voltages and the phases are correct should always be performed prior to installing a meter.
Electronic meters have diagnostics and can display the installation electrical values, and are also more
forgiving and allow for multiple forms and auto-ranging voltages. Not only does the electronic meter
compensate for some wiring problems that existed during the electromechanical meter installation,
but they will also correctly bill the account and, in some cases, cause that bill to increase. Some wiring
problems that existed with electromechanical meters will still be present. The utility needs to be aware
of these incorrect meter installations to rectify billing issues that might surface. See Table 19-1.

Figure 19-5. Three-Wire, Single-Phase Meter with Open Fuse.

 443

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

Figure 19-6. Voltage Link Left Open, a Common Error.

The Neutral Wire

In a three-wire, single-phase circuit, the current in the neutral is equal to the difference between the
currents in the ungrounded conductors. This can readily be shown by applying Kirchhoff’s Law of
current. With a perfectly balanced load, the neutral in this type of circuit carries zero current.

What Happens if the Neutral Is Broken?

In a three-wire meter, there is no connection to the neutral, so the meter will continue to correctly
register the energy taken and the effect on the customer’s load will depend on the location of the
break. Normally, where grounds do not provide a return path for the current, two-wire branch circuits
may be dead. If the neutral is opened to a three-wire appliance such as an electric range, the 240 V
units will continue to operate at normal heat, but 120 V units may get excessive voltage on some units
and deficient voltage on others, depending on the load balance among the units. If loads on both sides
of the neutral are connected, the loads will be in series across 240 V and the lower-rated unit will
draw too much current while the higher-rated unit will have too little current to reach expected heat.
As a result, the customer loses the protection of the grounding conductor.
The neutral conductor is not fused for various reasons, including:
1. This conductor provides the connection to ground.
2. An open neutral presents more hazards to equipment than any protection a fuse could provide.

Table 19-1. Common Installation Mistakes and Resulting Registration Errors.

Approximate %
Meter Form Meter Socket Condition Registration

2S Meter 12S Socket Wrong meter for service 75%

12S Meter 12S Socket 5th terminal not connected to neutral 75% L–N
9S Meter 6S Socket Phase Angle 0 degrees 16.67%
9S Meter 6S Socket Phase Angle 30 degrees 33.33%
9S Meter 6S Socket Phase Angle 60 degrees 66.67%
2S Meter 16S Socket 2 Lighting legs connected only 100%
 444 3. Load current in the neutral of a single-phase circuit is never greater than the larger of the
currents carried by the fused, ungrounded conductors and, therefore, the neutral is protected by
the circuit fuses.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Network Neutral
In the three-wire network circuit (two phase wires and neutral from wye-connected transformers),
the condition is somewhat different. Under balanced load conditions and with only phase-to-neutral
loads, the neutral wire carries the same magnitude of current as the phase wires.
If the neutral is broken in a network circuit, the customer loses the protection of the ground.
Appliances operating at 208 V will not be affected. Branch circuits operating at 120 V will normally be
dead, but currents may find a path to the other phase wire, thus putting 120 V lamps in a level lower
or higher than 120 V.
When the only ground that is lost is at the meter in a three phase meter, the meter is connected
properly and the required metered loads are grounded. There may be times when the ground connec-
tion at the meter is cut.
If the meter does not see ground, then metering errors in the three-phase meter could range from
0% to 50%, depending on how much of the loads are phase-to-ground versus phase-to-phase.
The ground connection at the meter should be checked with a voltmeter to a phase and then
the system neutral should be checked to the same phase. The voltages should be the same unless the
ground connection at the meter is broken. Calculating the percent of error would be impossible unless
the amount of usage phase-to-phase versus phase-to-ground can be determined.

Meter Location
Indoor
When meters are installed indoors, they should be located near the point of service entrance to avoid
long runs of unprotected or unmetered conductors. If the meter is in a partitioned basement, it should
be installed in the same area that the service enters.
Since meters must be read and sometimes tested in place, they should be mounted at a convenient
height, i.e., between three and six feet from the floor. In addition, since meter accessory equipment
may have to be changed as a result of changes in the customer’s load, space sufficient to permit such
changes must be provided.
The area in which meters are located should be free of corrosive fumes and excessive moisture.
Meters should not be installed near furnaces or water heaters, nor should they be mounted under
pipes that may drip. Also, the wall or panel on which the meter is mounted must be free of vibration.

Outdoor
Outdoor meters should not be mounted overhanging driveways or walks where they may either be
damaged by traffic or may cause accidents to pedestrians.
Although meters are temperature-compensated well, they should be installed out of direct sunlight,
i.e., the north side of the house if the service permits.
As in indoor metering, the height at which the meter is mounted must be convenient. However, in
areas where it snows, a height at least four feet above the ground is recommended.

Selection of Meter Capacity

When determining the capacity of the metering equipment, the current which the customer will
demand is the determining factor. The amount of current a customer will use is usually a matter
of calculations involving connected load and estimates of diversity and growth. The capacity of the
customer’s main line switch or service entrance conductors may be used in determining the equip-
ment selected. This keeps the equipment from becoming the weak point in the circuit and from being
damaged by overload.
There are self-contained meters available which, with the appropriate sockets and other associated
devices, will carry and accurately meter up to 600 amperes (bolt-in); for loads above 600 amperes,
current transformers are necessary.
When the load to be metered is only a fraction of the installed service capacity, adequate provi-
sions for the future metering of the total installed service capacity must be made, particularly when
increases in load may necessitate a change from self-contained to transformer-type metering or when 445
the increase involves a change in rate schedules that would require a different metering method.

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

Meter Sockets
The socket comprises connectors for line and load conductors, contact jaws to receive the meter termi-
nal blades (thus completing the connections between conductors and meter coils), and an enclosure
for the whole assembly.
Early sockets were round, cast or drawn shallow pans with diameters matching those of the
meters, and wiring space was limited. This limitation led to the development of the rectangular trough
with a round opening the diameter of the meter. A sealing ring fitted around the meter rim and socket
cover rim secured the meter in place. More recently, a ringless type of socket has been developed in
which the socket cover opening fits over the meter after the meter has been installed. The socket cover
is then sealed in place. In both types, the primary functions of a meter socket are to fix the meter
firmly on the socket, close the joint between the meter and socket rim against weather and tampering,
and provide means for sealing the meter against unauthorized removal of the meter or cover.
Meter sockets and socket adapters are available in continuous duty current ratings of 20, 80, 100,
120, 150, 160, 200, 320, and 400 amperes and for one-, two-, or three-stator meters.
The requirements for indoor and outdoor service differ. Meter sockets installed on the outside of
the house must be weatherproof and of a material that is highly resistant to corrosion.
Under some conditions, such as leakage of pipe joints or cable assemblies, sockets will accumulate
varying quantities of water, so sockets are provided with a means for drainage.
The dimensions of meters, sockets, and adapters must be standardized and closely controlled
so that meters of any of the major manufacturers will fit all sockets. American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) standards have been developed for meters and meter sockets to ensure:
1. Interchangeability of all manufacturers’ meters and mounting devices.
2. Mounting devices designed for single-meter or multiple-meter mounting either indoor or
outdoor.
3. One seal to serve for both meter and mounting device (ringless-type enclosures).
4. Terminals to be inaccessible after the meter is sealed in place;
5. Meter base not to be insulated from the mounting device.
6. Mounting device to have an uninsulated terminal for the service neutral.
The material of the socket jaws is important, as a tight contact between the meter connection blade
and the contact surfaces of the jaw is necessary. This requires the use of a high-quality resilient copper
alloy, e.g., bronze or beryllium. Even with quality material, spreading the jaws by pushing screwdriver
blades into them may spring the metal beyond its elastic limit and destroy the tight contact with the
meter blades, causing arcing on meter blades and thus overheating or damaging the meter.
The connection between conductors and the line and load terminals must be secure and of low
resistance. The connectors in the lower-rated sockets may be required to accept conductors as small as
No. 6, while the 200- and 400-ampere sockets may be required to accept single or multiple conductors
that will carry 200 or 400 amperes. When aluminum conductors are used, the connectors must be
designed for this material; that is, they must not cut the comparatively soft strands and they must not
encourage cold flow when the wires are under pressure. If aluminum wire is used in the socket that
has plating over the copper connectors, an aluminum electrical joint compound (antioxidant) must be
used to prevent metallic reaction between the aluminum and copper connections.
With the growth of domestic loads and the development of self-contained Class 200 meters, the
heavy-duty socket rated at 200 amperes has been introduced. There are two types of such heavy-duty
sockets. In one, the jaws are made of massive material and sometimes have only one flexible member.
This may be spring loaded but will still depend on jaw resiliency for good contact. In the second type,
the jaws are made of a nonflexible heavy material and the jaws are wrench tightened or lever tightened
after the meter is in place. Either type of jaw can carry 200 amperes continuously without excessive
heating.
 446 Circuit-Closing Devices and Bypasses
Certain types of sockets are provided with circuit-closing
devices or bypasses. These may be automatic, closing
Handbook for Electricity Metering

the current circuit as the meter is withdrawn from the

socket, or manual, requiring an operation other than
meter removal to close the current circuit.
Manual bypasses are often provided in heavy-duty
sockets to avoid interrupting the customer’s load or
pulling the meter and breaking a circuit which may be
carrying 200 or 300 amperes. Such bypasses may be
integral within the socket (Figure 19-7), where, as the
lever is pulled to release tension on the socket jaws, the
bypass is closed; or the bypass may be similar to a meter
test block and mounted in an extension of the meter
trough.
Another type of socket has facilities for connecting
flexible leads to bypass the meter before it is removed
(Figure 19-8).

Meter Installation and Removal Socket Meter

Socket meters are commonly installed in meter-switch-
fuse sequence. When this is the case, the line terminals
(top jaws) are alive. Report such conditions to the
supervisor rather than attempting to correct major
Figure 19-7. Lever Bypass Socket. wiring defects on energized parts in the socket. If it is
necessary to make connections in a live meter socket,
protective shields should be installed around the live
parts.

Figure 19-8. Socket and Meter with Flexible Bypasses in Place also known as Horn Bypass.
 Before installing the meter, the following tips and checks must be performed: 447
• Check that meter’s voltage clips are closed.
• Check the correctness of the electrician’s wiring to ensure that the grounded wire is connected

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

to the socket case.
• Report to a supervisor if the socket is not level and plumb.
• When installing a socket meter, line up the load jaws and meter blades and press these home.
Then, using the bottom jaws as a fulcrum, rock the meter into place.
• Do not twist the meter to spring the jaws.
• When closing into the line contacts, the action should be positive.
• Do not pound the meter into place, as cuts from a broken cover can be serious.
• Check the meter number against the number on the service order.
• Check that the meter disk rotates in the proper direction.
• If an electronic meter is being installed, the meter normally displays which voltages are present.
Compare display readings to the actual voltages.
• Electronic meters have internal self-checking features called error codes, caution codes, diagnos-
tic codes, etc., which will indicate if a problem is present. If a code exists, correct the problem.
• When removing socket meters, use the lower jaws as a fulcrum and pull the blades from the
line-side jaws with a downward force on the meter before withdrawing the lower blades.
• On removal of a socket meter without replacement, since the top terminals are live, the trough
or socket opening is closed with a blank cover plate and sealed.
• When meter covers are broken, take care to avoid cuts by wearing heavy leather gloves or by
using a special meter removal tool.
• When installing a meter, and the compression of the socket jaws is insufficient to hold the
meter in place, it should be corrected or reported to the supervisor. Poor contacts cause heating,
and heating will further destroy the temper of the jaws.
• Voltage levels are within specified tolerance.
• For transformer-rated meters, ratios of current and potential transformers match company
records and show no signs of damage/deterioration/mis-wiring.
• For communications-enabled meters, check for network connectivity.
• If replacing interval meters, perform data download from out-meter using manufacturer meter-
ing software.

Socket Adapters
When modernization of customers’ services is taking place at the same time that a changeover from
bottom-connected to socket-type meters is being made, adapters which permit this replacement of
meter types may be considered. These adapters essentially give a socket meter a base which allows
for installation in a location designed for a bottom-connected meter. The adapter may be no more
than a low-cost shell to hold the socket meter with facilities for bringing out flexible leads to the
service switch, or it may be equipped with a standard terminal chamber similar to that of the bottom-
connected meter.
Socket adapters provide a wide range of functionality to the meter installation. Some of the
­common types of socket adapter are socket-based surge arrestors, disconnect devices, ground-strap
adapters, and service transfer switch adapters.

Bottom-Connected Meters
The handling of A-type meters for installation or removal is different than what is required with
S-type meters. All line and load wires must be removed from the several meter terminals before the
meter can be lifted from its location. Unless the line wires can be deenergized by opening a service
switch, removing the main fuse, or cutting the energized wires at the weatherhead, these wires must be
handled carefully at all times.
Visually inspect the insulation of the wires before working on energized meters, as frayed wiring
could cause a shorting condition.
 448 Connection screws must be tight and each wire tested by pulling and shaking it to ensure they are
not loose. Keep in mind that smaller wires can be cut off in the terminal hole by forcing the terminal
screws down.
Where a service interruption cannot be tolerated for a period long enough to remove and replace
Handbook for Electricity Metering

a meter, the use of jumpers is necessary. When test facilities are provided or, in certain types of service
installations, with line and load terminals available in the service equipment assembly, this is a simple
procedure with test links or with leads equipped with spring-clip terminals. When the meter is located
directly in the line, it is necessary to remove insulation from the line and load wires ahead of and
beyond the meter terminals. Jumpers are then attached to the bare spots.
Placing such jumpers calls for careful work. If there is any doubt as to where jumpers should be
connected, a voltage tester should be used. A jumper connected across a voltage difference is a short
circuit and will result in a flash.
Any bare spots must be properly taped after the job is completed.
When the meter is mounted above a test block, a change of meter is simple since the meter can be
bypassed and isolated by test-block links and jumpers. There are two different test-block connections.
In one, the test-block terminals are in the same sequence as the meter terminals and, to bypass the
meter, flexible jumpers are used to connect each of the line wires to the corresponding load wires. The
second arrangement is line-load, in which the test block link can be used to short adjacent terminals.
It is generally easy to distinguish one arrangement from the other, though a voltage tester should be
used if there is any doubt.
Often, a bottom-connected meter is mounted directly above the service switch which has test
connections involved. Since such test connections take many forms, the use of a voltage tester or
voltmeter is advisable.

Outdoor Installations
To adapt the bottom-connected meter to outdoor use, several types of meter enclosures have been
developed. These include the complete enclosure, generally with a window through which the meter
can be read; the semi-enclosure, in which the glass cover of the meter projects through a round open-
ing in the box cover; the “banjo box,” which provides a disconnect device and an enclosure for the
meter terminals; and conduit pull boxes modified to enclose the meter terminal block.
A conduit pull box with a single cover to enclose both the meter terminal chamber and pull box
is often designed so that it also encloses a disconnect feature. This permits separation of the meter
terminal chamber from a terminal block to which line and load wires are connected. With such
construction, the meter can be tested or changed without service interruption.

Installation of Meters with Instrument Transformers

For the use of instrument transformers with meters, see Chapter 10, “Instrument Transformers.”

Inactive and Locked-Out Meters

It is usual practice to leave meters in place for a reasonable period, at least in certain classes of buildings
such as residences, apartments, and offices where occupants are changing so frequently that the pros-
pects of a new tenant at an early date are reasonably sure.
In commercial and industrial classes of business, the practice of leaving meters on vacant premises
is not generally followed since the new load is usually of a different character and alterations are
probable, requiring a relocation or change in the metering equipment.
Inactive services may be left with the meter connected and energy available, with instructions
for the incoming customer to notify the utility of their occupancy of the premises. Alternatively, the
service may be disconnected at the meter switch or socket but with the meter left in place. The latter
operation is often called a meter lockout. The disconnection is commonly protected by seals or locks
to prevent unauthorized reconnection. Another type of disconnection which is typically used for
electronic meters is to disconnect the load side blades only with either mylar boots or a disconnect
pan, leaving the line side energized and the display operating.
For A-meter installations, often the main plug fuses are replaced with insulated dummy plugs
(also referred to as “chocolate drops” due to their color and shape) which require a special tool for
removal. In some installations, lockout can be accomplished only by sealing the main switch in the
open position.
 The service can be disconnected in the meter socket by several means, including: 449
1. Some sockets are provided with means for disconnecting the service. In some the meter can be
removed and reinserted at an angle, in which case the meter does not make contact with the

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

socket jaws.
2. Disconnection can be accomplished by thin plastic sleeves (disconnect sleeves) made that can
be slipped over the load terminal blades of the meter, but not over the neutral jaw. For level
bypass sockets, disconnect sleeves are not recommended. Rather, the meter is replaced in the
socket with the plastic sleeve acting as an insulator between the meter terminals and socket
jaws. These sleeves are not used on a current transformer-rated meter because of the hazard of
an open secondary of the current transformer.
3. For lever bypass sockets, a disconnect adapter used in conjunction with a load break device is
the only appropriate way to bypass the sockets. It is unsafe to make or break load with the lever
bypass mechanism. Several manufacturers make this device for safely disconnecting service to a
lever bypass socket.
When meters are connected in the secondaries of current transformers, the customer’s service
is disconnected only by opening the primary circuit. The current transformer secondary must not be
opened because of the dangerously high voltage that may occur.
All meters left on inactive service must be visited periodically to guard against damage and
unauthorized use of service. Some companies adopt the practice of continuing to read the meter so a
monthly report is received on the existing conditions. Other companies obtain readings less frequently
but often enough to ensure that the metering equipment has not been disturbed or the service used
without authority.

Test Switches
Test switches are generally used if meters are in the secondaries of instrument transformers. The
functions of the test switch are to short-circuit the current transformer secondaries and to isolate the
meter so that it may be tested or changed without hazard.
When the test switches are open, the current blades are grounded. The voltage blades, however,
may be live and are therefore a hazard. When both voltage and current transformers are used, the
low capacity of the voltage transformers limits the hazard to some degree, but when only current
transformers are used and the voltage connections are made directly to the line, the entire capacity
of the power transformer is behind this circuit and extreme care must be used. A screwdriver or even
a connector clip falling across these blades can cause a severe flash. Because of this danger, many
companies install low-current, high interrupting-capacity fuses in the voltage circuits of meters used
with current transformers. Another precaution that can be taken is to place insulating blocks over the
open voltage blades of the test switch.
Removing or replacing test switch covers must be done carefully. Some non-metallic covers have
metal end walls that can cause a phase-to-ground short.
When paralleled current transformers are used, it is necessary to make sure that the test switch
shorts the secondaries of all the connected current transformers before disturbing the meter leads.

Instrument Transformer Metering in Metalclad Switchgear

In 1958, the Meter and Service Committees of Edison Electric Institute (EEI) and American Energy
Innovation Council (AEIC) issued the “Guide for Specifications for Revenue Metering Facilities
Installed in Metalclad Switchgear.” Although many utilities have used this document to create their
own guidelines particular to their utility, this EEI/AEIC guide states the principal objectives to be
attained:
1. A separate sealable compartment is to be provided exclusively for revenue metering equipment
when mounted within the switchgear.
2. Space is to be provided within the compartment sufficiently large to accommodate separately
the installation of any standard current transformers and any standard voltage transformers
required for metering.
 450 3. Space is to be provided within the compartment for the installation of separate, isolated voltage
transformer fuses, where required.
4. Where required, adequate space and panel facilities are to be provided within the compartment
Handbook for Electricity Metering

to permit the installation of all necessary meters, instruments, auxiliary devices, or test facilities
of any type, whether they be front connected, back connected, surface mounted, or flush type.
5. The arrangements should be such that the secondary wiring may be installed in a manner to
facilitate checking of connections.
By following these specifications, control of all metering transformers and conductors rests with
the utility.
When extremely high-capacity current transformers are used, spacing of bus bars must be adequate
to avoid interference between individual transformers.
There are many advantages gained by mounting instrument transformers in the customer’s switch-
gear, e.g., protection, appearance, and, in many cases, economy.
There are also disadvantages, e.g., access to the instrument transformers when testing the meter,
liability if one of the transformers catches on fire and damages the switchgear, ensuring against
tampering, and ensuring that none of the current transformers have been shorted.

Pole-Top Metering
Pole-top location of instrument transformers is often necessary. Poles with distribution equipment
mounted on them that require maintenance are generally avoided for metering, since the reduction of
climbing space may present hazards to utility personnel.
Instrument transformers may either be mounted on crossarms or be put in place as pre-wired
units on cluster mounting brackets. These brackets are generally designed to allow sufficient free
climbing space and the transformers used are able to be installed in any position. For low-voltage
metering, window-type current transformers offer convenience and economy.
Meters may be located on the pole or the instrument transformer secondary may be extended to
a nearby building where a more suitable location may be found. In the latter case, an underground
secondary run is sometimes involved. Such a conduit or cable run coming down the pole and extend-
ing up the building wall may form a U-shape which will often collect water. When installing cable
or conduit, care must be taken to prevent this condition. The comments in Chapter 10, “Instrument
Transformers,” referring to the length of a secondary run should be consulted.
Since pole-top metering is generally distant from any extensive water piping system, other forms
of grounding must be employed. This is particularly true when meters are installed in an enclosure
on the pole, since the enclosure must be well grounded to protect the installer. To guard against high
ground resistance, it is good practice to bury the ground wire connecting multiple electrodes in a circle
around the pole so that the person working on the meter or enclosure is standing inside the ground-
ing network. All grounding in the area should be bonded together.
Grounding of instrument transformer cases must be in accordance with general utility practice.
The grounding practice determines whether secondary conductors are in metallic or non-metallic
enclosures.

Good Practices For Metering Personnel

Good metering practices ensure good service by preventing unnecessary outages and ensure good
customer relations by preventing damage to the customer’s equipment. Also, the meter employee will
not have to return to the customer’s premises for things forgotten or left undone. All these benefits
help the utility and the employee.
Following are some of the good metering practices, not necessarily in order of importance.

Competent metering employees will:

Recognize their responsibilities while on the customer’s premises.
• Take the nearest and safest route to accomplish the work.
• Take care not to damage any of the customer’s property.
• Leave the area clean upon completion of the job.
• Report any hazards to the meter department supervisor. 451
• Notify customer of work to be done onsite, if possible.

Work in the safest possible manner.

The Customers’ Premises, Service, and Installations

• Wear appropriate protective gear when performing meter work.
• Keep in mind that no job is so important that it cannot be done safely.
• Inspect all meter wiring connections for correctness.
• Check connections to prevent outages, damage to meter installation, damage to customer’s
property, and personal injury.

Inspect for loose connections.

• A loose connection can cause intermittent service or a complete outage. Loose connections
generally arc, causing a fire hazard. Even if there is no fire damage, heating around the connec-
tion occurs.

Inspect for good grounding.

• Check for equipment ground at the installation. Realize that no ground at the installation is a
potential hazard and report it to the supervisor.

Pay attention to details.

• Check meter voltage links for proper orientation (e.g., top-/bottom-fed on 2K meters).

Inspect connections between two dissimilar metals.

• Connection between two dissimilar metals often causes corrosion.
• Corrosion can be prevented by using the proper connector and by protecting the connector and
conductors against oxidation.
• Since corrosion has a high resistance and causes heating, wires corroded at a joint have the
same effect as a loose connection.

Check for proper voltages.

• Voltage should be checked before installing the meter.
• A reversal of the power and lighting leg on a four-wire delta system causes excess voltage on
customer’s equipment. Also, a reversal of the hot leg and ground has serious consequences.
• Grounded conductors and the power leg of four-wire delta services should be permanently
identified.

Check phase rotation.

• Phase rotation on installations which have been disconnected temporarily for service work
should be checked. If a reverse phase rotation is connected to the customer’s motors, they will
reverse, possibly causing extensive damage and personal injury.

Check for single phasing.

• It is possible to prevent damage to the customer’s property by disconnecting or warning the
customer to disconnect the load on a three-phase service when one phase is out. A running
three-phase motor may continue to run on single phase but will overheat. A stopped motor may
attempt to start but cannot, which causes overheating.

Observe direction of disk rotation.

• Whenever possible, try to get a load applied to the meter in order to check for correct disk
rotation.

Check for diversion.

• Always check for circuits tapped ahead of the meter or current transformers.
 452 Check for correct installation information.
• Check for correct phase, amperes, volts, and frequency.
• Check for such details as multipliers, full scales, readings, and similar data.
Handbook for Electricity Metering

• Check all written records against actual nameplate data.

Check to see if meter is level.

• An out-of-plumb meter may be inaccurate. Besides being inaccurate, it also presents an
unsightly appearance to the customer.

Give the entire job a good once over before leaving it.
• Check the job in general for good workmanship and safety before leaving. Be sure the area
surrounding the meter is left clean and neat.
Meter employees are the utility in the eyes of many customers. They can make a good impression on
the customer by being neat in dress, accurate in work, and courteous at all times. Having equipment
and tools in good, clean condition will build the customer’s confidence in the utility and reassure the
customer of the employee’s skill. Sloppy dress, actions, and equipment leave a poor impression.
There are probably many other practices which are followed on local levels throughout the coun-
try, but if employees observe those listed, they will turn out a good job. Failure to follow any one of
these practices may result in extensive property damage, personal injury, outage of service, or a loss
of revenue. And, last but by no means least, it may impair that valuable asset to a public utility—good
customer relations.

Safety
Though this is the last section in this chapter, safety must be first and foremost in the technician’s
mind when performing meter work. Safety has no beginning or end—it must be continuous. Some
safety tips include:
• Park vehicles so they don’t need to be backed out when the job is complete.
• Wear all personal protective equipment (PPE) from the time you leaves the truck until you
return to it when the job is complete.
• Inspect all PPE and tools prior to use.
• Survey the job to determine test equipment or supplies will be staged.
• Determine an escape route in case of a flash or a fire and identify any trip hazards or uneven
ground.
• If the work area is cluttered, ask that it be cleaned up. A flash can catch nearby debris on fire.
• Don’t carry too much equipment at a time to the job site. If necessary, use a cart.
• Stage all equipment and tools before opening the meter enclosure so that a socket won’t be
exposed while going back to the truck for more tools.
• Do not carry anything in such a way as to block your eyesight.
• Take a deep breath and hold it while removing or installing a meter. If a flash occurs, a person’s
first reaction is to take a deep breath and inhale the fire and smoke.
• Perform a thorough inspection of the removed meter and the meter socket for signs of burning
or arching. Look for discoloration or melting of the conductors coming off the socket terminals
and notify the customer and your supervisor if such signs exist.
• Make sure all tools and equipment are picked up.
• Always leave the site safe.
• Even though the truck is parked so it doesn’t need to be backed up to exit the site, perform a
four-corner walk-around to ensure there are no dangers present.
 Chapter 20

The Standards Laboratory

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY is part of the meter department but is often a separate division from
the meter shop. The scope of the standards laboratory may include only the certification of portable
watthour standards and other portable instruments, or it may be extensive and include such functions
as new product approval testing, acceptance testing of materials and apparatus, special investigations,
and research work. Regardless of the scope, the fundamental responsibility of the laboratory is to
obtain accurate measurements while maintaining traceability to national standards.
The basic functions of the standards laboratory are as follows:
1. Calibration and certification of working standards by comparison with secondary reference
standards.
2. Calibration and certification of secondary reference standards by comparison with primary
transfer standards.
3. Calibration of primary transfer standards with fundamental primary standards. If the primary
standards are maintained within the standards laboratory, the comparison is an internal func-
tion. For those electric utility companies that do not maintain primary standards, the calibra-
tion of transfer standards may be performed in another approved laboratory that maintains
traceability to national standards.
4. Calibration and certification of transfer standards directly to standards maintained by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) or with an approved laboratory that
maintains direct traceability to NIST.
5. Intercomparison of primary standards. The direct current (DC) volt references, standard resis-
tors, time base, and associated equipment employed to calibrate the primary transfer standard
are the laboratory’s highest internal authority on the value of electric measuring units and
should be intercompared regularly to ensure the integrity of their measurement accuracies.
6. Regular calibration of primary standards. Primary standards are sent periodically for calibration
to NIST or to an approved laboratory that has its own primary standards regularly certified by
NIST.
7. Acceptance tests and determination of the characteristics of new types or designs of watthour
meters, watthour standards, portable instruments, instrument transformers, and other electric
measuring devices to determine their suitability for use by the electric utility company.
8. Special investigations relating to metering or measurement problems. Such investigations may
require extensive tests both in the laboratory and in the field under actual operating conditions.
9. In addition to these basic functions, the standards laboratory may include in its scope of opera-
tions the repair of electric instruments and related devices. Assistance may be given to other
sections of the electric utility company with electric measurements and tests.

453
 454 Key instruments used in the standards laboratory:
1. Primary standards for DC voltage, resistance, and time
2. DC to alternating current (AC) primary transfer standards
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

3. Secondary reference standards

4. Portable working standards
5. 8½-digit multimeter
6. Voltage and current sources

Standardization and National Metrology Laboratories

The basic electric units of the volt, ohm, ampere, and the second have been established by inter-
national agreement in conferences. Countries such as the United States, Canada, England, France,
Germany, and Japan maintain bureaus of standardization in which duplicates of these units, or the
means for producing the units, are kept under conditions which ensure their permanence. As a further
check upon the constancy of the units, intercomparison is made periodically.
In the United States, the source of ultimate authority in electric measurements, and the U.S. repre-
sentative in the international system of standardization, is NIST, located in Gaithersburg, Maryland.
Here, basic units are preserved, together with secondary units and high-grade instruments by means of
which commercial measuring devices may be compared with these basic units.
Starting with NIST, a comprehensive system of standardization has been developed. Facilities are
available whereby each electric utility company may be assured of the accuracy of its measurements,
and may have its standards compared with the basic units at NIST. It is important to note that in
recognition of NIST’s services and metrology capabilities, many electric utility companies in vari-
ous countries utilize NIST as their traceable pinnacle for the watthour and other key measurement
functions.

Standard Types
An electricity reference standard is an instrument that measures electrical parameters and is accepted
as a basis for comparison. This acceptance is based upon its traceable accuracy and the criteria used
to define its accuracy. The standard is used as a comparison to measurement instruments of lesser
accuracy and therefore plays a key role in the standards laboratory.
Electric utility companies use reference standards to ensure the integrity of their revenue billing
system. Because consumers are charged a fee for the energy they use, it is important that the accuracy
of the revenue billing meters be maintained, documented, properly stored, and easily proven. The
various types of reference standards are the foundation of that responsibility. In addition, reference
standards are used to evaluate the performance of new metering products and to do approval testing
of those new products.
There are different types of standards designed for different applications.

PRIMARY STANDARDS
Primary standards are the basis for all measurements and consist of a DC voltage standard, a standard
resistor, and a time standard.
Zener-based DC reference standards (such as the Fluke Zener Reference model 732B) and the
Josephson Junction (such as the HYPRES model 2000) have effectively replaced the dated saturated
and unsaturated standard cells which are no longer manufactured. When using the Zener Reference
it is common to maintain a four-cell array of Zener References, as this provides for a good statisti-
cal group and offers redundancy should one fail. The Josephson Junction is maintained by some
National Metrology Institutes, such as NIST, but to this date is not commonly used by electric utility
laboratories.
Resistance standards (such as the Guildline model 9330/10k) are used as the primary reference
for the ohm. If the laboratory maintains tight temperature control, then the standard resistor can be
used at room temperature. Alternatively, for more precise ambient temperature control the standard
resistor can be maintained in a temperature controlled oil bath for maximum stability.
Time standards consist of crystal-based universal time/frequency counters (such as the Hewlett
Packard model 5334B) or global positioning systems (GPS) (such as the Arbiter Systems Satellite
Controlled Frequency Standard model 1083B). These two modern time standards have effectively 455
replaced the pendulum clock.
Primary standards are normally used to calibrate the primary transfer standard. The three funda-
mental calibrations performed on the primary transfer standard are DC voltage, DC current (using

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY

the standard DC volt reference and the standard resistor), and time. These three primary standards
and their subsequent measurements, or values, determine the watthour calculation of the primary
transfer standard. See Figure 20-1, which illustrates the balance of the DC to AC accuracy transfer.

PRIMARY TRANSFER STANDARD

This standard has the ability to do a DC to AC transfer whereby primary standards can be compared
to the transfer standard. The transfer standard can then be used to calibrate secondary standards and/
or portable working standards. If the electric utility company does not maintain primary standards,
then the transfer standard can be tested directly by NIST or another approved laboratory that main-
tains direct traceability to NIST. The primary transfer standard is the most accurate and precise energy
reference standard in a given laboratory because its accuracy is transferred directly from primary
standards or a higher level metrology laboratory such as NIST. The accuracy of the primary transfer
standard is then transferred to all other AC measuring instruments. Normally a quantity of three of
these standards would be used together as a standard bank. The use of three standards provides a good
statistical average which can improve repeatability of results and better ensure measurement integrity.
The Radian Research model RD-22 is an example of a primary transfer standard (see Figure 20-2).
The RD-22 has a DC to AC transfer accuracy of 0.005% and provides simultaneous measurements
of multiple functions including watthours, VARhours, VAhours, Q-hours, volts, amps, watts, VAR,
VA, millivolt-hours, milliamp-hours, volt-squared-hours, amp-squared-hours, phase angle, power
factor, and frequency. The multifunction capability of the RD-22 has eliminated the need for separate
standards for the watt, AC volt, and AC current. The RD-22 has a wide auto-ranging voltage input of
30 to 600 volts AC and wide auto-ranging concentric core current comparator input of 0.2 to 200
amps, therefore eliminating the need for external transformers historically used to isolate the reference
standard from the standard being tested. The RD-22 can also analyze distorted waveforms up to the
50th harmonic order, allowing for traceability with harmonics (see Figure 20-3).

OHMS
SECONDS
VOLTS WATTHOURS

Figure 20-1. Balance of the DC to AC Accuracy Transfer.

 456
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 20-2. The Radian Research Model RD-22 Primary Transfer Standard.

SECONDARY STANDARD
The secondary standard is also referred to as the working reference standard and is tested against the
primary transfer standard to ensure its accuracy. The role of the secondary standard is to test portable
working standards. Some electric utility laboratories may not use a secondary standard. Instead, they
may use the primary transfer standard in this role.
The Scientific Columbus model SC-60 and the Radian Research model RM-11 were very popular
secondary standards. The Radian Research model RD-21 is a modern secondary reference standard
with accuracy of 0.02% that applies to all measurement functions across the entire operating range
of the product, and includes the variables of stability, power factor, traceability uncertainty, and
test system errors. The RD-21 provides simultaneous measurements of multiple functions including
watthours, VARhours, VAhours, Q-hours, volts, amps, watts, VAR, VA, millivolt-hours, milliamp-hours,
volt-squared-hours, amp-squared-hours, phase angle, power factor, and frequency. The wide auto-
ranging voltage input of 30 to 600 volts and wide auto-ranging current input of 0.05 to 120 amps
have effectively eliminated the need for external transformers ­historically used to isolate the reference
standard from the standard under test. These external transformers added unnecessary error to the test
system. The RD-21 can accurately sense and measure the exact voltage and current test signals being
applied to the standard under test, as well as analyze distorted waveforms up to the 50th harmonic
order, allowing for testing of harmonic analyzing instruments (see Figure 20-4).
Normally a quantity of three of these standards would be used together as a standard bank. The
use of three improves repeatability of measurements and ensures measurement integrity.
 457

External Primary
Internal

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY

Reference
(DC Voltage) Voltage
Reference

Electronically
Compensated Integrating A/D
Transformer with Converter
Auto-ranging for Voltage
Circuit

Current Comparator Current Integrating A/D

Digital Signal
Transformer Auto-ranging Converter Register/LCD
Processor
Input Circuit for Current

External Primary Internal

Reference Gate Array Pulse Output
Current
(DC Current) Reference
(Vref/Rref)

External
Primary Reference
Internal
(Time/
Frequency
Frequency)
Reference

Figure 20-3. Block Diagram of the RD-22 Interfaced with Primary References for a DC to AC Accuracy Transfer.

There are sourcing standards available such as the Radian Research RS-933, that replaced the RS-
703A. The RS-933 is used by many electric utility companies as a secondary working standard because
it is a complete system capable of collecting data from multiple standards being tested simultaneously
and then displaying and saving the test results.

PRIMARY WATTHOUR STANDARD

This standard is not used by all standards laboratories, but is used enough to justify a description of
its application and purpose. Some electric utility companies do not ­maintain primary standards and
therefore do not have traceability to NIST or another approved metrology institute for those funda-
mental references. However, these same electric utilities companies may choose to maintain trace-
ability for the watthour as well as other key measurements, such as the VARhour, AC volt, etc. The
standard used in this application is sometimes referred to as the primary watthour standard or pri-
mary multi­function standard. This standard may be used to test secondary standards or to directly test
portable working standards. Normally a quantity of three of these standards would be used together as
a primary standard bank. The use of three improves repeatability of results and ensures measurement
integrity. The Scientific Columbus model SC-60 and the Radian Research model RM-11 were used in
this application. Modern standards that are used in this application are the Radian Research models
RD-22 and RD-21. Therefore, the primary watthour standard can be either the primary transfer
standard or the secondary reference standard without the use of the primary standards.

PORTABLE WORKING STANDARD

The portable working standard may also be referred to as the field standard. The portable working
standard is the most common type of standard and is used to test revenue billing watthour meters.
 458
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Figure 20-4. Radian Research Model RD-21 Figure 20-5. Radian Research Model RD-20
Portable Reference Standard. Portable Working Standard.

It has its accuracy tested against a secondary working standard. Electric utility companies typically
test their portable working standards monthly, quarterly, or bi-annually, and it may be found as the
reference in meter shop test bench and field test kits. The Scientific Columbus model SC-10 and the
Radian Research model RM-10 were very popular portable working standards. The Radian Research
model RD-20 is a modern portable working standard with accuracy of 0.05% that applies to all
measurement functions across the entire operating range of the product and includes the variables of
stability, power factor, traceability uncertainty, and test system errors (see Figure 20-5).
The RD-20 provides simultaneous measurements of multiple functions, including watthours,
­VARhours, VAhours, Q-hours, volts, amps, watts, VAR, VA, millivolt-hours, milliamp-hours, volt-
squared-hours, amp-squared-hours, phase angle, power factor, and frequency. The wide auto-ranging
voltage input of 60 to 600 volts and wide auto-ranging current input of 0.05 to 120 amps allow for
simple operation in the field. The RD-20 can also analyze distorted waveforms up to the 50th har-
monic order allowing for customer load analysis in the field.

Voltage and Current Sources

The voltage and current sources provide the needed test signals to carry out accuracy certifications.
The voltage signal is connected in parallel between the reference standard and the standard under
test. The current signal is connected in series from the reference standard to the standard under test.
Modern computer controlled synthesized sources allow for very precise control over signal amplitude,
phase angle, and frequency. Systems such as the Radian Research model RS-933 also provide the ability
to create operator defined harmonic waveforms. The RS-933 Automated Calibration System provides
computer controlled sources along with data collection capabilities to automatically calculate and save
test results (see Figure 20-6).
In fact, the RS-933 can be used seamlessly with the Radian Research RD-22 primary transfer
standard. In this arrangement, the RD-22 is communicating with the RS-933 using the serial port
while the standards under test have their pulses counted by the RS-933 Data Collection Module. At
the conclusion of the test, results are saved and displayed showing the error of the standard under test
against that of the RD-22 as well as against the results calculated by the RS-933. In this arrangement,
the RD-22 is a sensing standard while the RS-933 is a sourcing standard providing an effective check
and balance system (see Figure 20-7).
 Therefore, as a standalone calibration system, the 459
RS-933 can be used as a secondary standard or, with
a primary transfer standard such as the RD-22, the
RS-933 provides accurate, stable test signals while also

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY

serving as a cross check for the test results.

Digital Multimeter
The digital multimeter has effectively replaced the role
of the potentiometer and resistance bridge methods in
the standards laboratory. The 8½-digit multimeter is
used as the key instrument for performing intercompari-
sons of primary standards. The Hewlett Packard model
3458A is a common laboratory multimeter.

The Chain of Standardization

Every measurement performed in the standards labora-
tory must have accuracy which is traceable to a national
metrology institute, such as NIST. The path of that
traceability is often referred to as a chain of standardiza-
tion. See Figure 20-8 for a typical chain of standardiza-
tion from NIST to the portable working standard.
This diagram illustrates the interrelations of the
instruments and methods discussed. The three intrinsic
references of NIST are the Josephson Junction for the Figure 20-6. Radian Research Model RS-933
volt, a Superconducting Hall Effect for the ohm, and a Calibration System.
Hydrogen Maser for the second. Numerous variations of
the basic procedures are possible. In some cases, electric
utility companies will have a standards laboratory fully
equipped with all of the instruments as described. However, Alternative A (as shown in Figure 20-8)
illustrates that a laboratory could forego maintaining the primary standards and could instead use
the primary transfer standard for traceability to NIST, while Alternative B illustrates that a laboratory
could forego maintaining the primary standards as well as the primary transfer standard and only
use the secondary reference standard for traceability to NIST. This would then be referred to as the

External Primary External Primary

Reference Reference
(DC Voltage) (DC Current)

Radian RS-933
Radian RD-22 (X3)
Computer Controlled
Multimeasurement
AC Voltage and
Transfer Standard
Current Source

External Primary
Reference Units Under Test
(Time/Frequency)

Figure 20-7. Block Diagram of the Radian Research RD-22 and RS-933 Test System.
 460
Intrinsic
Volt
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

NIST
Intrinsic
Ohm GPS

Intrinsic
Volt Ohm

Second
Second

Fundamental
Digital
Primary
Multimeter
References

Volt AMP Second

Computer
DC to AC Alternate A
Controlled Voltage
Transfer
and Current
Standard
Source

Note 1 Secondary Alternate B

Reference
Standard

Portable
Working
Standard

Figure 20-8. Typical Chain of Standardization from NIST.

primary watthour standard. However, it is important to note that Alternative B will not provide the
same degree of accuracy and certainty of measurements. Note 1 of Figure 20-8 points out that some
manufacturers, such as Radian Research, have a complete metrology laboratory and maintain all of the
necessary instruments, including both DC and AC, for traceability to NIST. These laboratories provide
certification and calibration services to the electric utility industry. Some electric utility ­companies
choose Alternative B and utilize a metrology laboratory, such as Radian Research, for their traceability
to NIST.
The particular standards laboratory approach used will vary among electric utility companies and
may depend upon factors such as size of the utility and the accompanying description of its laboratory
responsibilities.
Therefore, certification of instruments may be obtained from sources other than NIST, such as
manufacturers or other laboratories having primary standards certified by NIST. In all cases, the
calibration of the equipment used to establish the watthour should be traceable to NIST.

Test Accuracy (Uncertainty) Ratio

The accuracy in the chain of standardization is determined by the combined accuracy of calibration
involved in all previous steps. Theoretically, the total error could equal the sum of all previous errors.
In actual practice, there will generally be some cancellation of errors.
To reduce the effect of accumulated errors in a chain of standardization, each higher standard in
the chain should also have greater accuracy. Ideally, each standard should be 10 times more accurate
than the one it is to test. A 10:1 accuracy ratio in each step cannot be maintained because in a six-
step chain, the overall accuracy ratio would be 106, or one million to one. The accuracy requirements
of the higher steps would greatly exceed the capabilities of the best available standards.
 In practice, accuracy ratios of 2:1 (at a minimum) to 4:1 are generally the best that can be real- 461
ized for each step with present instruments. With these lower accuracy ratios, great care is required to
eliminate, or correct for, errors in each step.
It is important to point out that verifying products have become very common for field applica-

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY

tions. These verifying products should not be confused with true reference standards. Verifying
products do not have the accuracy ratios required to perform tests of the revenue billing meter with
confidence. Generally, verifying products do not list complete accuracy specifications which define
all variables that can contribute to error. While these verifying products do have an application, this
application does not encompass testing of the meter.

Standard Attributes
A reference standard, regardless of its type or classification, has certain attributes by which it is classi-
fied. These attributes are generally listed in the manufacturer’s specifications for a given model of stan-
dard. They are accuracy, repeatability, stability, calibration uncertainty, traceability, and functionality.

ACCURACY (UNCERTAINTY)
The term accuracy is a measure of the degree to which a measurement or calibration approaches the
true value. However, in reality there is always some uncertainty associated with the ability to deter-
mine how close to true we really are. Therefore, the term accuracy is slowly being replaced by the term
uncertainty. A measurement may be comprised of type A uncertainty components and type B uncer-
tainty. A type A uncertainty might be gained from statistical means, e.g., the standard deviation of a
group of measurements, whereas examples of type B uncertainties may be obtained from calibration
reports or the manufacturers’ specifications. Accuracy is often stated for a given temperature range and
should not be confused with what is often specified as operating range.

REPEATABILITY
Repeatability is also referred to as precision. This variable relates to the degree of self-consistency an
instrument has for the same given test parameters. Note that an instrument can have repeatability
without being accurate. Repeatability or precision is a measure of the degree of consistency in a series
of measurements.

STABILITY
Stability relates to an instrument’s drift over a designated period of time and refers to how consistent
the instrument’s measurement accuracy is over time. Stability is often measured in the short or long
term. Equipment datasheets would normally reference a time period for the long term but may also
provide an indication of its short term stability. Short term stability may be in minutes or hours and is
often used in a lab that conducts measurement transfers where the same measurement condition may
be repeated with a short period using the same device. This enables the lab to ignore certain compo-
nents of uncertainty to achieve tighter transfer uncertainties.

UNCERTAINTY
This variable refers to the degree of certainty that a given measurement and/or accuracy specifica-
tion is correct. This variable is applied so that those using the instrument (and therefore its accuracy
capabilities) can assess the reliability or certainty of the results. Uncertainty is often qualified by a
confidence interval, that is used to indicate the reliability of the estimated uncertainty.

TRACEABILITY
This variable refers to the accuracy path of a given instrument back to a national measurement
institute, NIST in the U.S. It is important that the accuracy of a given instrument be traceable back to
the highest available level with the shortest possible path.

FUNCTIONALITY
Functionality refers to the different types of measurements that the standard is capable of measuring
and therefore it has traceability for these measurements. The more measurement functions, the more
applications there are for the standard.
 462 Random (Type A) and Systematic (Type B) Errors
Small residual errors are always present in any measurement. These errors may be divided into two
general types, random or systematic. Random errors occur without any apparent pattern in a series of
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

repeated measurements with the same equipment and can be detected through statistical analysis. The
standard deviation, sigma, of a series of measurements containing random errors is a good indication
of the precision of the measurement (the calculation and uses of the standard deviation are found in
books on statistical analysis).
Systematic errors are much more difficult to detect or analyze. These are errors that may be fixed
or may vary in a recognizable pattern. If variable, they may be detected as a systematic change in the
results of a series of repeated measurements. The pattern may be a trend in one direction with time,
a periodic function of time, or a function of temperature or some other variable. Systematic errors
which remain constant are the most troublesome of all, as they cannot be readily detected in a series
of repeated measurements.
Fixed systematic errors are detected and eliminated by making cross checks using a different
method, different equipment, or both. If the results agree, the probability of an undetected systematic
error is small, since it is unlikely that each test involved identical systematic errors. If the results do
not agree, systematic error is present in one or both measurements. Fixed systematic errors may be due
to an unknown change in the calibration of any piece of equipment, unknown voltage drops in test
circuits, unknown magnetic coupling between circuits, or innumerable other causes.

Calibration
Calibration is a comparison between two measurements, one of known magnitude or correctness
made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way as possible with a
second device. Not all equipment has the same stability. To ensure the equipment is operating within
known tolerances the equipment requires periodic calibration. The interval between periodic calibra-
tion may be determined by a number of factors, including:
1. A process or procedure defined by the utility
2. A recommended interval of calibration specified by the equipment manufacturer
3. The device broke and required repair
The result of a calibration is a calibration report indicating the date and place the calibration took
place, the equipment used to perform the calibration and the calibration result(s) with a stated
measurement uncertainty. The calibration report is an important document and is evidence of a
calibration that should be reviewed carefully and stored in a safe place for future reference. Some labs
will produce two reports, as found (the status of the equipment on arrival to the lab) and as left (how
the equipment performed following any adjustment, repair, or updates).
Careful scrutiny of a calibration report will provide information that may determine the per-
formance of the device against the manufacturers’ claimed specifications. A calibration report with
test data significantly in tolerance using equipment with adequate test accuracy ratio indicates the
lab is proficient. Conversely, test data that is close to exceeding the manufacturer’s specification,
using equipment that has low (or equal) test accuracy ratio may be of little value in determining the
adequacy of the device being calibrated.
Equipment that requires routine calibration will have a calibration label attached indicating when
the last calibration took place and when the next calibration is due. These calibration due labels
should be inspected before use to ensure that the equipment is in compliance with the utility’s quality
operating procedures.

Laboratory Intercomparison
To eliminate the possibility of systematic errors and thereby establish confidence at each level of
standardization, suitable cross checks must be made. Much of this cross checking may be done
within a single laboratory if some alternate equipment is available. However, complete duplication
of all equipment is seldom economically feasible. To overcome equipment limitations, measurement
intercomparisons may be made with other laboratories. Two electric utility laboratories may easily
perform intercomparison of their watthour standards by carefully packaging and shipping calibrated
portable secondary reference standards from one laboratory to the other. The electric utility can also 463
use the certification and calibration services of a metrology laboratory such as the one maintained
by Radian Research in Lafayette, Indiana. Radian Research maintains all needed references traceable
to NIST. The standards should be rechecked upon return to the home laboratory to be sure they have

THE STANDARDS LABORATORY

not changed due to transportation. Such ­intercomparisons or round robin checks involving several
laboratories provide information of great value to all participating laboratories. Good agreement in
such inter-laboratory comparisons provides assurance that accuracy is being maintained, while a lack
of agreement will often uncover unsuspected systematic errors.

Resolution
Resolution refers to the number of significant digits that can be read from the display of a given
instrument. Resolution has no direct relationship to precision or accuracy. In high quality instruments,
the resolution is usually slightly greater than the precision of the instrument, and the precision, in
turn, usually exceeds the guaranteed accuracy. Instruments with a resolution which is in excess of
their precision or accuracy are misleading because they imply a higher degree of precision than actu-
ally exists.
The resolution of a portable watthour standard can be increased almost without limit by increas-
ing the time of the test run, but this does not increase the precision or the accuracy of the measure-
ment after the point is passed where resolution is the limiting factor.

Laboratory Location and Conditions

The standards laboratory should be located in an area free from sources of noise, vibrations, dust, and
dirt. Ideally, it should be located in a room separate from other meter department operations.
Air conditioning should be used to control room temperatures to 23° C 2° and to keep relative
humidity below 65%. For the most accurate work with primary standards, such control is a necessity.
The accuracy of some standards is significantly affected by temperature and humidity. If humidity is to
be controlled, 50% is considered ideal.
High-intensity lighting with a minimum amount of glare is necessary for the accurate testing and
repairing of precision instruments. Diffused light sources provide ideal laboratory lighting conditions.
The basic 60 hertz power sources to the laboratory should be of ample capacity, well regulated, and
free from sudden transients caused by motor starting. A separate transformer bank for laboratory test
circuits is often a necessary or desirable solution. If laboratory motor generator sets and phase-shifting
generators are used, they should not be sourced from the test circuits.
In many cases, electronic voltage regulators may be needed in the laboratory to provide stable test
sources. All AC sources should supply clean sine waves, as waveform distortion can cause measure-
ment errors. Direct current sources can be obtained from batteries or rectifiers. If rectifiers are used,
they must be well filtered to keep the AC ripple at a very low value. Dynamometer and D’Arsonval
instruments will not agree on a DC source containing significant ripple. Rectifiers must be extremely
well regulated if they are to be used for potentiometer work.
Regardless of the accuracy of the equipment used, accurate electric measurements cannot be made
with unstable or distorted sources of power.

Laboratory Operation
Successful operation of a standards laboratory requires the possession and maintenance of certified
standards of suitable types, highly trained laboratory personnel who understand the art and science of
accurate measurement, the availability of sufficient time and money for the regular program of peri-
odic standardization and intercomparison, and proper documentation. This documentation includes
defined and controlled procedures for the key laboratory activities of calibrations, certifications, cross
checks, and traceability. It is very important that records be appropriately maintained and accessible.
 Chapter 21

Standards

Introduction—What Are Standards?

Standards are published documents that establish specifications and procedures designed to
maximize the safety and reliability of the materials, products, methods, and/or services people use
every day. Standards address a range of issues, including, but not limited to, various communication
protocols to help maximize product functionality and compatibility, as well as facilitate interoperabil-
ity. Standards also support consumer safety and public health.
Standards form the fundamental building blocks for product development by establishing con-
sistent requirements that can be universally understood and adopted. This helps fuel compatibility
and interoperability, simplifies product development, and speeds time to market. Standards also make
simpler the understanding and comparison of competing products. As standards are globally adopted
and applied in many markets, they also facilitate international trade.
The prescription and use of standards may ultimately ensure the requirements of safety, reliability,
interconnectivity, and interoperability. Additionally, only through the application of standards can the
credibility of new products and new markets be fully verified. In summary, standards fuel the develop-
ment and implementation of technologies that influence and transform the way we live, work, and
communicate.1
In the realm of electricity metering, standards are essential for providing uniformity of metering
products, operational consistency, and interoperability between products of different manufacturers.
For example, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C12.10 standard defines the physical
dimensions and spacing of a watthour meter’s terminal blades. This ensures that the physical dimen-
sions of the meter base components are consistent for all meter manufacturers and guarantees that
they are compatible with any brand of meter socket that follows the companion ANSI C12.7 standard
for sockets.
In addition to the physical specifications of products, standards also cover requirements for proce-
dures and methods, such as those used for the accuracy testing of watthour meters (ANSI C12.1 and
ANSI C12.20) and instrument transformers (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, C57.13
series). Finally, standards address such technical requirements as communication protocols (e.g., ANSI
C12.18 specifies point-to-point serial communications via the optical port) and meter data handling
methodologies through the definition of data formats and data table structures for data exchange,
such as those contained within ANSI C12.19.

1
Adopted from http://standards.ieee.org/develop/overview.html.

465
 466 Who Develops Standards?
Over time, various standards development organizations have naturally emerged, each covering specific
areas of interest. Organizations responsible for the development of standards related to the metering
Handbook for Electricity Metering

industry include the ANSI, the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the Interna-
tional Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and Underwriters Laboratories (UL).

American National Standards Institute

The American National Standards Institute (www.ansi.org) is a private, non-profit organization that
fosters the development of technology standards for products, services, processes, and systems in
the United States. ANSI oversees the creation, promulgation, and use of thousands of standards and
guidelines that directly impact businesses in nearly every sector, from acoustical devices to construc-
tion equipment, from dairy and livestock production to energy distribution, and many more. ANSI
is also actively engaged in accreditation programs that assess conformance to standards, including
globally-recognized cross-sector programs such as the ISO 9000 (quality) and ISO 14000 (environ-
mental management) systems.
The C12 series of ANSI standards and technical reports covers electricity metering product require-
ments, meter mounting and testing equipment requirements, communication protocols, and testing.
• ANSI C12.1—Code for Electricity Metering. This standard establishes acceptable performance
criteria for new types of alternating current (AC) watthour meters, demand registers, pulse
devices, and auxiliary devices. It also describes acceptable in-service performance levels for
meters and devices used in revenue metering (see Figure 21-1).
• ANSI C12.7—Requirements for Watthour Meter Sockets. This standard contains the general
requirements and pertinent dimensions applicable to watthour meter sockets rated up to and
including 600 V, and up to and including 320 A continuous duty per socket opening (see
Figure 21-2).
• ANSI C12.9—Test Switches for Transformer-Rated Meters. This standard covers the dimensions
and functions of meter test switches used with transformer-rated watthour meters in conjunc-
tion with instrument transformers (see Figure 21-6).
• ANSI C12.10—Physical Aspect of Electricity Meters—Safety Standard. This standard covers the
physical aspects of both detachable and bottom-connected watthour meters and associated
registers. It also includes ratings, internal wiring arrangements, pertinent dimensions, markings,
and other general specifications (see Figure 21-1).
• ANSI C12.11—Instrument Transformers for Revenue Metering, 10kV BIL through 350kV BIL
(0.6kV NSV through 69kV NSV). This standard covers the general requirements, revenue grade
accuracy, thermal ratings, and dimensions applicable to current and inductively coupled voltage
transformers for revenue metering (see Figure 21-5).
• ANSI C12.18—Protocol Specification for ANSI Type 2 Optical Port. This document details the
criteria required for communications with an electricity metering device by another device
via an optical port. This document provides details for a complete implementation of an OSI
7-layer2 model (see Figure 21-3).
• ANSI C12.19—Utility Industry End Device Data Tables. This standard defines a table structure
for utility application data to be passed between an end device and any other device. It, how-
ever, neither defines device design criteria nor specifies the language or protocol used to trans-
port that data (see Figure 21-3).
• ANSI C12.20—0.2 and 0.5 Accuracy Classes for Electricity Meters. This standard establishes the
physical aspects and acceptable performance criteria for 0.2 and 0.5 accuracy class electricity
meters meeting Blondel’s Theorem. Where differences exist between the requirements of this
standard and C12.1 and C12.10, the requirements of this standard shall prevail. Conversely,
for requirements not specifically addressed within this standard, defer to ANSI C12.1 (see
Figure 21-2).

 ISO/IEC 7498-1, “Information Technology—Open Systems Interconnection—Basic Reference Model: The Basic
2

Model,” Second edition, corrected and reprinted 1996-06-15.

 • ANSI C12.21—Protocol Specification for Telephone Modem Communication. This document 467
details the criteria required for communications between an electric power metering device and
a utility host via a modem connected to the switched telephone network (see Figure 21-4).

Standards
• ANSI C12.22—Protocol Specification for Interfacing to Data Communication Networks. This
standard extends the concepts of the ANSI C12.18, C12.19, and C12.21 standards to allow
transport of table data over any reliable networking communication system (see Figure 21-4).

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers—Standards Association

The IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) is a leading consensus building organization that nurtures,
develops, and advances global technologies through IEEE (www.ieee.org). IEEE-SA brings together a
broad range of individuals and organizations from a wide range of technical and geographic points of
origin to facilitate standards development and standards related collaboration.
• IEEE C57.13—IEEE Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers. This standard is
intended for use as a basis for performance and interchangeability of equipment covered, and
to assist in the proper selection of such equipment. Safety precautions are also addressed. This
standard covers certain electrical, dimensional, and mechanical characteristics, and takes into
consideration certain safety features of current and inductively coupled voltage transformers of
types generally used in the measurement of electricity and the control of equipment associated
with the generation, transmission, and distribution of alternating current (see Figure 21-5).
• IEEE C57.13.6—IEEE Standard for High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers. This standard
defines one new 0.15 accuracy class for voltage transformers, two new 0.15 accuracy classes for
current transformers, two new current transformer burdens, and two new current transformer
routine accuracy test methods. These supplement IEEE Std. C57.13™. The new burdens shall be
considered for use when current transformers are to be used with electronic meters, and the
total in-circuit burden will be less than B-0.1 (2.5 VA at 5 A, 0.9 power factor) defined in IEEE
Std C57.13. The new accuracy classes, 0.15 and 0.15S, are available to complement the capabili-
ties of solid state electricity metering of equipment associated with the generation, transmission,
and distribution of alternating current.

International Electrotechnical Commission

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the leading global organization that publishes
consensus-based international standards and manages conformity assessment systems for electric and
electronic products, systems, and services, collectively known as electrotechnology (www.iec.ch).
IEC standards are developed by nationally-nominated technical experts in working groups orga-
nized under technical committees of related subject matter. Two particular technical committees, TC13
and TC57, are pertinent for electricity metering.
• TC13 concerns itself with electrical energy measurement and control, and, more specifically,
the field of AC and direct current (DC) electrical energy measurement and control, for smart
metering equipment and systems forming part of smart grids, used in power stations, along the
network, and at energy users and producers. They also prepare international standards for meter
test equipment and methods.
• TC57 concerns itself with power systems management and associated information exchange,
and, more specifically, to prepare international standards for power systems control equipment
and systems including Energy Management Systems (EMS), Supervisory Control and Data Acqui-
sition (SCADA), distribution automation, teleprotection, and associated information exchange
for real-time and non-real-time information, used in the planning, operation, and maintenance
of power systems. Power systems management comprises control within control centers, sub-
stations, and individual pieces of primary equipment, including telecontrol and interfaces to
equipment, systems, and databases, which may be outside the scope of TC57.
The TC13 and TC57 standards of interest include, but are not limited to, the following series of
standards: 62052 (performance and safety), 62053 (performance and safety), 62056 (protocol and
information exchange), 61850 (substation automation), and 61968 (application integration and
information exchange). These standards for the most part parallel the ANSI C12 standards, though
products conforming to them are not necessarily interchangeable or interoperable.
 468 National Electric Manufacturers Association
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) is the association of electrical equipment
and medical imaging manufacturers (www.nema.org). Founded in 1926 and headquartered in Rosslyn,
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Virginia, its 400-plus member companies manufacture a diverse set of products used in the generation,
transmission, distribution, and end use of electricity as well as medical diagnostic imaging. NEMA also
has an associate membership program for non-manufacturers such as industrial suppliers, wholesale
traders, associated enterprises (utilities and consultants), and associations. NEMA serves as the
Secretariat under ANSI to manage the C12 series of standards and ensure they are produced under the
ANSI rules.
With respect to metering, there are two relevant standards that NEMA has published in recent
years:
• NEMA C12.24 TR-2011—Definitions for Calculations of VA, VAh, VAR, and VARh for Polyphase
Electricity Meters. This technical report establishes names and mathematical definitions for the
voltampere (VA), voltampere hours (VAh), voltamperes reactive (VAR), and voltampere reac-
tive hours (VARh) formulae used by polyphase electricity meters. The mathematical definitions
assume static waveforms.
• NEMA SG-AMI 1—Requirements for Smart Meter Upgradeability. This standard defines require-
ments that include secure local and remote upgrades of smart meter: metrology, Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI) applications, AMI communications, Home Area Network (HAN)
applications, and HAN communications.

Underwriters Laboratories
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is a global independent safety science company with more than
a century of expertise innovating safety solutions from the public adoption of electricity to new
breakthroughs in sustainability, renewable energy, and nanotechnology (www.ul.com). Dedicated to
promoting safe living and working environments, UL helps safeguard people, products, and places,
facilitating trade, and provides peace of mind for consumers of products available on the market.
UL works with a diverse array of stakeholders, optimizing the supply chain for manufacturers, by
providing a broad range of services that support every stage of a product’s life cycle. UL works with
retailers and government entities by collaborating on standards that create a level playing field for all.
UL standards are used to assess products; test components, materials, systems, and performance; and
evaluate environmentally sustainable products, renewable energies, food and water products, recycling
systems, and other innovative technologies.
Examples of UL standards relevant to the meter socket industry include:
• UL 414—Requirements for meter sockets used for electricity metering. This standard focuses
on ensuring the compliance with National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) of meter sockets, test
switches, and metering/instrument transformer cabinets (Figures 21-2 and 21-6).
• UL50—Enclosures for Electrical Equipment. These requirements cover electrical equipment
enclosures for use in accordance with the National Electrical Code, NFPA 70. Specific applica-
tions covered by this standard include cabinets and cutout boxes and junction and pull boxes.
Specific applications not covered by this standard are junction boxes of the swimming pool type.

Standard Applications
It is often difficult to understand where exactly the numerous standards apply in the power system.
The following diagrams indicate where the most common of the standards apply to reference electric
service applications.
 469

Standards
Figure 21-1. Applicable ANSI Standards for Typical Residential Meter.

Figure 21-2. Applicable ANSI and UL Standards for Solid-State Blondel Meter and Meter Sockets.
 470
Handbook for Electricity Metering

Figure 21-3. Applicable ANSI Standards Associated with a Meter’s Optical Port and Data Interaction.

Figure 21-4. Applicable ANSI Standards for Associated Telephone Modems and Data Communications.
 471

Standards
Figure 21-5. Applicable ANSI and IEEE Standards for Instrument Transformers.

Figure 21-6. Applicable ANSI and UL Standards for Metering Test Switches.
 472 Summary of Current Standards Development and
Harmonization on National and International Levels
International Electrotechnical Commission
Handbook for Electricity Metering

There are many IEC metering standards that parallel those developed and used within the North
American (ANSI) market. The IEC is divided into technical committees (TCs), working groups (WGs),
project teams (PTs), and maintenance teams (MTs) that are focused on different individual topic areas
within each standard domain. There are also joint working groups (JWG) that are structured to permit
different TCs to work together, thereby allowing the pool of experts to collaborate while exercising
their particular expertise when developing and modifying the standards.
Technical Committee #13 (TC13) is devoted to electrical energy measurement and control. The
IEC divides the TC13 work on the standards into four major groups:
WG11: Electricity metering equipment requirements, type tests, and acceptance tests
WG13: Dependability3 of electricity metering equipment
WG14: Data exchange for meter reading, tariff, and load control4
WG15: Payment systems5
The metering type testing standards are divided into general requirements—those that every device is
expected to take into consideration—and particular requirements. However, the latter only apply if that
particular aspect (component or feature) is actually part of the meter. An example of the particular
requirements standard is shown through the distinction between electromechanical and static (elec-
tronic) meters, and then further by real and reactive energy, and then even further by accuracy class.
For example, there is a standard for static active energy meters and another for static reactive energy
meters, with different accuracy classes.
Very little technical input from the ANSI requirements is being considered by the IEC TC13 as
part of current modification efforts on their standards. The basic reason for this is that the underly-
ing service types, locations, and physical forms are completely different, lending to different testing
philosophies and expectations. An important difference between ANSI and IEC standards is that the
latter do not cover physical form factor elements such as connections, shape, mounting, etc. Those
may differ on a country-by-country basis, with much of the market adopting the specifications defined
by the ­German Standards Institute (Deutsches Institut für Normung, or DIN) standards.
Much as there are different cellular telephony standards in use around the world, there are
also metering communication differences. A centerpiece of the IEC metering protocol standards is
known as DLMS/COSEM, or device language message specification and the companion specification
for energy metering. The former is the generalized concept for abstract modeling of communication
entities while the latter sets the rules, based on existing standards, for data exchange with energy
meters. There is an associated user association (http://www.dlms.com/) which maintains an active
conformance testing process and list of compliant devices, an important differentiator from the ANSI
metering protocol standards.

International Organization for Legal Metrology

The International Organization for Legal Metrology (OIML) is an intergovernmental treaty organiza-
tion established in 1955 to promote the global harmonization of legal metrology procedures. Har-
monization in this context is the definition, prescription, and application of requirements and tests
beyond individual standards. An example would be the same startup current value in ANSI, IEC, and
OIML standards defined in a manner that tests, based on that value, were directly comparable. With
respect to OIML and related organizations, the United States is represented by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST), a bureau of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

3
 The IEC defines dependability in TR62059-11 (2002) as “the collective term used to describe the availability
performance and its influencing factors: reliability performance, maintainability ­performance and maintenance
support performance.” The ANSI synonym for dependability is considered to be in-service performance.
4
 This includes communications protocols and data modeling standards.
5
 IEC nomenclature for what is also known as pre-payment metering.
 The importance of the OIML work, as it ties to ANSI meters, is through this treaty relationship. 473
Starting with European Union legislation, known as the Measuring ­Instruments Directive,6 the OIML
derived a set of general requirements for electronic measuring instruments, published as a document
known as D11 (www.oiml.org/publications/D/D011-e04.pdf). From this set of requirements, inter-

Standards
national metrology experts developed what is known as international recommendation 46, or IR46,
which applies to electrical energy meters currently available for use. IR46 specifies the metrological
and technical requirements applicable to electricity meters subject to legal metrological controls. The
requirements outlined in IR46 are to be applied during type approval, verification, and re-verification.
They also apply to modifications that may be made to existing approved devices. However, the provi-
sions set out in IR46 apply only to active electrical energy meters. There is no existing OIML specifica-
tion for other meter types at the present time.
Since the meters certified to ANSI limits are used in several countries that are party to this treaty,
there are current considerations to move the entire suite of ANSI C12 standards toward the OIML
type of requirements and tests. This shift will represent a change for the vendors and, ultimately, the
utilities using their equipment due to differences in equipment testing philosophies and expectations
in a few key areas, touching on the fundamental design of electricity meters. An example of similar
but different specifications is how load (current) is defined with an example of completely different
requirements being the treatment of harmonics by OIML, which currently is not considered with the
ANSI standards.

Measurement Canada
Measurement Canada (MC) is responsible for ensuring the integrity and accuracy of measurement in
the Canadian marketplace. Measurement Canada:
• Develops and administers the laws and requirements governing measurement
• Evaluates, approves, and certifies measuring devices
• Investigates complaints of suspected inaccurate measurement
A notable difference in the relationship between Measurement Canada and the Canadian consum-
ers and NIST and the American consumers is that NIST maintains the equipment used to validate
accurate measurements (i.e., the national watthour) but has no law-making, approval, or investigative
authority.
From the standards standpoint, there are some different expectations and requirements for
Canada. Although meters that pass ANSI tests can usually meet Canadian requirements, formal
Canadian approval is required prior to use in Canada. A key difference in meter assessments is that
Measurement Canada is the sole authority for approving meters in Canada. Once a particular model
of meter is approved, no changes to the meter pattern are permitted without acceptance by Measure-
ment Canada. From the information standpoint, Measurement Canada approves specific versions of
meter firmware and meter programming configurations, and changes are permitted only when compli-
ant with Measurement Canada’s policies and requirements.

Underwriters Laboratories
In part, UL develops standards used to assess products by testing components, materials, systems, and
performance. For meter sockets, UL develops and maintains the type testing (safety) performance
standards used for certification. The community of experts in meter sockets participates in the devel-
opment of all the key standards for the devices in a loosely-collaborative fashion. Recent cooperative
projects include examining one of the ANSI C12.1 and UL414 tests as a cross industry team, recom-
mending changes to both standards to simplify and harmonize the testing of the two types of devices,
meters, and sockets.

6
“Directive 2004/22/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 31 March 2004 on measuring instru-
ments,” http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2004:135:0001:0080:EN:PDF
 474 Conclusion
The utility industry is facing a period of rapid technological change primarily driven in recent years
by the migration to an Advanced Metering System (AMS) or AMI networks and the installation of
Handbook for Electricity Metering

smart grid systems. As this technology continues to evolve, the advances in technology, functionality,
open system architectures, and added complexity around AMS networks dictates the need for more
product interoperability and compatibility along with the simplified product development of meters
and metering related equipment. Standards documents that establish the required specifications and
procedures including the additional needed communication protocols for the systems and networks
will be required to facilitate the necessary interoperability of these new systems and metering products.
Understandably, standards cannot be developed and maintained without the required help from
utility members, manufacturers, and other interested parties contributing their time, expertise, and
resources to this endeavor.
 Index

A capacitance in, 3, 8, 15, 26, 71–73, 205, 206, 228,

232, 239, 365, 439
Accuracy, 1, 2, 5, 7, 9–11, 16, 18, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27,
capacitive reactance in, 8, 26, 72–75
29, 30, 33, 34, 53, 110, 113, 133–139, 141, 143,
formulas for, 41, 54, 64, 76, 79, 85, 88, 89, 163,
149, 150, 152, 153, 157, 160, 161, 163, 164,
164, 173, 193, 195, 210, 357, 358, 363, 365,
166, 168–170, 173, 177, 182–184, 193, 196–201,
397
205–208, 211, 216, 219, 220, 223, 224, 226–228,
frequency in, 17, 31, 65–67, 69–74, 80, 134, 135,
231, 232, 235, 238, 240, 241, 243, 244, 248–250,
141, 152, 160–162, 165, 168–170, 195, 208,
254, 256, 259, 269, 270, 272–274, 276, 277,
221, 230, 274, 289, 345, 350, 357, 452, 455,
281, 282, 287, 291–295, 302, 304–309, 312, 315,
458
326, 330, 333–335, 337–339, 342, 343, 347,
impedance in, 17, 18, 23, 73–75, 82, 83, 139,
349, 350, 354, 355, 373, 374, 377, 385–387, 412,
141, 155, 157, 159, 165, 167–169, 172, 194,
454–456, 458, 459–463, 465–467, 472, 473.
195, 199, 200, 203, 220, 263, 330, 358, 359,
See also Percent registration
363–366, 378
digital display resolution, 294, 341
inductance in, 17, 18, 26, 69–71, 165, 195, 200,
factors of, 1, 11, 16, 136
203, 228, 283
guaranteed, 463
inductive reactance in, 18, 70, 71, 73–75, 83, 195,
importance of harmonics on, 80, 170, 225, 262,
296
274, 298, 349, 355
Ohm’s Law for, 2, 23, 73, 76, 85, 134
of instrument transformers, 18, 152, 231
power factor of, 3, 6, 7, 18, 24, 34, 42, 43, 67,
over temperature, 29
68, 73–78, 80, 85–87, 147, 150, 152, 155,
permanence of, 164, 173
157–159, 162–167, 171, 175, 176, 178–184,
precision, 135
187, 188, 190–200, 219, 220, 232, 242, 252,
rating of instruments, 18, 26
253, 255, 256, 263, 267–269, 272–274, 279,
ratios, 460–462
280, 281, 292, 295, 297, 298, 303–305,
voltage transformer, 7, 33, 198, 201
308–310, 312–314, 332, 345, 347–349, 353,
Admittance testing, 141, 142, 148, 152
355, 359, 363, 365–367, 373, 374, 415, 417,
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), 5
419, 455, 456, 458, 467
communication module, 6
power in, 67, 79, 317, 331, 339, 340
integrated meter, 6
sine waves in, 38, 39, 66, 67, 69, 80, 81, 118, 135,
interchangeable communication module, 6
137, 274, 286, 346, 463
meter, 6
single-phase series, formulas for, 190
modular meter, 6
transformer connections for, 88, 89, 155, 165, 211,
ping relative to AMI, 24
217, 218, 261, 262, 353, 361–363
Alternate display, 5
transformers in, 6, 7, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20–26, 28,
Alternating current, 2, 8–10, 14, 17, 19, 23, 26, 27,
32, 33, 35, 54, 79, 80, 87–89, 103, 108,
31, 51, 55, 65, 67, 70, 79, 81, 124, 134, 248,
131, 133–135, 139, 141, 142, 150, 155–177,
317, 331, 339, 355, 377, 454, 466, 467. See also
182–188, 191, 193–201, 203–209, 211,
Current, alternating
213–228, 230, 233, 234, 240, 241, 243, 244,

475
 476 Alternating current, transformers in (continued) Bridges, 7
248, 249, 256, 261, 262, 274, 283, 286, Kelvin, 7
292, 295–299, 310, 314–316, 319, 329, 333, Wheatstone, 7
346, 352, 353, 357–373, 375, 376, 383, 387, British thermal unit (BTU), 7
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

393, 394, 402–406, 409–411, 413, 419, 420, Burden, 7, 18, 139, 141, 142, 148–152, 155, 157–159,
423–426, 428–432, 434, 436, 440–442, 445, 161–163, 165–167, 169, 172, 183, 194, 195, 199,
447, 449, 450, 457, 463, 466–468 200, 202, 203, 222, 226, 229, 231, 232
Ammeter, 5, 42, 53, 140, 219, 221–223, 241, 346 calculation of, 190, 191
permanent magnet, 267 effect on instrument transformer ratio and phase
rectifier type, 439 angle, 183
Ampere, 5 methods of expressing
Ampere-hour, 5 polyphase, 160, 191
Ampere-turn, 5, 21, 140, 172 secondary, 9, 140, 152, 160–165, 168–170, 194,
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 101, 102, 133, 195, 197, 198, 231, 297
134, 286, 287, 288, 289, 293 standard, 18, 169, 198–201, 203
Angles. See Trigonometry; Phase angle Burden tester, 139–141, 226
ANSI standards, 6, 453–464 Bypass socket, 8
Anti-creep holes, 24, 273, 306
Artificial load. See Phantom load
ASE cable, 28 C
“As found” tests, 190, 300, 308, 312, 316, 462 Calibrating constant, 310, 311. See also Constants,
“As left” tests, 190, 309, 313, 316, 462 calibrating
Atom, structure of, 91, 92, 93 Calibration, 1, 8, 19, 29, 30, 34, 38, 101, 136, 138,
Automated meter reading (AMR), 1–3, 6, 15, 21, 29, 188, 202, 205, 232, 240, 243, 244, 259, 269,
113–115, 117, 118, 128, 247, 308, 332, 385, 391, 276–281, 285, 291, 299, 300, 305, 306, 309,
392 310, 334, 339, 373, 453, 458–463.
electronic meter reading, 22, 117, 243, 244, 256, See also Watthour meters, testing of
259, 260, 281, 282, 293, 294, 307, 308, Capacitance, 3, 8, 15, 26, 71–73, 205, 206, 228, 232,
330–332, 341, 342, 355, 440, 442, 447 239, 365, 439
handheld data entry terminals, 113, 115, 330, Capacitive reactance, 8, 26, 72–75
388 Chain of standardization, 459, 460
handheld terminals, automatic data entry, 114, Circuit breaker, 8, 61, 111, 155, 207, 438
115, 391 Circuits, 2, 3, 6, 8, 14, 17, 22, 24, 25, 32, 35, 37, 42,
network meter reading, 114 51, 55, 57, 59, 65, 66, 70, 73, 76, 79, 85, 86, 96,
power line system, 114 99–102, 134, 137–139, 141, 142, 147, 149, 150,
radio system, 114 152, 155, 156, 175, 204, 207, 208, 214, 216, 218,
Telephone Dial-In System, 115 220–222, 224, 227, 228, 248–250, 255, 261, 262,
Telephone Dial-Out System, 115 273, 276, 279, 281, 283, 284, 286, 287, 296,
retrieval of data, 1, 27 298, 299, 306, 309, 313, 314, 317, 329, 330,
Autotransformer, 6, 210 354, 355, 374–378, 380–382, 436–438, 442–444,
phase shifting, 26, 206, 331, 354 449, 451, 462, 463. See also Alternating current
Average power factor kilovolt amps (kVA), 6 circuits; Direct current circuits
delta, 16, 22, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 100, 164, 170,
171, 191, 193, 196, 211, 216, 251, 253, 254,
B 257, 260–262, 274, 289, 298, 299, 304, 311,
Balanced load, 7, 188, 194, 215, 251, 253, 255, 278, 313, 314, 352, 361, 365, 367, 393, 396, 436,
436, 443, 444 437, 439, 451
Bar X, 30 distribution, 1, 5, 25, 28, 55, 64, 79, 80, 83, 88,
Base load, 7 89, 103, 107, 113, 116–118, 125–128, 130,
Basic impulse insulation level (BIL), 7 131, 137–240, 243, 260, 262, 274, 276, 320,
Bi-directional metering, 7 322, 355, 358, 385, 392, 435–438, 450,
Binary digital logic, 96 466–468
Block interval demand register, 13 parallel, 37, 59, 61, 62, 63
Blondel’s Theorem, 3, 7, 248–251, 253, 255–257, 259, polyphase, 3, 23, 24, 102, 147, 164, 170, 171, 182,
260, 393, 412, 466 184, 187–190, 193, 195, 211, 219, 248, 249,
application of, 248, 249, 251, 255, 257, 260, 397, 256, 259, 260, 277–282, 287, 304, 306, 308,
466 309, 331, 332, 347, 352, 355, 393, 400–405,
Bottom-connected meter, 7 436, 442, 468. See also Polyphase
Braking magnets, 273, 305. See also Permanent protection of, 214, 437
magnets series, 76, 85
 series-parallel, 59, 280, 297, 304, 305, 313, 314, Creep or creeping, 10, 24, 273, 300, 303, 306, 308, 477
316 309, 312, 313, 317
single-phase, 16, 24–26, 28, 65, 76, 81, 85, 106, Creepage distance, 10
164, 177, 188–193, 196, 206, 207, 211, 213, Cumulative demand register, 324, 337

INDEX
215, 219, 242, 248, 250, 277–280, 282, 298, Current
299, 304, 306, 313, 347, 352, 370, 413, 419, alternating, 2, 8–10, 14, 17, 19, 23, 26, 27, 31, 51,
420, 436–438, 441, 443, 444 55, 65, 67, 70, 79, 81, 124, 134, 248, 317,
three-phase, 16, 23–25, 64, 81–86, 106, 164, 331, 339, 355, 377, 454, 466, 467
171, 188, 191–193, 196, 219, 222, 234, 238, circuit, 10
249–251, 279, 287, 298, 299, 307, 309, coil, 10
313–315, 346, 352, 361, 367, 370, 436, 437, direct, 2, 17, 23, 31, 37, 55, 67, 70, 138, 225, 228,
441, 444, 451. See also Polyphase 248, 355, 377, 381, 453, 467
three-wire, 8, 31, 64, 65, 191, 206, 207, 211–213, electron, 92–94
215, 248, 250–252, 264, 276, 305, 315, 377, hole, 92, 93
393, 394, 414, 424–429, 432, 436, 441, 442 induced, 17
two-wire, 8, 215, 248, 250, 263, 393, 394, 423, lagging, 19, 73, 176, 178–181, 309
425, 440, 441 leading, 19, 73, 178–181
wye, 14, 16, 22, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 148, 164, 170, measurement of, 57, 148, 149, 241, 285
188, 195, 196, 208, 214, 250, 253, 254, 256, transformer, 10
260–262, 282, 298, 309, 311, 316, 352, 361, Currents, eddy, 15, 19, 73, 265–269, 273, 274, 278,
365, 367, 393, 396, 417, 419, 420, 436–438, 279
444. See also Polyphase Customer’s load, 143, 149, 153, 188, 193, 295, 312,
Circular mil, 8, 56 359, 439, 442–444, 446
Clamp-on current probe, 134, 139 Customer’s premises, 2, 22, 30, 291, 310, 311, 435,
Class amperes, 9 438, 450
Class designation, 9 testing on, 2, 3, 291, 310
Clearance, 9 Cutout, 10, 468
Clockwise rotation, 9 Cycle, 3, 10, 14, 19, 23, 66, 67, 69, 70, 76, 134, 137,
Clutch, demand meter, 323–325, 336, 337, 388, 389 235, 239, 241, 243, 265–267, 284, 286, 287,
Compensating metering. See Transformers, loss 331–333, 338, 349, 385, 468
compensation
Compensation of meters
overload, 269, 270, 274, 278 D
temperature, 29, 240, 272, 273 Damping, 11, 269, 270, 274, 277, 278, 303
voltage, 270 current magnet. See Magnets, damping
Compensator, loss, 357–361, 363, 367 of an instrument, 11
Complex numbers, 44–47, 49–51, 69 D’Arsonval, 463
calculations, 44–46, 49, 50 Dead-front, 11
polar form, 47, 49 Decade, 11
rectangular form, 44, 45, 50 Degree, electrical, 14
Conductor Delta service, 16, 22, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 100, 164,
current, 108, 139, 283 170, 171, 191, 193, 196, 211, 216, 251, 253, 254,
grounding, 16, 312, 439, 443 257, 260–262, 274, 289, 298, 299, 304, 311, 313,
losses, 9 314, 352, 361, 365, 367, 393, 396, 436, 437,
service, 435 439, 451. See also Polyphase
Connected load, 9, 12, 84, 85, 254, 262, 444 Demand, 9, 11–13, 319, 320, 322–333, 335, 337, 340,
Connection errors, 440 374, 379, 383, 388–391
Constants, 2, 5, 9, 32, 51, 230, 302, 315, 324, 329, aggregate, 11
379, 387 coincidental, 11, 332, 374
calibrating, 310, 311 cumulative, 324, 337, 340, 390
dial, 9, 10, 13, 386 interval, 12
kilowatthour, 303 maximum, 11–14, 20, 23, 31, 320–324, 328, 332,
KYZ output (Ke), 9 333, 335–337, 339, 342, 388–390
mass memory (Km), 9 rolling interval, 11
register. See Register constant sliding window, 11, 328
watthour. See Watthour constant threshold alert, 11, 327, 329
Copper loss, 360, 361, 363, 367, 369, 372, 373 totalized, 11, 216, 374–376, 383
Core loss, 9, 159, 167, 169, 366, 371 Demand constant, 12
Correction factor, 18, 51, 52, 160, 162–164, 168, 171, explanation of, 12
173–177, 182–186, 189, 197, 198, 200, 205, 206 Demand delay, 9, 12, 329
Counters, photoelectric, 306 Demand deviation, 12
 478 Demand energy, 12 Disk. See Rotor
Demand meters, 12, 282, 320–324, 332, 333, 342, Display, 13
379, 388 Distributed network protocol (DNP), 14
application of, 151, 260, 413 Distribution circuits, 88, 89, 262, 436
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

classes of, 6, 9, 13, 15, 19, 20, 26, 28, 30, 106, Diversity, 14, 444
139, 152, 197, 200, 248, 249, 263, 272, 365, Driving torque, 29, 34, 35, 267, 268, 270, 271, 273,
369, 370, 445, 466 277–280, 304
cumulative type, 322–325, 337, 390 Dynamometer, 463
indicating type, 12, 215, 316, 322, 323, 325, 388
integrating, 12, 13, 322, 323
lagged, 12, 267, 274 E
maintenance of, 30, 119, 130, 143, 275, 291–317, Eddy currents, 9, 19, 73, 265–269, 273, 274, 278, 279,
335–343 346, 358
mechanical, 6, 10, 12, 21, 322–324, 326, 327, 329, Effective resistance, 14, 155, 273
330, 338, 339, 342, 376, 378, 386, 391 Effective value, 14, 17, 67
pulse-operated, 282, 326 Electrical degree, 14
electronic type, 2, 4, 6, 10, 21, 22, 26, 33, 78, Electrical service, 105, 107, 111, 248
87, 115, 117, 201, 203, 242–244, 248, 249, Electromagnet, 14, 127, 262, 263, 269, 270, 273, 276,
256–260, 281, 282, 293, 294, 299, 305, 279, 280, 294, 302
307, 308, 322, 326, 330–332, 341, 343, Electromechanical meter, 14
348–350, 355, 358, 360, 383, 385, 389, Electromotive force, 7, 14, 17, 22, 23, 30, 33, 55, 67,
397, 400, 402, 449, 453, 456, 462, 464, 264, 267
484, 490 Electronic digital instruments, 133
indicating type, 12, 215, 316, 322, 323, 325, 388 Electronics, solid-state, 91, 341
recording type, 12, 19, 323, 333, 388, 391 Element, 14
solid-state, 9, 19, 29, 65, 80, 101, 110, 144, Embedded coil, 14
153, 199, 206, 220, 281–284, 287, 289, Embedded system, 14
305–310, 317, 320, 321, 341, 357–359, End-of-interval indicator (EOI), 15
361, 363, 367, 368, 372, 376, 379, 391, Energy, 7, 8, 11–15, 17, 19–22, 25–29, 31–35, 55, 63,
396, 469 65, 70, 76, 79, 80
registers for, 3, 13, 322, 324, 326, 329, 335–337, Enterprise systems (ES), 15
339, 387, 390, 466. See also Registers Errors, See also Percent error
testing of, 153 random, 462
advancing mechanism, 335, 339, 388 systematic, 462, 463
clutch, 324, 325, 336, 388 Excess meter, 20
maximum demand pointer, 324, 337 Exchange data language (EDL), 15
mechanical registers, 335, 338, 389
procedures, 149, 291–317, 335–343
pulse-operated, 282, 326 F
resetting mechanism, 336 Farad, 15, 71
timing motor for, 323, 327, 336–338 Farber Method, 196
Demand register. See Registers Field, magnetic
Demand scales, 388, 389 stray, 15, 211, 227
Detent, 13 Firmware, 15
Detent metering, 13 First reduction, 28
Dial constant. See Constants, dial Flagging, 15
Digital, 133, 286 Force, electromotive, 7, 14, 17, 22, 23, 30, 33, 55, 67,
Digital display, 34, 294, 338–341 264, 267
Digital electronics, 91, 96 Form, 16
Digital instrument, 133 Friction, 55, 267, 268, 273, 275, 303, 313, 317, 323,
Digital multiplier, 286–289 335–337, 378
Direct current circuits Function limiting control (FLC), 16
formulas for, 65 Fuses
Kirchhoff’s Law for application of, 57, 59, 249, 251, time delay, 438
443
Ohm’s Law, 2, 23, 37, 55, 56, 58–64, 73, 76, 85,
134 G
Ohm’s Law for application of, 37, 55, 56, 59–64 Galvanometer, 7, 16
resistance connected in network Gear ratio
parallel, 59, 61–63, 71–73 checking, 338
series, 226 formulas of, 54
series-parallel, 59, 62, 63, 297, 304, 313, 316 Gear reduction, 28, 54, 338
three-wire Edison distribution system, 64, 65
Ground, 16 ratio, 173, 174 479
return circuit, 16 table of, 193
Grounding conductor current, 202, 206, 208
electrode, 16 actual, 166

INDEX
identification of, 312, 439 burden on, 195, 203
of electric circuits, 439 connections of, 215, 216
dangers due to open secondary of, 172
demagnetizing of, 228
H difficulties with low ampere-turn designs of, 172
Harmonics, 80, 170, 225, 242, 262, 274, 289, 296, effects of burden on ratio and phase angle of,
298, 299, 308, 345–350, 352, 354, 355, 455, 473 169
Head-end, 16 common secondary leads, 170–172
Henry, 17, 70 frequency on ratio and phase angle of, 170
Hertz, 17 primary current on ratio and phase angle of,
Hi-pot test, 220, 221 169, 170
History logger data, 17 secondary leads on ratio and phase angle of,
Home area network (HAN), 17 170
Homogeneous meter group, 17 waveform on ratio and phase angle of, 170
Horsepower, 17, 78 ideal, 165
Hot-wire instrument, 17 marked ratio of, 166
Hybrid meter, 17 permanence of accuracy, 173
phase angle of, 169
phasor diagram of, 166
I polarity of, 165
Impedance, 7, 17, 18, 23, 73–75, 80, 82–84, 117, 139, ratio correction factor of, 168
141, 151, 153, 155, 157, 159–165, 167–169, 172, secondary burden on, 165, 169
194, 195, 199, 200, 203, 220, 224, 243, 262, true ratio of, 166, 168
263, 330, 358, 359, 363–366, 368, 372, 378 turn ratio of, 166
in AC circuits, 17, 18, 23, 73–75, 82, 83, 139, optical current sensors, 233–237
141, 151, 153, 155, 161, 163–165, 168, 190, optical voltage sensors, 237–240
191, 195, 196, 199, 216, 259, 326, 354, 355, testing of, 151, 220–221
359–362, 374 AC hi-pot test, 216, 217
Inactive meters, 448 by comparative method, 219
Induced current, 17 by deflection method, 219, 220
Induced voltage, 17, 19, 69–71, 79, 158, 167, 230, 266 by direct method, 150, 223
Inductance, 3, 17, 18, 26, 69–71, 165, 195, 200, 203, by null method, 224
228, 283 for adequate insultation of, 220
mutual, 17, 283 for shorted term, 222
self, 17 to check polarity of, 221, 222
Inductive, 17, 18, 26, 67, 70, 71, 73–75, 77, 78, 83, to determine ratio and phase angle of, 221–223
86, 87, 184, 195, 229, 231, 263, 267, 268 type
reactance, 18, 70, 71, 73–75, 83, 195, 296 bar, 207
Instrument, digital, 133 bushing, 207
Instrument, hot-wire, 17 double ratio, 207
Instrument transformers, 18 miniature, 207
application of, 139, 188–193, 204, 208, 211 multi-core, 207
basic theory of, 156 split-core, 207
burden capability of, 208, 226, 238, 243 three-wire, 206, 207
burden on, 194, 195 window, 206, 207
calculation of, 193 wound, 152, 205, 206
definitions, 155, 156, 173 verification of connections of, 217–220
methods of expression, 186, 195 voltage, 203, 205, 208
polyphase, 164 actual, 152, 153, 160
standard, 150, 152, 177, 201, 209, 213 burden of, 152, 153, 194
calculation of meter accuracy settings, 196 connections of, 150, 211, 212, 213
compensating error of, 164, 177 effects of burden on ratio and phase angle of
connections of, 211, 217, 218 common secondary leads on ratio and phase
correction factors for, 173, 174, 176, 177 angle of, 164
application of, 182 frequency on ratio and phase angle of, 162
final, 177, 182–184, 186, 189 polyphase, 164
phase angle, 174–176 primary voltage on ratio and phase angle of,
tables of, 178–181 161
 480 Instrument transformers, voltage (continued) kVA, 19
secondary leads on ratio and phase angle of, metering of, 345, 349, 350. See also KiloVAR and
161, 163, 164 kilovoltampere metering
temperature on ratio and phase angle of, 162, KYZ output, 19
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

163
waveform on ratio and phase angle of, 162
ideal, 152, 153 L
marked ratio of, 152, 153 Laboratory, 19, 27, 29, 30, 33, 99, 143, 148, 152, 153,
phase angle of, 160, 161 223, 231, 279, 291, 292, 453–455, 459, 460,
phasor diagram of, 152–155, 159 462, 463
polarity of, 152 Lag adjustments, 304, 309
ratio correction factor of, 160 Lagged demand meter, 12
selection of, 208 Lagging current, 19, 73, 176, 178–181, 309
true ratio of, 152, 160 Laminated core, 19
turn ratio of 152 Leading current, 19, 178–181
Instruments, indicating Lenz’s Law, 19, 69
ammeter. See Ammeter Light emitting diode (LED), 19, 345
current transformer field test set, 141, 144, 145, Light-load adjustment, 263, 267, 268, 270, 273, 274,
148, 158, 225 279, 280, 295, 303–305, 309, 317
maintenance on, 130, 317 Lightning arrester, 208
Megger, 308 Liquid crystal display (LCD), 19
ohmmeters, 218 Load
permanent-magnet, moving-coil type, 267 artificial, 19, 295. See also Phantom load
precision of, 101, 135–137, 282, 462, 463 balanced, 188, 194, 215, 251, 253, 255, 278, 436,
readability and resolution of, 133, 136–138, 231, 443, 444
293, 294, 323, 329, 463 compensation, 20, 271, 317
rectifier type, 27, 274, 439, 463 control, 20
scales of, 327 overload, 269, 270, 274, 278
stray fields influence on, 227, 317 factor, 20, 210
temperature influence on, 28–31, 108–110, 119, phantom, 19, 23, 188, 193, 296, 297, 312–314
134, 136, 138, 142, 162, 205, 206, 208–210, profile, 20
237, 239–241, 269, 271–273, 277, 283, 322, resistance, 297, 298
357, 365, 437, 444, 454, 461, 463 system, 20, 188, 350, 352
thermocouple type, 30 Loading transformer, 20, 296
voltmeter. See Voltmeter Location of meter, 360, 367, 372, 373, 444
wattmeter. See Wattmeter Locked-out meters, 448
Interference, 3, 232, 277–279, 450 Loss compensation, 20, 32, 357–361, 363, 365, 367
Interval demand, 12, 15, 19, 340 Losses, core, 9, 159, 167, 169, 366, 371

J M
Joule’s Law, 19 Magnetic, 9, 10, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 29, 32, 34, 65, 70,
73, 76, 79, 80, 109, 110, 137, 155–157, 161, 162,
169, 200, 207, 211, 218, 229, 230, 236, 239,
K 248, 262–271, 273–275, 277, 279, 280, 283, 285,
Kilo, 19, 43 294, 302, 304, 312, 317, 346, 358, 391, 462
KiloVAR and kilovoltampere metering, 331, 345–355 field, 10, 14, 15, 19, 70, 79, 236, 264, 265, 267,
electronic, 349, 350, 352–354 283, 285, 358
of four-wire, three-phase circuits, 347, 352 flux, 14, 17, 19, 20, 156, 218, 230, 268, 317
of three-wire, three phase, 352 Magnetism, 228
phase relations for, 346, 347 Magneto motive force, 20
phase sequence, 23, 313, 437 Magnets, 109, 263, 268, 270, 272, 273, 275, 276, 303,
theory of, 345 305, 317
KiloVAR demand, 11, 12 damping, 303
KiloVARhour, 33 permanent, 27, 109, 267, 268, 270, 272, 276–278,
Kilowatt, 7, 19, 26, 64, 247, 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 302
329, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 346, 359, 378, retarding, 27, 263, 272, 295
379, 380, 383, 386, 390 Maintenance, 1, 30, 119, 120, 130, 133, 143, 231,
Kirchhoff’s Law, 2, 57, 59, 249, 251, 443 243, 247, 275, 291, 295, 303, 310, 317, 319, 335,
application of, 249, 443 337, 341, 377, 378, 380, 382, 450, 463, 467, 472
 demand meters. See Demand meters, testing of N 481
instruments
National Electrical Code, 22, 435, 438, 439, 468
watthour meters. See Watthour meters,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2, 29,
maintenance of

INDEX
34, 129, 131, 143, 231, 291, 453–455, 457, 459,
Marked ratio of instrument transformers, 18, 156,
460, 461, 463, 472, 473
157, 160, 164, 166, 168, 173, 207, 221, 222, 223,
Net metering, 22
235, 238, 239
Network, 5, 6, 14, 16, 17, 25, 31, 32, 59, 82, 83,
Mathematics, 2, 37, 51, 55, 135
101–103, 105–107, 110, 114–129, 131, 146, 235,
Maximum average power, 320
239, 250, 251, 284, 315, 333, 380, 391–393,
Maximum demand, 11–14, 20, 23, 31, 320–325, 328,
397, 398, 426, 436, 437, 444, 447, 450, 467, 468
332, 333, 335–337, 339, 342, 388–390
Neutral wire, 31, 217, 257, 438, 443, 444
meters. See Demand meters
Null method, 224
Measurement of, 133–139, 149, 153, 174, 183, 219,
230, 249, 277, 345, 346, 348–350, 352, 354,
355, 357, 467 O
demand. See Demand meters
Ohm, 2, 5, 21–23, 33, 37, 55, 56, 58–64, 73, 76, 85,
watthours. See Watthour meters
138, 139, 150, 164, 167, 171, 215, 454, 459, 460
Mega, 20, 43, 371
Ohm’s Law, 2, 23, 37, 55, 56, 58–64, 73, 76, 85, 134
Megger, 308
Ohmmeters, 218
Memory circuits, 96, 99, 100
Optical port, 23, 102, 110, 126, 331, 381, 391, 465,
Meter accuracy, 143, 184, 185, 198, 219, 243, 273,
466, 470
274, 304, 309, 312, 334, 373, 374. See also
Optical probe, 23, 341, 391
Accuracy
Outdoor installations, 448
Meter bases, 21
Overload compensation, 269, 270, 274, 278
Meter bearing. See Bearings
Meter cable, 21
Meter data management system (MDMS), 21 P
Meter demand. See Demand meters
Padmount CT, 23
Meter department, 1, 2, 116, 451, 453, 463
Parallel circuit, 37, 61, 62, 63
Meter installation, 10, 32, 138, 313, 332, 442, 446,
Parallel-series circuit, 62, 63
447, 451
Peak load, 23, 328, 383, 384
Meter laboratory, 279
Percent error, 18, 23, 51–53, 183, 185–190, 193, 198,
Meter location, 360, 367, 372, 373, 444
312, 419
Meter multiplier, 21
Percent registration, 23, 51, 52, 53, 142, 183, 184,
Meter personnel, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
193, 274, 302, 303, 312, 317, 373
Meter reading, 1, 2, 6, 11, 27, 35, 113–116, 128, 141,
Permanent magnets. See Magnets, permanent
247, 281, 308, 316, 332, 374, 385, 386, 391,
Phantom load, 19, 23, 188, 193, 296, 297, 312–314
392, 472
Phantom voltage, 23
Meter sequence, 21
Phase angle, 10, 18, 23, 24, 42, 43, 66–69, 78, 149,
Meter sockets, 219, 249, 422, 438, 445, 466, 468,
150, 157, 159–164, 166–172, 174–182, 184–189,
469, 473
191, 193, 194, 196, 197, 201–203, 207, 214, 215,
Meter testing, See Demand meter, testing of; Watthour
218, 219, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 231,
meter, testing of
248, 250, 253, 256, 263, 274, 278, 279, 283,
Meter watthour. See Watthour meters
284, 291, 292, 296, 297, 313, 348, 353, 355,
Metering computations, 51
375, 443, 455, 456, 458
Method, Farber, 196
Phase angle correction factor, 18, 174, 175, 176, 177,
Micro, 7, 21, 43, 245
182, 184
Microprocessor, 14, 91, 100–102, 138, 148, 226, 227,
Phase rotation, 219, 451
281, 287, 329, 334, 339, 340, 342, 391
Phase sequence, 23
Mil, 8, 22, 56
Phase shifter, 23
Milli, 22, 43, 292
Phase-shifting transformer, 24
Modbus, 22
Phasor, 24, 68, 69, 73, 76, 83, 86, 150, 157–161, 163,
Modem, 22
164, 166–168, 171, 174, 175, 177, 182, 212, 213,
Multiform meter, 22
215–217, 219, 251–256, 259, 314, 331, 347, 348,
Multi-function meter, 22
393, 396, 398, 436
Multiplier, digital, 286, 287, 288, 289
Photoelectric tester, 24
Multi-rate meter, 22
Polarity, 24, 58, 69, 79, 94, 157, 160, 161, 165, 168,
Multi-stator, VARhour meters. See Watthour meters,
169, 195, 211, 215, 216, 218–222, 224, 381, 394
multi-stator
Pole-top metering, 450
Mutual inductance, See Inductance, mutual
 482 Polyphase, 3, 23, 24, 147, 164, 170, 171, 182, 184, Reactor, 26, 205, 228, 394
187–190, 193, 195, 211, 219, 248, 249, 256, 259, Reading of meters. See Meter, reading of
260, 277–282, 287, 304, 306, 308, 309, 347, Readability of instruments, 231
352, 355, 436, 442, 468 Rectifier, 27
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

Potential transformer (PT). See Voltage transformer Reduction, first, 28

Power Reference meter, 27
in AC circuits, 67, 79, 313, 327, 335, 336 Reference performance, 27
active, 24 Registers, 2, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30,
apparent, 24 35, 54, 101, 102, 117, 155, 247, 262, 268–271,
reactive, 24 275–278, 281–283, 285–287, 289, 291, 302, 303,
Power factor, 3, 6, 7, 18, 24, 34, 42, 43, 67, 68, 305, 312, 313, 315, 322–324, 326, 328–332,
73–78, 80, 85–87, 145, 147, 149, 150, 155, 335–343, 359, 360, 378, 386–390, 392, 442, 443
157–159, 162–167, 171, 175, 176, 178–184, 187, constant, 27, 35
188, 190–200, 219, 220, 232, 242, 252, 253, freeze, 27
255, 256, 263, 267–269, 272–274, 279–281, 292, ratio, 27, 35, 54, 275, 303, 312, 335, 337, 338, 387
295, 297, 298, 303–305, 308–310, 312–314, 332, Registration, 1, 8, 13, 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 34,
345, 347–349, 353, 355, 359, 363, 365–367, 35, 51–53, 110, 143, 176, 177, 183, 184, 193,
373, 374, 415, 417, 419, 455, 456, 458, 467 194, 248, 250, 259, 268, 270, 274, 278–280,
Precision, 25 291, 295, 300, 302–305, 312, 317, 329, 373, 374,
Pre-wired socket, 25 378, 386, 442, 443
Primary–secondary, 25 Resistance, 5, 7, 9, 14, 17, 19, 22, 23, 27, 28, 33, 37,
Protocol specifications for electric metering (PSEM), 55, 56, 58–61, 63, 65, 70, 73–75, 83, 108, 109,
25 111, 133, 141, 142, 155, 158–160, 162–167, 170,
Pulse, 2, 9, 12, 19, 21, 25, 26, 96, 99, 143, 144, 149, 171, 172, 195, 200, 203, 204, 212–217, 219, 225,
281–287, 289, 292, 293, 295, 299, 308, 326, 226, 228–230, 262, 268, 272–274, 276, 283,
327, 329, 331, 340–342, 363, 374–383, 466 296–298, 304, 317, 347, 354, 358, 370, 378,
amplifier or relay, 25 437–440, 445, 450, 451, 454, 459
capacity, 25 effective, 14, 155, 273
device (for electricity metering), 25 Resolution, 133–138, 286, 287, 289, 293, 294, 323,
initiator, 26 329, 381, 463
output constant (Ke or KWHC), 26 Retarding magnet, 27
output ratio (R/P or Mp), 26 Rheostat, 27
rate—maximum, 26 Right triangle, 39, 40–42
receiver, 26 Root-mean-square value, 14, 32
recorder, 26 Rotor (disk), 10, 26, 34, 35, 262–264, 267, 268, 275,
recorder channel, 26 279, 323, 337, 378

Q S
Q-hour meter, 26 Safety, 2–4, 22, 106, 107, 111, 137–139, 144, 145,
Quadergy, 26 209, 213, 215, 216, 218, 220, 232, 235, 284,
Quadrants, 41, 49, 352, 353, 354 293, 310–312, 314, 380, 385, 391, 439, 452,
465–468, 473
Scales, instrument, 327, 388, 389, 452
R Scientific notation, 43
Random errors, 462 Scott connections, 361
Rating factor, 26 SE cable, 28
Ratio correction factors. See Instrument transformers, Secure metering, 28
ratio correction factors of Self-contained meter, 28
Ratio gear. See Gear ratio Self-inductance, 17
Ratio, marked. See Instrument transformers, current Series circuit. See Direct current circuits
and voltage Series-parallel. See Direct current circuits
Ratio, register. See Register, ratio Service, 1, 2, 6–8, 13, 20–23, 28–33, 35, 101,
Ratio, true. See Instrument transformers, current and 105–111, 113, 116, 117, 120, 125, 126, 130, 131,
voltage 139, 141–143, 145–147, 152, 205–208, 211, 214,
Ratio, turn. See Instrument transformers, current and 215, 219, 220, 222, 224, 225, 243–245, 248,
voltage 250–260, 276, 277, 279, 282–284, 291, 295, 296,
Reactance, 8, 17, 18, 26, 70–75, 83, 159, 160, 162, 299, 300, 303, 304, 308–313, 316, 319, 320,
167, 195, 205, 273, 274, 276, 296, 347, 358, 370 329, 331, 332, 338, 339, 343, 347, 352, 361,
Reactiformer, 26 372–374, 378, 383–385, 396, 412, 417, 419, 422,
Reactive power. See VARs 435–445, 447–452, 466, 468, 472
Reactive voltamperes, 26, 347, 348, See also VARs conductors, 28
 drop, 28 Time standard, 454 483
equipment, 28 Timebase, 31
service entrance (SE) cable, 28 Time-delay fuses, 438
service entrance conductors, 28 Time-division multiplication, 283–285

INDEX
Shaft reduction, 28, 303, 315 Time-of-use metering, 31
Short circuit, 8, 23, 28, 79, 111, 165, 214, 311, 315, Torque balance adjustment, 279, 280
317, 358, 437, 438, 448 Torque, driving, 29, 31, 34, 35
Simulated meter, 28 Total harmonic distortion (THD), 32
Sine waves, 67, 274, 346, 463 Totalization, 11, 19, 32, 216, 374–376, 379–383
Single-phase, 16, 24–26, 28, 31, 76, 78, 81, 85, 106, Totalizing relay, 32, 379, 380
164, 177, 182, 188–193, 196, 206, 207, 211, 213, Transconductance multiplier, 286, 287
215, 219, 242, 248, 250, 264, 277–280, 282, Transducer, 32
298, 299, 304, 306, 313, 346, 347, 352, 370, Transformer, 6, 7, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20–26, 28, 32, 33,
372, 393, 398, 406, 412–414, 419, 420, 423–425, 35, 54, 79, 80, 87–89, 103, 108, 131, 133–135,
436–438, 440–444 139–142, 150, 155–177, 182–188, 191, 193–201,
Socket, 3, 8, 16, 21, 23, 25, 27–29, 32, 34, 107, 138, 203–209, 211, 213–228, 230, 233, 234, 240, 241,
144, 147, 249, 276, 312, 393, 395, 396, 399–405, 243, 244, 248, 249, 256, 261, 262, 274, 283,
423–427, 429–434, 437, 440, 442, 443, 445–449, 286, 292, 295–299, 310, 314–316, 319, 329, 333,
452, 465, 466, 468 346, 352, 353, 357–373, 375, 376, 383, 387, 393,
Socket-connected meter, 29 394, 402–406, 409–411, 413, 419, 420, 423–426,
Solid-state electronics, 29, 91 428–432, 434, 436, 440–442, 445, 447, 449,
Special metering, 216, 357 450, 457, 463, 466–468
Speed, 80, 100, 116, 118, 122, 148, 188, 192, 236, coupling-capacitor voltage (CCVT), 9
262, 267–270, 273, 275, 277, 278, 303, 306, 316, current (CT), 7, 10, 21, 23–26, 32, 35, 134, 136,
317, 335, 338, 339, 345, 361, 387 139, 141, 142, 148–152, 156, 173, 200,
Standard burden, 18, 198, 200 206, 207, 209–211, 215–217, 219, 222, 224,
Standard cells, 454 226–228, 230, 315, 413, 419
Standard resistors, 223, 453 loss compensation, 32, 134, 169
Standards, 1, 2, 3, 5, 15, 19, 29, 33, 35, 53, 56, 102, voltage (VT), 7, 10, 21, 24, 25, 33, 173, 315, 368
108, 110, 120, 123, 125, 126, 129, 137, 143, Transformer ratio, 32, 173, 177, 182, 183, 187, 365,
155, 188–190, 192, 193, 211, 220, 223, 224, 228, 369
240, 245, 274, 279, 284, 291–295, 298, 306, Transocket, 32
307, 310, 315, 394, 422, 435, 445, 453–463, Trigonometric functions, 40, 414
465–474 Trigonometry, 42, 78, 87, 347, 348
Stray fields, 211, 227, 317 Two-wire meter, 248, 263, 277, 441
Sub-metering, 29
Switchboard-mount meter, 29
Synchronism, 29 V
Systematic errors, 462, 463 Value, effective, 14
VARhour, 33, 43, 206, 363, 457
VARs, 33, 42, 43, 78, 194, 195, 289, 292, 320, 331,
T 352, 353, 355, 359, 363, 369, 370, 371, 373
Table definition language (TDL), 29 Volt, 33
Temperature compensation, 29, 240, 272, 273 Voltampere, 26, 33, 42, 194, 195, 197, 347, 348, 371,
Terms and definitions, 5 468
Test switch, 25, 139, 142, 144, 149, 150, 219, 226, Voltmeter, 23, 38, 39, 42, 53, 219, 221, 223, 388,
314, 315, 326, 394, 431, 449 436, 437, 439, 444, 448
Test tables, 306
Tests and testing, 1, 2, 8, 16, 19, 23, 24, 28, 30,
33–35, 110, 111, 133, 134, 138–153, 156, 162, W
164, 170, 183, 184, 188, 190–193, 211, 213, Watt, 33
219–228, 231, 240, 243, 249, 276, 279, 281, 282, Watthour constant, 9, 34
291, 292, 294–317, 326, 329, 335–342, 361, 365, equation of, 275
366, 368, 369, 373, 374, 378, 388, 394, 431, use, in precent registration calculations, 52, 54, 376
449, 450, 453, 454, 456, 459–461, 463, 465, in testing watthour meter registers, 302, 303
466, 471–473 in testing watthour meters, 267, 294, 302
periodic sample, 30 Watthour meters
statistical sample, 30 basic current range, 29
Thermocouple, instrument, 30 basic reference standards, 33
Thermoelectric effect, 30 basic voltage range, 29
Thermoelectric laws, 31 bottom-connected, 33
Three-wire system, 8, 31, 379, 414, 438 calibration, 34
 484 Watthour meters (continued) lag adjustment, 265, 304, 309
class designation, 34 light-load adjustment, 157, 184, 263, 267,
detachable (socket-mounted), 34 268, 270–274, 279, 281, 295, 303–305,
field standard, 34 309, 310, 313, 317
HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICITY METERING

form designation, 34 loading methods for

full load, 34 customer’s, 23, 28, 107, 139, 143, 262, 292,
gear ratio (Rg), 34 295, 383, 458
induction, 34 phantom, 23, 188, 193, 217, 295–299,
light load, 34 312–314
load range, 34 resistance, 297, 298
maintenance of mobile shop, field, 141, 145, 153, 316
bearings in, 268, 275, 277, 303, 317, 337 multi-stator, 248, 249, 260, 277, 279, 304, 305,
creeping, causes of, 300, 317 309, 376
defective current and voltage coils in, 317 circuits for, 248
friction, causes of, 267, 268, 273, 275, 303, 313, photoelectric counters, 306
317, 335–337, 378 timing and speed measurements, 306
registers in, 275, 323, 335 on customer’s premises, 296, 310, 450–452
checking of, 275, 317, 335, 336 instrument transformers with, 158
testing of, 336 multi-stator field test procedure, 304, 313
multistator, 34 network meters, 251, 315
percentage error, 34 relations with customers, 2, 450, 451
percentage registration, 34 safety precautions, 106, 452
portable standard, 34 single-stator field test procedures, 300–303,
rated current, 29 312, 313
rated voltage, 29 transport standard, 35
reading of. See Meter, reading of Waveform, 24, 25, 66, 67, 80, 118, 120, 134, 153,
reference performance, 34 160–162, 168–170, 219, 242, 274, 285–287, 297,
registers. See Registers 298, 331, 333, 348, 354, 46
registration, 35 Wheatstone bridge. See Bridges, Wheatstone
rotor, 35 Window-type CT, 35
self-contained, 35 Wound-type CT, 35
single stator, 35 Write/program meter, 35
stator, 35 Wye circuits, 14, 16, 22, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 148, 164,
test constant (Kt), 35 170, 188, 195, 196, 208, 214, 250, 253, 254,
testing of, 24 256, 260–262, 282, 298, 309, 311, 316, 352,
basic single-stator, 157, 165, 248–250, 277, 297, 361, 365, 367, 393, 396, 417, 419, 420, 436–438,
303, 304, 308, 313 444. See also Polyphase
full-load adjustment, 184, 263, 267–269, 275,
279, 280, 295, 298, 303, 305, 308, 309,
317, 363, 373