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Cybertext
Poetics
International Texts In Critical
Media Aesthetics
Volume #2
Founding Editor
Francisco J. Ricardo
Associate Editor
Jörgen Schäfer
Editorial Board
Roberto Simanowski
Rita Raley
John Cayley
George Fifield
Cybertext
Poetics
The Critical Landscape of New
Media Literary Theory
Markku Eskelinen
The Continuum International Publishing Group
The Tower Building 80 Maiden Lane
11 York Road Suite 704
London New York
SE1 7NX NY 10038
www.continuumbooks.com
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission
of the publishers.
PN56.T37E85 2012
809’.93356--dc23
2011038964
ISBN: 978–1–4411–1820–2
Acknowledgments vii
1 Introduction 1
2 Cybertext theory revisited 15
3 Cybertextuality and transtextuality 47
4 The textual whole 69
5 The enigma of the ergodic 87
6 Towards cybertextual narratology 103
7 Towards an expanded narratology 123
8 Tense 133
9 Mood 165
10 Voice 181
11 Ergodic and narrative discourses 199
12 Ludology and the exhaustion of narratology 209
13 Game ecology and the classic game model 235
14 Game ontology 259
15 Rules and configurative practices 275
16 Game time 295
17 Games as configurative practices: models and
metaphors 313
vi CONTENTS
Notes 388
Bibliography 432
Index 455
Acknowledgments
There are eight people without whom this book would have been
either pointless or impossible for me to write: Espen Aarseth, John
Cayley, Julianne Chatelain, Gonzalo Frasca, Raine Koskimaa,
Stuart Moulthrop, Francisco Ricardo, and my wife. I remain in
debt and you all know why.
I feel lucky. Fifteen years ago I decided to stop writing fiction
and essays in Finnish and to do something completely different
instead. I didn’t ever expect to find myself belonging to a wonder-
fully open and welcoming international community of scholars and
artists just a few years later, but that is exactly what happened to
me after the first Digital Arts and Culture conference in Bergen in
1998. Ever since that magical event I have enjoyed having intense
and inspiring discussions with an evergrowing number of people
on top of their profession. Among those friends, colleagues, artists,
and researchers who and whose work have shaped my thinking
the most are Simon Biggs, Philippe Bootz, Laura Borrás Castanyer,
Serge Bouchardon, Eliza Deac, Maria Engberg, Mary Flanagan,
Peter Gendolla, Loss Pequeno Glazier, Anna Gunder, Cynthia
Haynes, Jan Rune Holmevik, Fotis Jannidis, Michael Joyce, Jesper
Juul, Aki Järvinen, Eduardo Kac, Lisbeth Klastrup, Michael
Mateas, Talan Memmott, Nick Montfort, Jason Nelson, Katherine
Parrish, Mariusz Pisarski, Jill Walker Rettberg, Scott Rettberg, Jim
Rosenberg, Jörgen Schäfer, Roberto Simanowski, Janez Strehovec,
Patricia Tomaszek, Rui Torres, Susana Tosca, Ragnhild Tronstad,
Piret Viires, and Noah Wardrip-Fruin. Thank you all, it was fun.
To be honest, I was also genuinely inspired by several scholars
whose work I despise, but me being me, they are way too numerous
to be listed here.
Markku Eskelinen
Helsinki, 1 August 2011
Chapter 1
Introduction
how we should make this literary work function. The whole range
of existing media behavior naturally goes far beyond this simple
operation of choosing paths, as is evident in such dynamically
ergodic digital works as Book Unbound (Cayley 1995a) or The
Impermanence Agent (Wardrip-Fruin et al. 1998–2002).
Two aspects are essential here: we have established a range of
media behavior that is easily verifiable. Luckily, for the last 15 years
we have had a theory that takes into account the dimension that
is lacking and ignored in contemporary and hegemonic theories of
literature, Aarseth’s cybertext theory, which is capable of situating
every text, based on how its medium functions, into its heuristic
but empirically verifiable map of 576 media positions. Before going
any further into this it is important to understand that similar
theories of media functioning do not exist in neighboring scholarly
fields (including those centered on audiovisual presentations) – in
this respect cybertext theory is a unique achievement.
If currently hegemonic literary theories are viewed from the
perspective of cybertext theory, it quickly becomes evident that
these theories cover and are valid only in a very limited range of
media positions. In practice, they are based on only one position
and therefore on literary works that are static, determinate, intran-
sient, featuring random access and impersonal perspective, no
links and only interpretative user function, while pretending to be
general theories of literature applicable to every literary work in
every possible medium. Similar limitations also affect classical and
postclassical literary (and film) narratologies and the behavioral
scope of their favorite objects of choice.
The clash between the claims of hegemonic literary and narrative
theories and their actual explanatory and analytical power is by no
means only theoretical and cybertextual: empirically verifiable
anomalies and counterexamples to the basic assumptions, premises,
and presuppositions of these theories abound in digital and ergodic
works of literature and film. In short, in the first half of the book
we’ll see what happens and what can be made to happen when
sophisticated theories of reading and text are supplemented by an
equally advanced theory of media.
However, those are not the only benefits of adopting the
cybertextual perspective on media behavior. It is also relevant in
ludology and game studies, because it can be used to introduce and
justify the existence of comparative game studies as a paradigmatic
Introduction 3
Cybertext theory
revisited