save or conserve energy

INTRODUCTION

This project aims at designing and executing the advanced development in embedded
systems for energy saving of street lights with light depending resistor. Nowadays,
human has become too busy and he is unable to find time even to switch the lights
wherever not necessary. This can be seen more effectively in the case of street lights.
The present system is like, the street lights will be switched on in the evening before
the sun sets and they are switched off the next day morning after there is sufficient
light on the roads. But the actual timings for these street lights to be switched on are
when there is absolute darkness. With this, the power will be wasted up to some extent.
This project gives the best solution for electrical power wastage. Also the manual
operation of the lighting system is completely eliminated.
In our project we are using LDR, which varies according to the amount of light falling on
its surface, this give an indication for us whether it is a day/night time. We have placed
IR sensors in both sides of the road, which can be controlled by Micro controller
(AT89C51).The IR‘s will be activated only on the night time. If any obstacle crosses the
IR, automatically particular light will be ON, for few seconds.
In our project we use regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify
the ac out put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.
The programming language used for developing the software to the microcontroller is
Embedded/Assembly. The KEIL cross compiler is used to edit, compile and debug this
program. Here in our application we are using AT89C51 microcontroller which is Flash
Programmable IC.AT represents the Atmel Corporation ‘C’ represents CMOS technology
is used for designing the IC. We believe that our idea provides better than the existing
system.
In the present project street lights are taken into consideration where the above
discussed factors are rectified in them. This is achieved with the help of an embedded
system. By using this as the basic principle we can design centralized intelligent system
for the perfect usage of streetlights in any place (Viz Village, Town) can be developed.
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-
purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real time performance constraints
that must be met, for reason such as safety and usability; others may have low or no
performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce
costs.
An embedded system is not always a separate block - very often it is physically built-in
to the device it is controlling. The software written for embedded systems is often called
firmware, and is stored in read-only memory or flash convector chips rather than a disk
drive. It often runs with limited computer hardware resources: small or no keyboard,
screen, and little memory.
Wireless communication has become an important feature for commercial products and
a popular research topic within the last ten years. There are now more mobile phone
subscriptions than wired-line subscriptions. Lately, one area of commercial interest has
been low-cost, low-power, and short-distance wireless communication used for \
personal wireless networks." Technology advancements are providing smaller and more
cost effective devices for integrating computational processing, wireless
communication, and a host of other functionalities. These embedded communications
devices will be integrated into applications ranging from homeland security to industry
automation and monitoring. They will also enable custom tailored engineering solutions,
creating a revolutionary way of disseminating and processing information. With new
technologies and devices come new business activities, and the need for employees in
these technological areas. Engineers who have knowledge of embedded systems and
wireless communications will be in high demand. Unfortunately, there are few adorable
environments available for development and classroom use, so students often do not
learn about these technologies during hands-on lab exercises. The communication
mediums were twisted pair, optical fiber, infrared, and generally wireless radio.
Objective of the project:-
The main consideration in the present field technologies are Automation, Power
consumption and cost effectiveness. Automation is intended to reduce man power with
the help of intelligent systems. Power saving is the main consideration forever as the
source of the power(Thermal, Hydro etc.,)are getting diminished due to various reasons
The main aim of the project is Automatic street power saving system with LDR, this is to
save the power. We want to save power automatically instead of doing manual. So its
easy to make cost effectiveness. This saved power can be used in some other cases. So
in villages, towns etc we can design intelligent systems for the usage of street lights.
Block Diagram Explanation: .
In this project, we are going to switch off the street lights automatically as the day
starts. The duration of the day differs from season to season, accordingly our module
works based upon the light intensity so as to when to start or stop. For this we are using
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) as the light sensor, which communicates with the
required information to the micro controller.
Here we are using micro controller, LDR, and relay. By using the LDR we can operate
the lights, i.e when the light is available then it will be in the OFF state and when it is
dark then the light will be in ON state, it means LDR is inversely proportional to light.
When the light falls on the LDR it sends the commands to the micro controller that it
should be in the OFF state then it switch off’s the light, all these commands are sent to
the controller then according to that the devices operate. We use a relay to act as an
ON OFF switch, the load is connected to these relays.
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The block diagram of the system is as shown in the fig. The system basically consists of
a
1. Micro controller,
2. LDR
3. IR
4. Power supply,
MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECHTURE
Microprocessor has following instructions to perform:
1. Reading instructions or data from program memory ROM.
2. Interpreting the instruction and executing it.
3. Microprocessor Program is a collection of instructions stored in a
Nonvolatile memory.
4. Read Data from I/O device
5. Process the input read, as per the instructions read in program memory.
6. Read or write data to Data memory.
7. Write data to I/O device and output the result of processing to O/P device.
NECESSITY OF MICROCONTROLLERS:
Microprocessors brought the concept of programmable devices and made many
applications of intelligent equipment. Most applications, which do not need large
amount of data and program memory, tended to be:
Costly:
The microprocessor system had to satisfy the data and program requirements so,
sufficient RAM and ROM are used to satisfy most applications .The peripheral control
equipment also had to be satisfied. Therefore, almost all-peripheral chips were used in
the design. Because of these additional peripherals cost will be comparatively high.
An example:
8085 chip needs:
An Address latch for separating address from multiplex address and data.32-KB RAM
and 32-KB ROM to be able to satisfy most applications. As also Timer / Counter, Parallel
programmable port, Serial port, Interrupt controller are needed for its efficient
applications.
In comparison a typical Micro controller 8051 chip has all that the 8051 board has
except a reduced memory as follows.
4K bytes of ROM as compared to 32-KB, 128 Bytes of RAM as compared to 32-KB.
Bulky:
On comparing a board full of chips (Microprocessors) with one chip with all components
in it (Micro controller).
Debugging:
Lots of Microprocessor circuitry and program to debug. In Micro controller there is no
Microprocessor circuitry to debug.
Slower Development time: As we have observed Microprocessors need a lot of
debugging at board level and at program level, where as, Micro controller do not have
the excessive circuitry and the built-in peripheral chips are easier to program for
operation.
So peripheral devices like Timer/Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial
Communication Port, Interrupt controller and so on, which were most often used were
integrated with the Microprocessor to present the Micro controller .RAM and ROM also
were integrated in the same chip. The ROM size was anything from 256 bytes to 32Kb
or more. RAM was optimized to minimum of 64 bytes to 256 bytes or more.

We need to save or conserve energy because most of the energy sources we depend on,
like coal and natural gas can't be replaced. Once we use them up, they're gone forever. Saving
power is very important, instead of using the power in unnecessary times it should be switched
off. In any city “STREET LIGHT” is one of the major power consuming factors. Most of the time
we see street lights are ON even after sunrise thus wasting lot of energy. Over here we are
avoiding the problem by having an automatic system which turns ON & OFF the street lights at
given time or when the ambient light falls below a specific intensity. Each controller has an LDR
which is used to detect the ambient light. If the ambient light is below a specific value the lights
are turned ON. A solar-wind hybrid power generation system has been presented here. The
application based system illustrated in this paper is designed on the basis of the solar and wind
data for areas in Northern India. The power generated by the system is intended for domestic
use. The most common source of unconventional power in homes is battery based UPS
(Uninterrupted power supply) inverter. The UPS inverter charges the battery with conventional
grid power. This system will charge the battery of UPS inverter by using only wind and solar
power, which will make the system cost effective and

more reliable. The reason for using both solar and wind is that

recent studies have proven that combined system can be more

productive and consistent and other thing is that neither of

them can be used for continuous power generation. In the

system illustrated in this paper the solar-wind system provides

power periodically which is controlled by electronic methods

and a microcontroller is used to monitor the power from both

the inputs. The switching action is provided from the

microcontroller to the battery charging based on the power

received from solar photovoltaic panel and wind generators. In

this paper, an efficient system has been presented comprising

 of solar panel, wind generator, charge controller and charge

storage unit (battery). Solar panel is selected as the main input

and the wind resource will be used only in the absence of the

solar photovoltaic (PV) output. In the recent times the need for energy has increased
globally.

The electrical energy has now become the base for almost

everything. This has made us to increase our energy

production which in turn has put extra pressure on our nonrenewable

resources. The other way is to generate energy by

using renewable resources of energy. The renewable resources

like hydro power are being utilized to generate power but these

projects take years to complete and there are lots of other

factors involved which discourages these projects. The more

suitable form of renewable energy in the modern era is the

solar energy. The solar energy can be utilized in many ways.

The two of the most basic uses of sun light to make electrical

energy are:

 Solar Photovoltaic.

 Solar Thermal.
 Solar photovoltaic is a system to convert light energy (photons)

into electrical energy. Solar thermal means to use the heat

energy of the sun to generate electrical energy thermally. The

solar water heaters and steam based solar turbine are the

systems where solar thermal technique is used. The paper

presented here is based on the solar photovoltaic systems. The solar photovoltaic has
given us the chance to become producer

of easy and clean energy. The solar systems can be installed on

a small house or a big industry. The solar panel uses the solar

irradiance to generate electrical energy. A solar panel uses

energy of the incident photons on its surface to generate

electrical charge. The solar panel consists of small silicon cells.

The cell output voltage for a single cell is of the order of 0.7V

(under open circuited conditions) which cannot be utilized for

power generation. These cells are placed in series-parallel

combinations to get usable voltage.

The other renewable energy resource is the wind energy. The

wind energy is utilized by converting the kinetic energy of

wind in to rotational motion by using a wind turbine. This

 rotational motion is converted into usable electrical energy. For

this purpose a wind generator has been used which contains a

wind turbine and an alternator.

The systems with only solar or wind generation are productive

but there are problems linked with both of them. The solar

power is not available for 24 hours and wind is not continuous

all the time. So a hybrid system containing solar and wind has

been designed to overcome these shortcomings. A system has

been designed in this paper which utilises both solar and wind

power generation systems. Recent researches in the field of

renewable resources shows that the solar and wind hybrid

power generation system can work with increased outputs and

increased practicality [6]. The block diagram of this system has

been shown below

A light dependent sensors is interfaced to the 8051/ AT89s52 microcontroller it is used

to track the sun light and when the sensors goes dark the led will be made on and when the
sensor founds light the led will be made OFF.

It clearly demonstrates the working of transistor in saturation region and cut-off region.
The working of relay is also known Microcontroller and the code is written in c language in
MikroC ide, the resulted value can be seen with the help of UART or LCD display .Automatic
Street Light Control System is a simple yet powerful concept, which uses transistor as a switch.
By using this system manual works are 100% removed. It automatically switches ON lights when
the sunlight goes below the visible region of our eyes. This is done by a sensor called
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) which senses the light actually like our eyes. It automatically
switches OFF lights whenever the sunlight comes, visible to our eyes.
Aim of this project is to control the street light using LDR. When the light falling occur
means resistance value will be change. There is no light then the resistance value is
change. is stand for peripheral interface controller.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits.
Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000000 ohms, but when
they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. Electronic onto sensors are the
devices that alter their electrical characteristics, in the presences of visible or invisible light. The
best-known devices of this type are the light dependent resistor (LDR), the photo diode and the
phototransistors.

Light dependent resistor as the name suggests depends on light for the variation of
resistance.
 LDR are made by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide on a
substrate of ceramic containing no or very few free electrons when not illuminated.The
longer the strip the more the value of resistance.
 When light falls on the strip, the resistance decreases. In the absence of light the
resistance can be in the order of 10K ohm to 15K ohm and is called the dark resistance.

Depending on the exposure of light the resistance can fall down to value of 500 ohms.
The power ratings are usually smaller and are in the range 50mw to .5w. Though very sensitive
to light, the switching time is very high and hence cannot be used for high frequency
applications. They are used in chopper amplifiers. Light dependent resistors are available as
discs 0.5cm to 2.5cm. The resistance rises to several Mega ohms under dark conditions.

The below figure shoes that when the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR falls,
allowing current to pass through it is shown in figure.

Fig. 1.1: LDR. Fig. 1.1.1: Symbol for LDR.

The basic construction and symbol for LDR are shown in above figures respectively. The
device consists of a pair of metal film contacts separated by a snakelike track of cadmium
sulphide film, designed to provide the maximum possible contact area
with the two metal films. The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free
access to external light. Practical LDRs are available in variety of sizes and
packages styles, the most popular size having a face diameter of roughly 10mm. practical LDR is
shown in below figure.

Fig. 1.2: Practical LDR.

1.2.1 Recovery rate:
 When an LDR is brought from a certain illuminating level into total darkness, the
resistance does not increase immediately to the dark value. The recovery rate is specified in k
ohm/second and for current LDR types it is more than 200k ohm/second. The recovery rate is
much greater in the reverse direction, e.g. going from darkness to illumination level of 300 lux,
it takes less than 10ms to reach a resistance which corresponds with a light level of 400 lux. A
LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when
soldering.
 Darkness: Maximum resistance, about 1Mohm.
 Very bright light: Minimum resistance, about 100 ohm.

The LDR is a variable resistor whose resistance decreases with the increase in light
intensity. Two cadmium sulphide (cds) photoconductive cells with spectral response similar to
that of the human eye. The cell resistance falls with increasing light intensity. some of its
features:
 High reliability.
 Light weight.
 Wide spectral response.
Wide ambient temperature range
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

In this project the list of hardware components used are given below:
 89s52 Microcontroller.
 Lm 339
 Push Button For Reset.
 11 MHZ Crystal.
 LDR sensor.
 IR sensor.
 IR Photo diode.
 DIODE= IN 4007
  7805 REGULATOR
 ON OFF SWITCHES
 CAPACITORS:
 1000MF35V
 RESISTOR:
 1K
 10K
 470 OHM
 LED
 BC 558 PNP
 BC 548 NPN
 Light Dependent Resistor.
 16X2 Pic LCD Module.
 Power Supply 5v dc With LED.
 Solar ,wind, speed.

2.1 MICRO CONTROLLER

A struggle has been going on between MCU manufacturers for quite a long time, each of them
trying to best respond to the ever-increasing demands of the market. Every couple of days
there is a brand new chip available, working at higher frequency, with more memory or with
better A/D converters. And yet, a closer look to their interior reveals the same or at least very
similar structural design referred to as "8051 compatibility".

Although this family had quite limited capabilities by today's notions, it quickly captivated the
world and became the standard for what is today understood as 'micro controller'. The most
significant cause for such a success can be found in the cleverly chosen configuration which can
satisfy a diversity of needs, yet allowing for continuous upgrades (in form of new controllers). In
a brief period of time, a decent amount of software has been developed for 8051, making
further changes of the hardware core simply uneconomical. Consequently, there is a variety of
MCUs available today, basically just the upgraded 8051 models. still manufactured by all the
major companies,

As can be seen on the image above, there is nothing particularly remarkable about MCU 8051:

 4 kilobytes of ROM is neither too little nor too much.

 128 bytes of RAM (SFR registers included) can satisfy the basic needs, but is not really
astounding.
 4 ports totaling 32 I/O lines , are usually sufficient for connecting to the environs and are
by no means luxury.

Obviously, 8051 configuration is intended to satisfy the needs of programmers developing the
controlling devices and instruments. This is one part of its key to success: there is nothing
missing, yet there is no lavishness; it is meant for the average user. The other clue can be found
in the organization of RAM, Central Processor Unit (CPU), and ports - all of which maximally
utilize the available resources and allow further upgrades.
Pins On The Case

 1–8: Port 1: Each of these pins can be used as either input or output according to your
needs. Also, pins 1 and 2 (P1.0 and P1.1) have special functions associated with Timer 2.
 9: Reset Signal: high logical state on this input halts the MCU and clears all the registers.
Bringing this pin back to logical state zero starts the program anew as if the power had
just been turned on. In another words, positive voltage impulse on this pin resets the
MCU. Depending on the device's purpose and environs, this pin is usually connected to
the push-button, reset-upon-start circuit or a brown out reset circuit (covered in the
previous chapter). The image shows one simple circuit for safe reset upon starting the
controller. It is utilized in situations when power fails to reach its optimal voltage.

 10-17: Port 3: As with Port 1, each of these pins can be used as universal input or
output. However, each pin of Port 3 has an alternative function:
 Pin 10: RXD - serial input for asynchronous communication or serial output for
synchronous communication.
 Pin 11: TXD - serial output for asynchronous communication or clock output for
synchronous communication
 Pin 12: INT0 - input for interrupt 0
  Pin 13: INT1 - input for interrupt 1
 Pin 14: T0 - clock input of counter 0
 Pin 15: T1 - clock input of counter 1
 Pin 16: WR - signal for writing to external (add-on) RAM memory
 Pin 17: RD - signal for reading from external RAM memory
 18-19: X2 and X1: Input and output of internal oscillator. Quartz crystal controlling the
frequency commonly connects to these pins. Capacitances within the oscillator
mechanism (see the image) are not critical and are normally about 30pF. Instead of a
quartz crystal, miniature ceramic resonators can be used for dictating the pace. In that
case, manufacturers recommend using somewhat higher capacitances (about 47 pF).
New MCUs work at frequencies from 0Hz to 50MHz+.

 20: GND: Ground

 21- 28: Port 2: If external memory is not present, pins of Port 2 act as universal
input/output. If external memory is present, this is the location of the higher address
byte, i.e. addresses A8 – A15. It is important to note that in cases when not all the 8 bits
are used for addressing the memory (i.e. memory is smaller than 64kB), the rest of the
unused bits are not available as input/output.
 29: PSEN: MCU activates this bit (brings to low state) upon each reading of byte
(instruction) from program memory. If external ROM is used for storing the program,
PSEN is directly connected to its control pins.
  30: ALE: Before each reading of the external memory, MCU sends the lower byte of the
address register (addresses A0 – A7) to port P0 and activates the output ALE. External
register (74HCT373 or 74HCT375 circuits are common), memorizes the state of port P0
upon receiving a signal from ALE pin, and uses it as part of the address for memory chip.
During the second part of the mechanical MCU cycle, signal on ALE is off, and port P0 is
used as Data Bus. In this way, by adding only one cheap integrated circuit, data from
port can be multiplexed and the port simultaneously used for transferring both
addresses and data.
 31: EA: Bringing this pin to the logical state zero (mass) designates the ports P2 and P3
for transferring addresses regardless of the presence of the internal memory. This
means that even if there is a program loaded in the MCU it will not be executed, but the
one from the external ROM will be used instead. Conversely, bringing the pin to the high
logical state causes the controller to use both memories, first the internal, and then the
external (if present).
 32-39: Port 0: Similar to Port 2, pins of Port 0 can be used as universal input/output, if
external memory is not used. If external memory is used, P0 behaves as address output
(A0 – A7) when ALE pin is at high logical level, or as data output (Data Bus) when ALE pin
is at low logical level.
 40: VCC; Power +5V

Input – Output (I/O) Ports

Every MCU from 8051 family has 4 I/O ports of 8 bits each. This provides the user with 32 I/O
lines for connecting MCU to the environs. Unlike the case with other controllers, there is no
specific SFR register for designating pins as input or output. Instead, the port itself is in charge:
0=output, 1=input. If particular pin on the case is needed as output, the appropriate bit of I/O
port should be cleared. This will generate 0V on the specified controller pin. Similarly, if
particular pin on the case is needed as input, the appropriate bit of I/O port should be set. This
will designate the pin as input, generating +5V as a side effect (as with every TTL input).
Port 0

Port 0 has two-fold role: if external memory is used, it contains the lower address byte
(addresses A0-A7), otherwise all bits of the port are either input or output. Another feature of
this port comes to play when it has been designated as output. Unlike other ports, Port 0 lacks
the "pull up" resistor (resistor with +5V on one end). This seemingly insignificant change has the
following consequences:

 When designated as input, pin of Port 0 acts as high impedance offering the infinite
input resistance with no "inner" voltage.
 When designated as output, pin acts as "open drain". Clearing a port bit grounds the
appropriate pin on the case (0V). Setting a port bit makes the pin act as high impedance.
Therefore, to get positive logic (5V) at output, external "pull up" resistor needs to be
added for connecting the pin to the positive pole.

Therefore, to get one (5V) on the output, external "pull up" resistor needs to be added for
connecting the pin to the positive pole.

Port 1

This is "true" I/O port, devoid of dual function characteristic for Port 0. Having the "pull up"
resistor, Port 1 is fully compatible with TTL circuits.

Port 2

When using external memory, this port contains the higher address byte (addresses A8–A15),
similar to Port 0. Otherwise, it can be used as universal I/O port.

Port 3

Beside its role as universal I/O port, each pin of Port 3 has an alternate function. In order to use
one of these functions, the pin in question has to be designated as input, i.e. the appropriate bit
of register P3 needs to be set. From a hardware standpoint, Port 3 is similar to Port 0.
As can be seen from the individual descriptions of the ports, they all share highly similar
structure. However, you need to consider which task should be assigned to which port. For
example: if utilizing port as output with high level (5V), avoid using Port 0 as its pins cannot
produce high logical level without an additional resistor connected to +5V. If using other port to
a same end, bear in mind that built-in resistors have relatively high values, producing the
currents limited to few hundreds of amperes as pin output.

Memory Under The Magnifier

During the runtime, microcontroller uses two different types of memory: one for holding the
program being executed (ROM memory), and the other for temporary storage of data and
auxiliary variables (RAM memory). Depending on the particular model from 8051 family, this is
usually few kilobytes of ROM and 128/256 bytes of RAM. This amount is built-in and is sufficient
for common tasks performed "independently" by the MCU. However, 8051 can address up to
64KB of external memory. These can be separate memory blocks, (separate RAM chip and ROM
chip) totaling 128KB of memory on MCU which is a real programming goody.

ROM memory

First models from 8051 family lacked the internal program memory, but it could be added
externally in a form of a separate chip. These MCUs can be recognized by their mark which
begins with 803 (e.g. 8031 or 8032). New models have built-in ROM, although there are
substantial variations. With some models internal memory cannot be programmed directly by
the user. Instead, the user needs to proceed the program to the manufacturer, so that the MCU
can be programmed (masked) appropriately in the process of fabrication. Obviously, this option
is cost-effective only for large series. Fortunately, there are MCU models ideal for
experimentation and small specialized series. Many manufacturers deliver controllers that can
be programmed directly by the user. These come in a ceramic case with an opening (EPROM
version) or in a plastic case without an opening (EEPROM version). This book deals with one of
the latter models that can be programmed via simple programmer, even if the chip has already
been mounted to the designated device.
RAM memory

As previously stated, RAM is used for storing temporary data and auxiliary results generated
during the runtime. Apart from that, RAM comprises a number of registers: hardware counters
and timers, I/O ports, buffer for serial connection, etc. With older versions, RAM spanned 256
locations, while new models feature additional 128 registers. First 256 memory locations form
the basis of RAM (addresses 0 – FFh) of every 8051 MCU. Locations that are available to the
user span addresses from 0 to 7Fh, i.e. first 128 registers, and this part of RAM is split into
several blocks as can be seen in the image below.

 First block comprises 4 "banks" of 8 registers each, marked as R0 - R7. To address these,
the parent bank has to be selected.
  Second memory block (range 20h – 2Fh) is bit-addressable, meaning that every
belonging bit has its own address (0 to 7Fh). Since the block comprises 16 of these
registers, there is a total of 128 addressable bits. (Bit 0 of byte 20h has bit address 0,
while bit 7 of byte 2Fh has bit address 7Fh).
 Third is the group of available registers at addresses 2Fh – 7Fh (total of 80 locations)
without special features or a preset purpose.

Extra Memory Block

To satisfy the programmers' ever-increasing demands for RAM, latest 8051 models were added
an extra memory block of 128 locations. But it is not all that simple... The problem lies in the
fact that the electronics which addresses RAM employs 1 byte (8 bits), reaching only the first
256 locations. Therefore, a little trick had to be applied in order to keep the existing 8-bit
architecture for the sake of compatibility with older models. The idea is to make the additional
memory block share the addresses with the existent locations intended for SFR registers (80h -
FFh). For distinguishing these two physically separate memory areas, different methods of
addressing are used: if SFR registers are in question, direct addressing is used; for extra RAM
locations, indirect addressing is used.

Memory Expanding

In case the built-in amount of memory (either RAM or ROM) is not sufficient for your needs,
there is always an option of adding two external 64KB memory chips. When added, they are
addressed and accessed via I/O ports P2 and P3. From user's point of view it's all very simple,
because if properly connected most of the job is carried out automatically by MCU.

8051 MCU has two separate read signals, RD# (P3.7) and PSEN#. The first one is active when
reading byte from the external data memory (RAM), and the second one is active when reading
byte from the external program memory (ROM). Both signals are active on low logical level. The
following image shows a typical scheme for such expansion using separate chips for RAM and
ROM, known as Harvard architecture.
Memory can be also mapped as a single block, functioning as both data memory and program
memory simultaneously (only one memory chip is used). This approach is known as Von
Neumann architecture. To be able to read the same block using RD# or PSEN#, these two signals
were combined via logical AND. In this way, output of AND circuit is low if any of the two inputs
is low.

Using the Harvard architecture effectively doubles MCU memory, but that's not the only
advantage offered by the method. Keeping the program code separated from the data makes
the controller more reliable since there is no writing to the program memory.

SFR Registers (Special Function Registers)

SFR registers can be seen as a sort of control panel for managing and monitoring the
microcontroller. Every register and each of the belonging bits has its name, specified address in
RAM and strictly defined role (e.g. controlling the timer, interrupt, serial connection, etc).
Although there are 128 available memory slots for allocating SFR registers, the basic core
shared by 8051 MCUs has but 22 registers. The rest has been left open intentionally to allow
future upgrades while retaining the compatibility with earlier models. This fact makes possible
to use programs developed for obsolete models long ago.

The following is the basic circuit that makes the 8051 works:egulator. The
input voltage ranges from 7V to 35V and the output voltage is about 5V. The
 following is the bottom view of the
conponent:

The EA on pin 31 is tied high to make the 8051 executes program from
internal ROM.

The RST on pin 9 is connected to a 8.2 Kohm and 10uF.

The oscillator used is crystal type of frequency 12MHz (11.0592MHz) and

the capacitors used are 30pF.
 This section provides an introduction to most common word in the embedded system
“microcontroller”. It is written to familiarize you with microcontroller terminology and basic
microcontroller architecture.

A microcontroller is a single chip, self-contained computer which incorporates all the

basic components of a personal computer on a much smaller scale. Microcontrollers are often
referred to as single chip devices or single chip computers. The main consequence of the
microcontroller’s small size is that its resources are far more limited than those of a desktop
personal computer. In functional terms, a microcontroller is a programmable single chip which
controls a process or system. Microcontrollers are typically used as embedded controllers
where they control part of a very larger system such as an appliance, automobile, scientific
instrument or a computer peripheral.

Microcontrollers are designed to be low cost solutions; therefore using them can drastically
reduce part and design costs for a project. Physically, a microcontroller is an integrated circuit
with pins along each side. The pins presented by a microcontroller are used for power, ground,
oscillator, I/O ports, interrupt request signals, reset and control. In contrast, the pins exposed
by a microprocessor are most often memory bus signals (rather than I/O ports).

LED CONSTRUCTIONS: -

To reduce reflection losses in LEDs there are two obvious ways: -

a) The first is to ensure that most rays strike the surface at less than the critical
angle. This may be achieved by shaping the semiconductor /air interface into a
hemisphere.
b) The second technique is to encapsulate the junction in a transparent medium of high
refractive index. This is usually a plastic material with refractive index of about 1.5.
Moulding the plastic into an approximately hemispherical shape can minimize the losses
at the plastic lair interface.
 RESISTANCE

Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is measured in Ohms (). All
conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To
control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic circuits
use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can
be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the
value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an
adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c) Special type.
The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is
normally indicated by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either
side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three
band will give the value of resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following
marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its
value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is ±5%. Resistor comes in various sizes
(Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4 watts. The four colour rings
on its body tells us the value of resistor value as given below.
COLOURS CODE

Black----------------------------------------------------------0
Brown---------------------------------------------------------1
Red------------------------------------------------------------2
Orange--------------------------------------------------------3
Yellow--------------------------------------------------------4
Green---------------------------------------------------------5
Blue-----------------------------------------------------------6
Violet---------------------------------------------------------7
Grey-----------------------------------------------------------8
White---------------------------------------------------------9

The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the second digit. The third ring
indicates the number of zeroes to be placed after the digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance
(gold ±5%, silver ± 10%, No colour ± 20%).
 In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance boxes. There is a knob with a
metal pointer. This presses over brass pieces placed along a circle with some space b/w each of
them.

Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the gaps. When the knob is
rotated, the pointer also moves over the brass pieces. If a gap is skipped over, its resistance is
included in the circuit. If two gaps are skipped over, the resistances of both together are
included in the circuit and so on.

A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending upon the range, which it has
to cover. If a resistance box has to read upto 10,000, it will have three dials each having ten
gaps i.e. ten resistance coils each of resistance 10. The third dial will have ten resistances
each of 100.

The dial type of resistance boxes is better because the contact resistance in this case is
small & constant.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Light emitting diode (LED) is basically a P-N junction semiconductor diode particularly
designed to emit visible light. There are infrared emitting LEDs which emit invisible light. The
LEDs are now available in many colours red, green and yellow. A normal LED emits at 2.4V and
consumes MA of current. The LEDs are made in the form of flat tiny P-N junction enclosed in a
semi-spherical dome made up of clear coloured epoxy resin. The dome of a LED acts as a lens
and diffuser of light. The diameter of the base is less than a quarter of an inch. The actual
diameter varies somewhat with different makes. The common circuit symbols for the LED are
shown in Fig. It is similar to the conventional rectifier diode symbol with two arrows pointing
out. There are two leads- one for anode and the other for cathode.

LEDs often have leads of dissimilar length and the shorter one is the cathode. All
manufacturers do not strictly adhere this to. Sometimes the cathode side has a flat base. If
there is doubt, the polarity of the diode should be identified. A simple bench method is to use
the ohmmeter incorporating 3-volt cells for ohmmeter function. When connected with the
ohmmeter: one way there will be no deflection and when connected the other way round there
will be a large deflection of a pointer. When this occurs the anode lead is connected to the
negative of test lead and cathode to the positive test lead of the ohmmeter.
 If low range (Rxl) of the ohmmeter is used the LED would light up in most cases because
the low range of ohmmeter can pass sufficient current to light up the LED.

Another safe method is to connect the test circuit shown in Fig. 2. Use any two dry cells
in series with a current limiting resistor of 68 to 100 ohms. The resistor limits the forward diode
current of the LED under test to a safe value. When the LED under test is connected to the test
terminals in any way: if it does not light up, reverse the test leads. The LED will now light up.
The anode of the LED is that which is connected to the “A” terminal (positive pole of the
battery). This method is safe, as reverse voltage can never exceed 3 volts in this test.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEDS: -

Electrically, a LED is similar to the conventional diode in that it has relatively low forward
voltage threshold. Once this is exceeded the junction has a low slope resistance and conducts
current readily. An external resistor must limit this current. Forward voltage drew across red
LED is nominally 1.6 V but spread with commercial diodes, it may be as high as 2 volts or so,
while the Green LED drops 2.4V. This difference accounts for use of lower limiting resistor used
with the Green LED.
Another important parameter of the LED is its maximum reverse voltage rating. For
typical Red device it is of the order of 3 volts. But for Green LED it is somewhat higher- 5 to 10
volts.

The LED produces light only when a d.c. current is passed in the forward direction and
the amount of light emitted by a LED is proportional to the forward current over a broad range.
It means that light intensity increases in an approximately linear manner with increasing
current.

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY DECIMAL DISPLAY:-

A popular type consists of seven small, bar-shaped LED segment arranged so that
depending on which combinations are energized, the numbers 0 to 9 light up. All the LED
cathodes (or sometimes anodes) are joined to form a common connection. Current limiting
resistors are required (e.g. 270 ohms), preferably one per segment. Common cathode method
of connecting an array of display elements.
Anode
Connection

The main requirements for a suitable LED material are:- Common Cathode

1) It must have on energy gap of appropriate width.

2) Both P and N types must exist, preferably with low resistivities.

3) Efficient radioactive pathways must be present.

Generally, energy gaps greater than or equal to about 2 are required.

Commercial LED materials::

Gallium arsenide (Ga As) doped with Si

Gallium Phosphide (GaP) doped with N & Bi

Gallium arsenide Phosphide (Ga As1-x Px)

Gallium aluminium arsenide (Gax Al1-x As)

LED CONSTRUCTIONS: -

To reduce reflection losses in LEDs there are two obvious ways: -

a) The first is to ensure that most rays strike the surface at less than the critical
angle. This may be achieved by shaping the semiconductor /air interface into a
hemisphere.
b) The second technique is to encapsulate the junction in a transparent medium of high
refractive index. This is usually a plastic material with refractive index of about 1.5.
Moulding the plastic into an approximately hemispherical shape can minimize the losses
at the plastic lair interface.
POWER SUPPLY

In alternating current the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to
maximum in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other direction and
then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one direction only. Rectifier converts
alternating current to flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is positive with
respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing current to flow. But when its anode is
negative with respect to the cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow.
This unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single diode arranged back-
to-back might allow the electrons to flow during positive half cycles only and suppress the
negative half cycles. Double diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full wave rectifiers as
they may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half cycles. Four diodes can
be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier. Different types of filter circuits are used to
smooth out the pulsations in amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property of
capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by storing energy in the
electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to oppose any change in the current flowing
through them by storing energy in the magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To remove
pulsation of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types of combination of
capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to increase to action of filtering.

NEED OF POWER SUPPLY

Perhaps all of you are aware that a ‘power supply’ is a primary requirement for the ‘Test
Bench’ of a home experimenter’s mini lab. A battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the
batteries of solid-state electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v
A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of commercial battery
eliminator or power supply unit has become increasingly popular as power source for
household appliances like transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.
THEORY

USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:

Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the form of alternating
voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at
60 Hz. For the operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage is needed.
For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its operation. Usually, this supply is
provided by dry cells. But sometime we use a battery eliminator in place of dry cells. The
battery eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates the need for dry
cells. Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of
mains supply into dc voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power Supply. In general, at
the input of the power supply, there is a power transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit
called Rectifier. The output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage
regulator circuit. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.

RECTIFICATION

Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage into a

unidirectional one. The component used for rectification is called ‘Rectifier’. A rectifier permits
current to flow only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by eliminating the
negative half cycles or alternations of the applied AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To
obtain smooth DC power, additional filter circuits are required.

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of diodes. But, semiconductor
diodes are very popularly used as rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device
consisting of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other an electron
collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one direction only-
from emitter to collector- the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for
rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and selenium rectifier are also
commonly used.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by using two diodes in the
circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-p) is applied to the circuit. Assume further that
two equal-valued series-connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac source. The 18
V p-p appears across the two resistors connected between points AC and CB, and point C is the
electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V p-p appears across each resistor. At any
moment during a cycle of v in, if point A is positive relative to C, point B is negative relative to C.
When A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective voltage in proper time
phase which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage applied to the anode of each diode is equal
but opposite in polarity at any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D 1 is positive with respect to its cathode.
Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the second alternation, B is positive relative to C.
The anode of D2 is therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and D 2 conducts while D1 is
cut off.

There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire input-voltage cycle.

Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor R L, the output voltage
across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D1 and D2. The output waveform vout
across RL, therefore has no gaps as in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current. In the diagram, the
two equal resistors R across the input voltage are necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C for
circuit connection and zero reference. Note that the load resistor R L is connected from the
cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform v out is that its peak amplitude is not 9 V
as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the same power source, but is less than 4½ V. The
reason, of course, is that the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4½ V, not 9 V, and part of
the 4½ V is lost across R.
 Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it delivers less than half the
peak output voltage that results from half-wave rectification.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier. It requires four
diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a centre-tapped transformer. During the positive
half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1 and D3 are
non-conducting. Therefore, current flows through the secondary winding, diode D2, load
resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-cycles of the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and
D3 conduct, and the diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current therefore flows through the
secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both cases, the current passes
through the load resistor in the same direction. Therefore, a fluctuating, unidirectional voltage
is developed across the load.

Filtration

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output voltage that always has
the same polarity: but however, this output is not suitable as DC power supply for solid-state
circuits. This is due to the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be removed
out before the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This smoothing is done by
incorporating filter networks. The filter network consists of inductors and capacitors. The
inductors or choke coils are generally connected in series with the rectifier output and the load.
The inductors oppose any change in the magnitude of a current flowing through them by
storing up energy in a magnetic field. An inductor offers very low resistance for DC whereas; it
offers very high resistance to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a rectifier circuit helps
to reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage. The fitter capacitors
are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier output and the load. As, AC can pass through
a capacitor but DC cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes smoothed.
When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back into voltage and
current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output voltage are reduced considerable. Filter network
circuits may be of two types in general:

CHOKE INPUT FILTER

If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the ‘first- components’ in the filter network, the
filter is called ‘choke input filter’. The D.C. along with AC pulsation from the rectifier circuit at
first passes through the choke (L). It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC to pass
through it freely. Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are by passed
through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple remains unaffected, which are
considered negligible. This little ripple may be reduced by incorporating a series a choke input
filters.

CAPACITOR INPUT FILTER

If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a choke-input filter network, the filter is
called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with AC ripples from the rectifier circuit starts
charging the capacitor C. to about peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly. Now
the capacitor C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which opposes the AC ripples,
except the DC. The second capacitor C by passes the further AC ripples. A small ripple is still
present in the output of DC, which may be reduced by adding additional filter network in series.
TRANSFORMER

The transformer is one of the simplest of electrical devices. Its basic design, materials, and
principles have changed little over the last one hundred years, yet transformer designs and
materials continue to be improved. Transformers are essential for high voltage power
transmission, providing an economical means of transmitting power over large distances. The
simplicity, reliability, and economy of conversion of voltages by transformers was the principal
factor in the selection of alternating current power transmission in the "War of Currents" in the
late 1880s.

Audio-frequency transformers, then referred to as repeating coils, were used by the earliest
experimenters in the development of the telephone. While some early electronics applications
of the transformer have been replaced by alternative techniques, transformers are still found in
many electronic devices.

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden

inside a stage microphone to huge gigawatt units used to interconnect large portions of
national power grids. All operate with the same basic principles and with many similarities in
their parts.

Single phase pole-mounted step-down transformer

Transformers alone cannot do the following:

 Convert DC to AC or vice versa

 Change the voltage or current of DC
 Change the AC supply frequency.

However, transformers are components of the systems that perform all these functions.

An analogy

The transformer may be considered as a simple two-wheel 'gearbox' for electrical voltage and
current. The primary winding is analogous to the input shaft and the secondary winding to the
output shaft. In this analogy, current is equivalent to shaft speed, voltage to shaft torque. In a
gearbox, mechanical power (speed multiplied by torque) is constant (neglecting losses) and is
equivalent to electrical power (voltage multiplied by current) which is also constant.

The gear ratio is equivalent to the transformer step-up or step-down ratio. A step-up
transformer acts analogously to a reduction gear (in which mechanical power is transferred
from a small, rapidly rotating gear to a large, slowly rotating gear): it trades current (speed) for
voltage (torque), by transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having more
turns. A step-down transformer acts analogously to a multiplier gear (in which mechanical
power is transferred from a large gear to a small gear): it trades voltage (torque) for current
(speed), by transferring power from a primary coil to a secondary coil having fewer turns.
 2. Basic principles

Coupling by mutual induction

A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary winding and the
secondary winding. These two windings can be considered as a pair of mutually coupled coils.
Energy is coupled between the windings by the time-varying magnetic flux that passes through
(links) both primary and secondary windings.

Elementary analysis

A step-down transformer showing magnetising flux in the core

If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of turns, a current will flow in
it producing a magnetomotive force (MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF) drives current
around an electric circuit, so MMF tries to drive magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. The
primary MMF produces a varying magnetic flux in the core, and, with an open circuit
secondary winding, induces a back electromotive force (EMF) in opposition to . In
accordance with Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced across the primary winding is
proportional to the rate of change of flux:

and

where
  vP and vS are the voltages across the primary winding and secondary winding,
 NP and NS are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and secondary winding,
 dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with respect to time of the primary
and secondary windings.

Saying that the primary and secondary windings are perfectly coupled is equivalent to saying
that . Substituting and solving for the voltages shows that:

where

 vp and vs are voltages across primary and secondary,

 Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary , respectively.

Hence in an ideal transformer, the ratio of the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the
ratio of the number of turns in their windings, or alternatively, the voltage per turn is the same
for both windings. The ratio of the currents in the primary and secondary circuits is inversely
proportional to the turns ratio. This leads to the most common use of the transformer: to
convert electrical energy at one voltage to energy at a different voltage by means of windings
with different numbers of turns. In a practical transformer, the higher-voltage winding will have
more turns, of smaller conductor cross-section, than the lower-voltage windings.

The EMF in the secondary winding, if connected to an electrical circuit, will cause current to
flow in the secondary circuit. The MMF produced by current in the secondary opposes the MMF
of the primary and so tends to cancel the flux in the core. Since the reduced flux reduces the
EMF induced in the primary winding, increased current flows in the primary circuit. The
resulting increase in MMF due to the primary current offsets the effect of the opposing
secondary MMF. In this way, the electrical energy fed into the primary winding is delivered to
the secondary winding.

For example, suppose a power of 50 watts is supplied to a resistive load from a transformer
with a turns ratio of 25:2.

 P = EI (power = electromotive force × current)

50 W = 2 V × 25 A in the primary circuit

 Now with transformer change:

50 W = 25 V × 2 A in the secondary circuit.

Alternative transformer analysis

This treats the windings as a pair of mutually coupled coils with both primary and secondary
windings passing currents. In an ideal transformer the primary MMF must equal the secondary
MMF, and since these are in opposite directions, they cancel so that there is no overall
resultant flux in the core. That this is so can be seen by realising that any unopposed primary
emf would create a large primary current and therefore a large flux in the core due to the
primary winding. However, this large flux would necessarily cause a large current to flow in the
secondary circuit and this current must create an opposing flux that effectively cancels the
initiating primary flux. In a non-ideal transformer, the resultant flux in the core is that needed
to magnetise the core. This is called the magnetising flux.

Direct current

Transformers should not be driven with DC nor, generally, have any DC component present at
the input. Relatively small amounts of direct current can cause core saturation and thus prevent
proper operation. Also, since a DC voltage source would not give a time-varying flux in the core,
no induced counter-EMF would be generated and so current flow into the transformer would
be limited only by the series resistance of the windings. In this situation, the transformer would
heat until the transformer either reaches thermal equilibrium or is destroyed. This principle is
actually exploited when large power transformers must be dried (have condensation and other
water removed from their windings) -- they are simply heated using DC.

For the exact same reason, transformers should generally not have DC components present in
their output windings. The one notable violation of this rule occurs with half-wave rectifiers,
but these circuits are usually extremely limited in output power anyway. Full-wave rectifiers, by
comparison, impose no DC component on the transformer and so are capable of much higher
power levels.

The Universal emf equation

If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its number of
turns, voltage, magnetic flux density and core cross-sectional area is given by the universal emf
equation (from Faraday's law):

where

 E is the sinusoidal root mean square voltage of the winding,

 f is the frequency in hertz,
 N is the number of turns of wire,
  a is the cross-sectional area of the core in square meters and
 B is the peak magnetic flux density in teslas (and therefore is the root mean
square flux density).

3. Invention

Those credited with the invention of the transformer include:

 Michael Faraday, who invented an 'induction ring' on August 29, 1831. This was the first
transformer, although Faraday used it only to demonstrate the principle of
electromagnetic induction and did not foresee the use to which it would eventually be
put.
 Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs, who first exhibited a device called a 'secondary
generator' in London in 1881 and then sold the idea to American company
Westinghouse. This may have been the first practical power transformer, but was not
the first transformer of any kind. They also exhibited the invention in Turin in 1884,
where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. Their early devices used an open
iron core, which was later abandoned in favour of a more efficient circular core with a
closed magnetic path.

 William Stanley, an engineer for Westinghouse, who built the first practical device in
1885 after George Westinghouse bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents. The core
was made from interlocking E-shaped iron plates. This design was first used
commercially in 1886.
 Hungarian engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri at the Ganz
company in Budapest in 1885, who created the efficient "ZBD" model based on
the design by Gaulard and Gibbs.
  Nikola Tesla in 1891 invented the Tesla coil, which is a high-voltage, air-core, dual-tuned
resonant transformer for generating very high voltages at high frequency.

Many others have patents on transformers.

4. Practical considerations

Classifications

Transformers are adapted to numerous engineering applications and may be classified in many
ways:

 By power level (from fraction of a volt-ampere(VA) to over a thousand MVA),

 By application (power supply, impedance matching, circuit isolation),
 By frequency range (power, audio, radio frequency(RF))
 By voltage class (a few volts to about 750 kilovolts)
 By cooling type (air cooled, oil filled, fan cooled, water cooled, etc.)
 By purpose (rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.).

 By ratio of the number of turns in the coils

 Step-up

The secondary has more turns than the primary.

  Step-down

The secondary has fewer turns than the primary.

 Isolating

Intended to transform from one voltage to the same voltage. The two coils have
approximately equal numbers of turns, although often there is a slight difference in the
number of turns, in order to compensate for losses (otherwise the output voltage would
be a little less than, rather than the same as, the input voltage).

 Variable

The primary and secondary have an adjustable number of turns which can be selected
without reconnecting the transformer.

 Distribution transformers are generally used in power distribution and

transmission systems.

Distribution transformers contain the highest voltage so as to minimize power loss during
transmission. The high voltage is later lowered using home supply transformers so as minimize
danger associated with high voltage power transmission lines.

Circuit symbols

Standard symbols

Transformer with two windings and iron core.

Transformer with three windings.

The dots show the adjacent ends of the windings.
Step-down or step-up transformer.

The symbol shows which winding has more turns,

but does not usually show the exact ratio.

Transformer with electrostatic screen,

which prevents capacitive coupling between the windings.
Losses

An ideal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be 100% efficient. In practice,
energy is dissipated due both to the resistance of the windings (known as copper loss), and to
magnetic effects primarily attributable to the core (known as iron loss). Transformers are, in
general, highly efficient. Large power transformers (over 50 MVA) may attain an efficiency as
high as 99.75%. Small transformers, such as a plug-in "power brick" used to power small
consumer electronics, may be less than 85% efficient.

Transformer losses arise from:

 Winding resistance

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

 Eddy currents

Induced eddy currents circulate within the core, causing resistive heating.

 Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to hysteresis within
the magnetic core. The amount of hysteresis is a function of the particular core material.

 Magnetostriction

Magnetic flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with the
alternating magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This in turn causes losses due
to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores.

 Mechanical losses

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating

electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations
within nearby metalwork, creating a familiar humming or buzzing noise, and consuming a small
amount of power.

 Stray losses
Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary. A portion of
the leakage flux may induce eddy currents within nearby conductive objects, such as the
transformer's support structure, and be converted to heat.

 Cooling system

Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil pumps or water-cooled heat
exchangers designed to remove the heat caused by copper and iron losses. The power used to
operate the cooling system is typically considered part of the losses of the transformer.

Operation at different frequencies

The universal transformer emf equation shows that, for a given voltage, core flux density is
inversely proportional to frequency. Thus, by operating at higher frequencies, transformers can
be physically more compact without reaching saturation, and a given core is able to transfer
more power. Generally, operation of a transformer at a higher frequency than that for which it
was designed will lead to reduced magnetising (no load primary) current and safe operation. At
a frequency lower than the design value, the magnetising current may increase to an excessive
level, and such operation is not recommended and may be dangerous.

 Traditional cores (silicon steel) develop more thermal losses as the operating frequency
is increased.
 Ferrite cores are typically used for frequencies above 1kHz.
 Aircraft traditionally use 400 Hz power systems since the slight increase in thermal
losses is more than offset by reduced weight.
 Military gear includes 400 Hz (and other frequencies) to supply power for radar or
servomechanisms.
 Flyback transformers are built using ferrite cores. They supply high voltage to the CRTs
at the frequency of the horizontal oscillator. In the case of television sets, this is about
15.7kHz. It may be as high as 75 - 120kHz for high-resolution computer monitors.
 Switching power supply transformers usually operate between 50-1000 kHz .
 The tiny cores found in wristwatch backlight power supplies produce audible sound
(about 1 kHz).

Operation of a power transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of
voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example,
transformers at hydroelectric generating stations may be equipped with over-excitation
protection, so-called "volts per hertz" protection relays, to protect the transformer from
overvoltage at higher-than-rated frequency which may occur if a generator loses its connected
load.
 5. Construction

Cores

Steel cores

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of unit.

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies have cores made of many thin laminations
of silicon steel. By concentrating the magnetic flux, more of it is usefully linked by both primary
and secondary windings. Since the steel core is conductive, it, too, has currents induced in it by
the changing magnetic flux. Each layer is insulated from the adjacent layer to reduce the energy
lost to eddy current heating of the core. A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-
shaped pieces, leading to the name "EI transformer".

A steel core's magnetic hysteresis means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is
removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until
the effect of the remanent magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied
alternating current. Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this
harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long overhead power transmission lines,
induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of
the core, and false operation of transformer protection devices.

Distribution transformers can achieve low off-load losses by using cores made with amorphous
(non-crystalline) steel, so-called "metal glasses" — the high cost of the core material is offset by
the lower losses incurred at light load, over the life of the transformer. In order to maintain
good voltage regulation, distribution transformers are designed to have very low leakage
inductance.
Certain special purpose transformers use long magnetic paths, insert air gaps, or add magnetic
shunts (which bypass a portion of magnetic flux that would otherwise link the primary and
secondary windings) in order to intentionally add leakage inductance. The additional leakage
inductance limits the secondary winding's short circuit current to a safe, or a controlled, level.
This technique is used to stabilize the output current for loads that exhibit negative resistance
such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs, or safely handle loads that may
become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.

Solid cores

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate
above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high
magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity.

At even higher, radio-frequencies (RF), other types of cores made from non-conductive
magnetic ceramic materials, called ferrites, are common. Some RF transformers also have
moveable cores (sometimes called slugs) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient
(and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Air cores

High-frequency transformers may also use air cores. These eliminate the loss due to hysteresis
in the core material. Such transformers maintain high coupling efficiency (low stray field loss)
by overlapping the primary and secondary windings.

Toroidal cores

Various transformers. The top right is toroidal. The bottom right is from a 12 VAC wall wart
supply.
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which is made from a long strip of
silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, from powdered iron, or ferrite, depending on
operating frequency. The strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally
aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed
ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI core. The cross-section of
the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections
are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the
entire surface of the core. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also provides
screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.

Ferrite cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to a
megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of switch-mode power supplies.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient (around 95%) than the cheaper laminated EI types.
Other advantages, compared to EI types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about
half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic
field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits),
single-bolt mounting, and more choice of shapes. This last point means that, for a given power
output, either a wide, flat toroid or a tall, narrow one with the same electrical properties can be
chosen, depending on the space available. The main disadvantage is higher cost.

A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of windings. As a

consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small
distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and
forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containg primary and secondary windings.

When fitting a toroidal transformer, it is important to avoid making an unintentional short-

circuit through the core. This can happen if the steel mounting bolt in the middle of the core is
allowed to touch metalwork at both ends, which could result in a dangerously large current
flowing in the bolt.

Windings

In most practical transformers, the primary and secondary conductors are multi-turn coils of
conducting wire because each turn of the coil contributes to the magnetic field, creating a
higher magnetic flux density than would a single turn. The wire of adjacent turns and different
windings must be electrically insulated from each other.

The conducting material used for the winding depends upon the application. Small power and
signal transformers are wound with solid copper wire, insulated usually with enamel and
sometimes additional insulation. Larger power transformers may be wound with wire, copper
or aluminum rectangular conductors, or strip conductors for very heavy currents. High
frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz will have windings made
of Litz wire, to minimize the skin effect losses in the conductors. Large power transformers use
multiply-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform
distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is insulated
from the others, and the strands are arranged so that either at certain points in the winding or
throughout the winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete
conductor. This "transposition" equalises the current flowing in each strand of the conductor,
and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more
flexible than a solid conductor of similar size. (see reference (1) below)

For signal transformers the windings may be arranged in a way to minimise leakage inductance
and stray capacitance, to improve high-frequency response.

Windings on both primary and secondary of power transformers may have external
connections (called taps) to intermediate points on the winding to allow adjustment of the
voltage ratio; taps may be connected to automatic on-load tap changer switchgear
for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers used for
distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers have taps to allow adjustment of
power supplied to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the
output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Tapped transformers are also
used as components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for feedback linearization of amplifier
circuits.

Insulation

The turns of the windings must be insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels
through the entire winding. The potential difference between adjacent turns is usually small, so
that enamel insulation is usually sufficient for small power transformers. In larger transformers
additional layers of insulation are used.

The transformer may also be immersed in transformer oil that provides further insulation. To
ensure that the insulating capability of the transformer oil does not deteriorate, the
transformer casing is completely sealed against moisture ingress. The oil serves as both cooling
medium to remove heat from the core and coil and as part of the insulation system.

Shielding

The proximity of the primary and secondary windings can create a mutual capacitance between
the windings. Where transformers are intended for high electrical isolation between primary
and secondary circuits, an electrostatic shield can be placed between windings to minimize this
effect.

Transformers may also be enclosed by magnetic shields, electrostatic shields, or both to

prevent outside interference from affecting the operation of the transformer, or to prevent the
transformer from affecting the operation of other devices (such as CRTs near the transformer).
Coolant

Three phase dry-type transformer with cover removed; rated about 200 KVA, 480 V.

Small signal transformers do not generate significant amounts of heat. Power transformers
rated up to a few kilowatts rely on natural convective air cooling. Transformers handling higher
power can be fan-cooled.

Specific provision must be made for cooling of high-power transformers. Some dry transformers
are enclosed in pressurized tanks and are cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.

The windings of high-power or high-voltage transformers are immersed in transformer oil—a

highly-refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures. Large transformers to be used
indoors must use a non-flammable liquid. Formerly, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was used as
it was not a fire hazard in indoor power transformers and it is highly stable. Due to the stability
of PCB and its environmental accumulation, it is no longer permitted in new equipment. Today,
nontoxic, stable silicone-based oils or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used, where the
expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Other
less-flammable fluids such as canola oil may be used but all fire resistant fluids have some
drawbacks in performance, cost, or toxicity compared with mineral oil.

The oil cools the transformer, and provides part of the electrical insulation between internal
live parts. It has to be stable at high temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a
breakdown or fire. The oil-filled tank may have radiators through which the oil circulates by
natural convection. Very large or high-power transformers (with capacities of millions of watts)
may have cooling fans, oil pumps and even oil to water heat exchangers. Oil-filled transformers
undergo prolonged drying processes, using vapor-phase heat transfer, electrical self-heating,
the application of a vacuum, or combinations of these, to ensure that the transformer is
completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical
breakdown under load.
Oil-filled power transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays - safety devices sensing gas
build-up inside the transformer (a side effect of an electric arc inside the windings) and
switching off the transformer.

Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with superconducting
windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by
liquid nitrogen or helium.

Terminals

Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and
brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may have heavy
bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A
large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide electrical insulation without
letting the transformer oil leak.

Enclosure
Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have a shield enclosure, as

described
BC546; BC547
NPN general purpose transistors

FEATURES
Low current (max. 100 mA)
Low voltage (max. 65 V).
APPLICATIONS
General purpose switching and amplification.
DESCRIPTION
NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
PNP complements: BC556 and BC557.
POWER SUPPLY

The 5v adapter is connected to the power jack to give the power supply to the pic
18f452 microcontroller and the peripheral items. In the pic 18f452 the VCC pins are the 11 th
&32 and the ground pins are 12th and 31pins. A led is also interface to show the status of the
power.
PUSH BUTTON

A push button has two legs in which one leg is connected to the MCLR i.e. the first pin of the
microcontroller and the other end is connected to the VCC pin. This is used to reset the
microcontroller

11.059 MHZ CRYSTAL

To the PIC 18f452 microcontroller the 10 MHz crystal’s one leg is connected to the 13 and the
other leg is connected to the 14th pin of the microcontroller, for the 13th pin a 33pf capacitor’s
one leg is connected and the other end is connected to the ground and from the 14 th pin a 33pf
capacitor is connected and the other end is connected to the ground.

Advantages:

 Photo resistors convert light into electricity and are not dependent on any other force.
 LDRs are sensitive, inexpensive, and readily available devices. They have good power
and voltage handling capabilities, similar to those of a conventional resistor.
 They are small enough to fit into virtually any electronic device and are used all around
the world as a basic component in many electrical systems.
 Photo resistors are simply designed and are made from materials that are widely
available, allowing hundreds of thousands of units to be produced each year.

 A LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering.
Disadvantages:

 Can be more complicated to align detector pairs.

 Is sensitive to ambient light and require careful shielding.
 Photo resistors are only sensitive to light and no other force can power it without risking
damage. Also, they are unable to detect low light levels and may take a few seconds to
deliver a charge while their electrons build up momentum.

 Photo resistors have many uses, most of which involve detecting the presence of light.
Street lights use photo resistors to detect whether it is day or night and turn the light on
or off accordingly.
 Photo resistors are also used in digital cameras to detect how much light
camera sees and adjust the picture quality accordingly.
 They are also used in some clocks, alarms, and other electronic devices that are semi-
dependent on sunlight.
 Smoke detection.
 Automatic lighting control.
 Burglar alarm systems.
 Camera (electronic shutter).
 Strobe (color temperature reading).
 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

 CONCLUSION

 In this project work we have studied and implemented a complete working model using
a 0851 microcontroller. The programming and interfering of 8051 microcontroller has
 been mastered during the implementation. This work includes the study of energy
saving system in many applications.
FUTURE SCOPE

 The above project we can develop Solar Street light system with Automatic street light
controller. The system can be powered from a battery, which can be charged during day
time by harvesting the solar energy through a solar cell. The solar energy harvested
from sunlight can be stored, inverted from DC voltage to AC voltage using sun tie
converter. The AC voltage can be stepped up and given to the electric grid. The AC
voltage from the electric grid can be stepped down, rectified and used for powering the
circuit. Meanwhile, the street light can also be powered by the A.C. voltage, which is
controlled by a relay switch connected to the switching part of the circuit. The above
mentioned strategy will enable us to harvest solar energy in an effective way for the
operation of the circuit and for powering the street light also.
Product Specifications
Net Weight - 1.7kg
Power Supply Cord - 2.5m
Overall Length - 480mm
Air Pressure - 0-5.5kPa
Air Volume - 0-2.8m3/sec
No Load Speed - 0-16,000rpm

Red LED Light Therapy

Older style, lower power LED diode.

Red LED light therapy is very popular today, especially for anti-aging,acne and rosacea
treatment. What’s so special about it? Red LED light therapy is red light therapy, just using an
LED light source instead of incandescent, fluorescent, or laser. But red LED light therapy does
have some unique benefits of its own.

LEDs were NASA’s choice for red light therapy when it brought the technique into space around
the year 2000. They chose this technology for its low energy requirements, as well as its low
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Those same qualities made later research more accurate, and, to date, hundreds of studies
from around the world have shown the benefits of red light therapy in the field

What makes Red LED Light Therapy different?

1. Tighter Wavelength Span. Red LED light has a tighter wavelength span than other types of
bulbs. For example, while a fluorescent or incandescent red light might have a 660nm peak,
they could include wavelengths of plus or minus 40nm or more. However, in the case of red LED
light with the same 660nm peak, the useful wavelengths are only plus or minus about 10nm.
For this reason, some consider LEDs a superior vehicle for delivering the necessary light for a
given application.

There is very little heat generated with red LED light therapy, which makes the technique safer
and more pleasant.

3. Durable & Long Lasting. Today’s LED devices use solid state electronics and plastic or metal
housing which is much more durable and long lasting than incandescent or fluorescent bulbs
made of glass.

4. Compact & Portable. LEDs are tiny little things, so it’s easy to pack them into a small, hand-
held, portable device.

5. Earth Friendly. Red LED light therapy is more eco-friendly than using incandescent or
fluorescent bulbs because they can produce the same amount of light but do so while using a
small fraction of the energy.

That’s it! Those are the major things that make red LED light therapy any different or better
than red light therapy from any other light source.
Red LED Light Therapy Products & Reviews

When you’re ready to give red LED light therapy a try, we have two lights for you to consider.

The Peak 630™ LED Light Therapy Set delivers pure red LED light therapy, and is the best choice
foranti-aging and, in general, results you can see.

The Genesis DH™ combines red and infrared light therapy for results you can see and feel, for
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it easy to compare these with other red light therapy products

LEDs - those blinky things. A must have for power indication, pin status, opto-electronic
sensors, and fun blinky displays.

This is a very basic 5mm LED with a red lens. It has a typical forward voltage of 2.0V and a rated
forward current of 20mA.