Nanotechnology is defined as the study and use of structures between 1 nanometer and 100 nanometers in size. Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high performance products.
Nanoscience: It deals with the study of properties of materials at nanoscales where properties differ significantly than those at larger scale. The applications of nanoscience emerged as nanotechnology. Nano science deals with the synthesis, manipulation and the characterization of materials at atomic and molecular level and to study the various properties like electrical, magnetic, optical, mechanical and chemical etc.
Nanoscale: 1nm = 10-9m = 10-7cm Nano means 10-9m i.e. a billionth part of a meter. Atoms are extremely small & the diameter of a single atom can vary from 0.1 to 0.5nm depending on the type of the element. Dimensions of few nanomaterials: Carbon atom 0.15 in diameter Water molecule 0.3nm Red blood cell 7,000nm Human hair 80,000nm wide White blood cell 10,000nm Virus 100nm Hydrogen atom 0.1nm Bacteria range 1,000 to 10,000nm Proteins 5 to 50nm DNA 2nm Width Quantum dots 8nm
Nanotechnology: It deals with the design, characterization, production and application of
nanostructures, nano-devices and nano-systems. Nanomaterials:
The materials in which the atoms are arranged in the order of 1 to 100nm in any one of the dimension and these atoms will not move away from each other, called as nano materials. (All materials are composed of grains, which in turn comprise many atoms. The visibility of these grains depends on their size. The materials possessing grains of size ranging from 1 to 100nm, known as nonmaterial’s, can be produced with different dimensionalities) Ex: C, Zno, Cu – Fe alloys, Ni, Pd, Pt etc.
Zero-dimensional nanomaterials: Materials wherein all the dimensions are measured within the nanoscale (no dimensions, or 0-D, are larger than 100 nm). The most common representation of zero-dimensional nanomaterials are nanoparticles.
One dimensional nanomaterial: Materials that are nanoscale in one dimension called as one dimensional nano materials (nano layers). Examples: Nano tubes and nano wires.
Two dimensional nanomaterials: Materials having two of its dimension in nano scale is called two dimensional nano materials. Examples: Nano thin films, nano plates Three dimensional nanomaterials: Materials having three of its dimension in nano scale is called three dimensional nano materials. Examples: 3D particles of precipitates, Colloids, quantum dots, tiny particles of semi- conductor materials.
Basic principles /properties of Nanomaterials:
When the material size of the object is reduced to nanoscale, then it exhibits different properties than the same material in bulk form. The factors that differentiates the nanomaterials form bulk material is They are (i) Increase in surface area to volume ratio (ii) Quantum confinement
Increase in surface area to volume ratio: Nano materials have a large surface area to volume ratio when compared to bulk material and it is a great measure for efficiency of nanotechnology. Example: Let us consider a sphere of radius ‘r’ Its surface area = 4πr2 Its volume (atom)= 4/3 πr3 4πr2 3 Surface area (S.A.) to volume ratio = 4 3 = πr 3 Therefore when the radius of the sphere decreases, its surface area to volume ratio increases.
Example: Let us consider a cubic volume shown
in figure. If a given sample its surface area is 6m2. When it is divided into 8 pieces its surface area becomes 12m2. When the volume is divided into 27 pieces its surface area becomes 18m2. Thus, when the given volume is divided into smaller pieces, the surface area increases. Due to increase in surface area, more number of atoms will appear at the surface. This makes nano materials more chemically reactive. Reducing the dimensions of material affects reactivity, optical properties, electrical properties, magnetic properties.
(ii) Quantum Confinement: The properties of materials can be studied based on the energy levels. When atoms are isolated, their energy levels are discrete. When very large no of atoms are closely packed to form a solid, the energy levels split & form bands. Nano materials represent intermediate stage. As a result, the energy levels change. When we apply the problems of particles in a potential well as well as in a potential box. The dimensions of such wells or boxes are of the order of deBroglie wavelength of electrons, energy levels of electrons change. This effect is called Quantum confinement. This affects the optical, electrical, magnetic properties of nanomaterials. When the electrons are confined, the particles will have more oscillations and this will result in colour change of the materials. For examples, nano gold colloids are dispersed in ruby glass, the ruby glass exhibits red hue.
Synthesis (or) Fabrication of nanomaterials:
The production of nano materials or nano crystalline materials requires precise methods. There are various techniques that are capable of creating nano structures. In general there are two approaches that are classified as 1) Top-down approach (or) technique
Top–down approach: Top down techniques involves starting with a block of individual material, etching (removing the surface by dissolution) or convert it down to the desired size. The challenge here is to produce smaller and smaller structures.Nano material particle can be made through this method. In this method, the nanomaterials are synthesized by assembling or arranging the bulk materials into nanosizes. Top –down processing has been and will be the dominant process in semiconductor manufacturing. Examples: (i) Sol-gel method. (ii) Ball-milling method. (iii) Lithography. (iv)Mechanical grinding.
Bottom-up approach: Bottom-up technique involves the assembly of smaller sub unit (atoms or molecules) to make larger structure. In this method, the nano materials are synthesized by assembling (or) arranging the atoms or molecules together to form the nano materials. Examples: (i) physical vapour deposition method (ii) Chemical vapour deposition method (iii) Plasma arcing and (iv) Electro deposition
Sol-Gel Method:
The sol-gel method is a wet chemical method or chemical solution deposition method. This technique is used to generate nanoparticles & nanopowders. A given material converted into colloids & dissolved in water or in acids, then forms a solution (Sol). A colloid suspended in a liquid is called as “Sol”. A suspension that keeps its shape is called Gelatin or “Gel”. The sol-gel formation occurs in different stages. They are 1) Hydrolysis of precursors. 2) Condensation and polymerization of monomers to form particles. 3) Growth of particles and development of particles. (Agglomeration) The schematic representation of the synthesis of nano particles using the Sol-Gel method is shown in fig.
(i) Take a material & convert it into liquid precursors (inorganic salts or organic species such as metal –alkoxide) & dissolved in water or in other solvents. It forms colloidal suspensions known as “Sol”. (ii)This solution is kept at a suitable temperature and some amounts of gelling agents are added to it. This will produce a gel.( By dehydration reaction with Sol forms Gel ) (iii) Rapid drying of the gel, under super critical conditions an aero-gel. (iv) Drying of the “Gel” i.e. water & other liquids are removed from the gel forms a Xerogel. By calcination xerogel forms ceramics. (V) The solution further proceed through spinning & finally by calcination forms thin films & nanopowder respectively.
Advantages: (i) This method is used to prepare thin films, nanopowder, glasses, glass ceramics etc at very low temperatures. (ii) To prepare mono-sized nanoparticles. (iii)Very high purity in synthesized materials can be obtained.
Disadvantages: (i) The raw materials are very costly. (ii) The synthesis reaction requires relatively longer time. (iii) Organic solvents used are harmful to the environment.
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) is a collective set of processes used to deposit thin layers of material, typically in the range of few nanometers to several micrometers. PVD processes are environmentally friendly vacuum deposition techniques consisting of three fundamental steps :
Vaporization of the material from a
solid source assisted by high temperature vacuum or gaseous plasma. Transportation of the vapor in vacuum or partial vacuum to the substrate surface. Condensation onto the substrate to generate thin films. Different PVD technologies utilize the same three fundamental steps but differ in the methods used to generate and deposit material.
The two most common PVD processes are thermal evaporation and sputtering.
Thermal evaporation is a deposition technique that relies on vaporization of source material
by heating the material using appropriate methods in vacuum.
Sputtering is a plasma-assisted technique that creates a vapor from the source target through bombardment with accelerated gaseous ions (typically Argon). In both evaporation and sputtering, the resulting vapor phase is subsequently deposited onto the desired substrate through a condensation mechanism to give nanofilms(thin-films).
Applications: PVD is used in a variety of applications, & used in (i) including fabrication of microelectronic devices, (ii) interconnects, battery and fuel cell electrodes, (iii) diffusion barriers, (iv) optical and conductive coatings, (v) surface modifications.
Advantages: (i)This method consists good strength and durability (ii)It is environment friendly vapor deposition technique.
Disadvantages: (i) Cooling systems are required, to get nanomaterials. (ii) Mostly high temperature and vaccum control needs skill and experience.
Characterization refers to the study of material features such as its composition, structure and its properties like physical, electrical, magnetic etc.
For characterization of nano particles both X-ray diffraction (XRD) & electron microscope are the most widely used techniques. They are 1. XRD 2. Electron microscope.
2) Electron microscope: It is an instrument by using we can study & analysis of small
particles & crystal structures. It’s magnification is high i.e. 106 times greater than the size of given particle (or) object. In electron microscopes, current carrying coils produce magnetic fields that act as lenses to focus an electron beam on a specimen. They are two types of electron microscope (1)SEM (Scanning electron microscope) (2)TEM (Transmission electron microscope)
SEM (Scanning electron microscope):
Scanning electron microscope is an electron microscope
that images the sample surface by it with a high energy beam of electrons.
Principle: The surface of a sample is scanned using a
high energy beam of electrons. This gives rise to secondary electrons, back scattered electrons, and characteristic X-rays. Conventional light microscopes use a series of glass lenses to bend light waves and create a magnified image. while the SEM Creates magnified images by using electrons instead of Light waves. SEM consists of 1. Electron gun. 2. Anode. 3. Magnetic lens (consists of two condensed lens) 4. Scanning coils. 5. TV scanner. 6. Detectors. 7. Specimen stage.
1. The virtual source at the top represents the electron-gun which produces a stream of high energy monochromatic electrons. 2. Electrons are attracted and travel through anode there by attains directionality. 3. Two magnetic lenses are used as condenser lenses to convert the diverging electron beam into a fine pencil beam and condenser lens eliminated the high angled electrons from the beam so electron –beam becomes thin and coherent. 4. A scanning coil is used to deflect the electron beam to scan the sample. 5. The objective lens is used to focus the scanning beam on a desired spot on the sample. 6. When the high energy electron beam strikes the sample, some electrons scattered due to elastic scattering (due to back scattering) called back scattered electrons, some electrons are knocked off from the surface called secondary electrons and some electrons penetrate deep into the inner shells of the sample atoms to knockoff inner shell electrons due to which X-rays (wavelength matches)are produced. 7. The intensities of secondary electrons, back scattered electrons and X-rays recorded using detectors and the signals are amplified and the images are then displayed on a TV scanner (monitor). 8. This process is repeated several times.i.e.30 times/sec to get accurate results.
Applications:
1. Topography: To study the surface features of an object and its texture.
2. Morphology: To study the shape, size, arrangement of particles. 3. Composition: To study the elements and compound ratio in a sample. 4. Crystallography: Arrangement of atoms, and their order in the crystal. 5. SEM shows very detailed 3D images at much high magnifications as compared to light microscopes. 6. The surface structure of polymer nano composites, fracture surfaces, nano fibres, nano particles and nano coating can be imaged through SEM with great clarity.
TEM (Transmission electron microscope):
TEM is a powerful tool to investigate the lattice structure and defects on materials directly. The first TEM invented by Ruska in April 1932 could hardly compete with optical microscope with only 14.4 (3.6 × 4.8) magnification the basic components in TEM are: Electron gun Condenser system Objective lens (most important lens in TEM which determines the final resolution) Diffraction lens Projective lens (all lens are inside the equipment column, between apertures) Image recording system (used to be negative films, now is CCD cameras)
Vacuum system Working: 1. The virtual source at the top represents the electron gun which produces of high energy monochromatic electron beam. 2. The beam strikes the ultra thin specimen(usually thinner than 10 nm) and parts of it are transmitted. 3. The image formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample is magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as photographic film, a fluorescent screen, or detected by CCD camera. 4. The darker areas of the image represents those areas of the sample that fewer electrons were transmitted through (they are thicker or denser). 5. The lighter areas of the image represents those areas of the sample that more electrons were transmitted through( they are thinner or less dense).
Applications: TEM gives the following useful
information: 1. Morphology: The size, shape and arrangement of particles as well as their relationship to one another on the scale of atomic diameters. 2. Crystallographic information: The arrangement of atoms in the specimen and their degree of order, detection of atomic-scale defects a few nanometers in diameter. 3. Composition: To study the elements & compound ratio in a sample.
Applications of Nano materials or Nano technology:
Nano materials are ‘small materials with big future’ because of their extremely small size, they have many applications and advantages. 1. Material technology: Nano materials used in cutting tools made up of nano crystalline materials which are much harder, much more wear-resistant and last longer. Nano materials used as sensors. They are used as smoke detectors, ice-detectors on air craft wings. 2. Information-technology: Nanoparticles are used for information storage. Nan photonic crystals are used in chemical/l computers. Nano thickness –controlled coating are used in optoelectronic devices. Nanoscale-fabricated magnetic materials are used in data storage. Used in opto electronic devices, mobiles and laptops etc.
3. Electronic industry: Nano materials used in Glass fibres. Used to prepare laser diodes. Optical switches data memory 4. Medical field: Nano materials used in drug delivery systems. Used as agents in cancer therapy. Used as active agents. Used to reproduce or repair damaged tissues.
